Current Affairs

All (4265)Current Affairs (4243)Mains Practice (77)Mains PYQs by Subjects (40)

Jammu & Kashmir Public Safety Act 

Context: Recently, a sitting legislator (MLA) in Jammu and Kashmir was detained under the Jammu & Kashmir Public Safety Act (PSA) for one year. 

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key features of PSA; Preventive Detention; Article 22

About Jammu & Kashmir Public Safety Act: 

  • The Public Safety Act was enacted in 1978 by the J&K Legislative Assembly to curb timber smuggling in the state.
  • Over time, the Act has become a tool for preventive detention of political opponents, dissenters, journalists, and protesters. E.g., On the eve of Article 370’s abrogation, hundreds, including former Chief Ministers, were detained under PSA.

After the abrogation of Article 370, the PSA is now deemed a law passed by the Indian Parliament.

Key Provisions of the Public Safety Act: 

  • Preventive Detention: The Act authorises detention without trial for up to 2 years, if individuals are considered a threat to the security of the state. Allows detention up to 1 year if they are deemed a threat to public order.
  • Grounds of Detention: Individuals can be detained if the administration is satisfied that they might act in a manner prejudicial to security or public order. The power is based on “subjective satisfaction” of the executive authorities (District Magistrates/Divisional Commissioners).
  • Communication of Grounds: Grounds of detention must be conveyed to the detainee. However, Section 13(2) allows the government to withhold grounds if disclosure is deemed against “public interest.”
  • Advisory Board Review: Detention orders must be reviewed by an Advisory Board (of High Court judges). 
  • Restrictions on Legal Remedies: Individuals cannot directly represent themselves before the Advisory Board. Courts often avoid probing into the merits of detention if the executive claims satisfaction.

Concerns associated with J&K Public Safety Act: 

The Act has been repeatedly flagged by UN Human Rights bodies as a “lawless law” because it:

  • permits prolonged preventive detention without trial
  • relies on vague definitions like public order
  • restricts legal remedies
  • undermines rights guaranteed under both the Indian Constitution and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). 

Also Read: Preventive Detention laws in India: How preventive detention works?

Bilateral Investment Agreement between India and Israel

Context: Recently, Israel’s Finance Minister visited India and signed a Bilateral Investment Agreement (BIA) with India. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Bilateral Investment Agreement (BIA).  

image 42

Key Features of Bilateral Investment Agreement

  • Israel has become the first Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member state with which India has signed a BIA under its new model Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) framework. 
  • Aim: To facilitate reciprocal investments by providing investors from both countries with legal certainty, transparency and protections.
  • The BIA replaces the earlier investment agreement signed in 1996, which was terminated in 2017.

Significance of Bilateral Investment Agreement: 

  • Groundwork for FTA negotiations: The agreement lays the groundwork for future Free Trade Agreement (FTA) negotiations between India and Israel.
  • Expected to increase bilateral investments between the two countries, which presently stands at a total of $800 million. Includes provisions to safeguard investments against expropriation, ensure transparency, and enable smooth transfers and compensation for losses. 
  • Protection for investors: Incorporates provisions for independent dispute resolution through arbitration, ensuring that investors have recourse in case of disputes.
  • Labour mobility: Israel has already hired a large number of Indian blue-collar workers. BIA may further increase avenues for Indian labour mobility.
  • Balances investor protection with the State’s regulatory rights, preserving sufficient policy space for sovereign governance.

The agreement is expected to strengthen Israeli exports, open new opportunities for both Indian and Israeli investors, and expand trade flows.

Swami Vivekananda introduced Vedanta to West

Context: Swami Vivekananda delivered his iconic speech on Hinduism at the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago on September 11, 1893. This historic address marked his introduction of Vedanta, Hinduism and Indian spirituality to the Western world. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Swami Vivekananda; Vedanta Philosophy. Mains: Relevance of Swami Vivekananda’s ideals in the modern world.  

Swami Vivekananda, born Narendranath Datta, was an Indian Hindu monk, spiritual leader, and advocate of Vedanta philosophy in India.

Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago: 

  • The 1893 World's Parliament of Religions marks the first formal gathering of representatives of Eastern and Western spiritual traditions. It was an attempt to create a global dialogue of faiths. 
  • In a landmark speech on September 11, 1893, 30-year-old Vivekananda preached about religious tolerance and called for an end to fanaticism. 
image 41

Swami Vivekananda introduced Vedanta to West: 

  • He presented Vedanta (philosophical position of radical non-dualism) as an inclusive, universal religion.
  • His speech helped spread the ideals of Vedanta, Hinduism and Indian spirituality to the Western world. They included:
    • importance of tolerance and acceptance of different religious beliefs.  
    • idea that all religions ultimately lead to the same truth.
    • need for harmonious co-existence of different faiths.
    • importance of recognising the divinity within each individual.
  • He highlighted the need for a balanced synthesis of Eastern spiritualism and Western materialism to foster global happiness and progress.
  • His teachings also popularised the practice of meditation and Hatha Yoga (now known only as yoga) in the West. 

What is Vedanta Philosophy?

  • The term Vedanta literally means the “conclusion” (anta) of the Vedas. Vedanta is one of the six systems (darshans) of Indian philosophy. 
  • The roots of the Vedanta philosophy are in the Upanishads (which were elaborations of the Vedas), and to the school that arose out of the study (mimamsa) of the Upanishads. 
  • There arethree main concepts in Vedanta:
    • Brahman or Ishvara which is the ultimate reality. 
    • Atman or the individual souls. 
    • Prakriti or the physical world. 
  • Three fundamental Vedanta texts:
    • Upanishads (Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Taittiriya, and Katha)
    • Brahma-sutras (also called Vedanta-sutras): brief interpretations of the doctrine of the Upanishads. 
    • Bhagavad Gita (Song of the Lord).

Various Schools of Thought: 

When it comes to the relationship between the three concepts (Brahman, Atman and Prakriti), there are many schools of thought. 

  • Advaita Vedanta: Brahman and Atman are one and the same. It believes that all souls across space and time are one entity. It rejects rituals and advocates renunciation. The prominent teachers were Gaudapada (500 CE) and Adi Shankaracharya (8th century CE).
  • Dvaita Vedanta: Brahman and Atman are always totally different from each other. This is the opposite of Advaita. The most important philosopher was Madhvacharya (1238-1317 CE).
  • Vishishita Advaita Vedanta: Atman is different from the Brahman though connected to it as its root. The most famous philosopher was Ramanuja (1017-1137 CE), who stressed the importance of bhakti (devotion) to a personal god. 
  • Neo-Vedanta (19th century): Combined Vedantic thoughts with nationalism. This school maintains that different schools of Vedanta are all different interpretations of a single truth. Prominent thinkers of this school include- Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo.

Also Read: Swami Vivekananda

New GST Reforms in the Healthcare Sector

Context: India’s recently rationalised the Goods and Services Tax (GST) structure. Among other sectors, GST reforms were announced in the Healthcare segment. The reforms mark a turning point in the journey towards achieving universal health coverage. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Issues relating to development and management of services relating to Health. 

GST Reforms in the Healthcare Sector

  • Rationale: To make medical care more affordable and accessible for millions, especially for individuals struggling with high costs of treatment or health products.

Key Highlights of GST Reforms in the Healthcare Sector: 

  • Removal of GST on Insurance:
    • Complete removal of GST on individual health and life insurance premiums. Earlier, an 18% GST rate was applied to the health insurance premiums.
    • The reform covers all types of individual life insurance: Term, Unit Linked Insurance Plan (ULIP), Endowment, health insurance plans such as family floaters and senior citizen policies. Even reinsurance is included. 
  • GST cut on Medicines:
    • GST on most medicines is lowered to 5%, and tax on life-saving drugs is cut to zero. This simplifies compliance and lowers prices in supply chains for health product manufacturers and service providers. 
  • GST cut on Medical Devices: 
    • Medical devices and diagnostic kits are now largely under a uniform 5% GST slab, from 12% GST or 18% GST earlier. E.g., CT scan machines are now taxed at only 5% compared to 18% earlier. This reduces the procurement costs of devices and would potentially lower patient charges over time. 
    • Common services such as blood tests, X-rays, and MRIs at laboratories may also become a little cheaper. 
  • GST exempt on Critical Care Units (unchanged):
    • All critical care units i.e., Intensive Coronary Care Unit (ICU), Critical Care Unit (CCU), Intensive Coronary Care Unit (ICCU), and Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) are fully exempt from GST regardless of cost. This ensures that lifesaving care remains tax-free. 
    • Non-intensive care unit (ICU) rooms above ₹5,000 per day would attract 5% GST without input tax credit. 
  • GST exempt on Core Medical Services (unchanged):
    • Core medical services provided by hospitals, doctors, and paramedics remain GST-exempt, keeping treatment itself untaxed.
  • Push towards Preventive Healthcare: 
    • GST on gymnasiums, fitness centres, yoga studios, salons, barbers and wellness services is down from 18% to 5%. 
    • Cigarettes remain heavily taxed at 28% GST plus compensation cess, which adds up to an effective tax of between 52% and 88%. 
    • A new 40% sin goods slab has been announced but will only apply once cess liabilities are cleared. 
    • Sugary drinks (whether aerated, sweetened, or flavoured) have been moved to the new 40% slab, up from 28% plus cess, to discourage consumption. 

Significance: 

  • Increase insurance coverage: Insurance coverage in India is only ~3.7% of GDP at present, compared to a global average of 6.8%. However, clear monitoring is required to ensure insurance providers pass on the GST benefit to the consumers.  
  • Reduce OOPE: Share of Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE) in Total Health Expenditure was around 47% in FY20. Cutting costs for life-saving medicines, simplifying taxes on equipment, and lowering rates on preventive services supports the entire health-care chain and would reduce OOPE. 

Also Read: Universal Health Coverage (UHC) 

Aedes-borne Viral Diseases and their Control 

Context: Aedes-borne Viral Diseases (ABVD) that include Dengue, Zika, and Chikungunya hurt India’s productivity. Aedes aegypti mosquitoes bite during the day time. Mosquito control methods like outdoor fumigation are not that effective, which necessitates revised strategies against Aedes Mosquitoes. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Aedes-borne Viral Diseases; Wolbachia Method. 

Aedes-borne Viral Diseases

1. Dengue: 

  • Viral illness caused by the dengue virus, an RNA virus.
  • Transmission: 
    • Bites of infected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.
    • There is no evidence that dengue can be transmitted directly from person to person through casual contact, coughing/sneezing, or sexual contact.
    • Rare cases of vertical transmission (from mother to child during pregnancy or childbirth) have been reported, but this is not a common mode of spread.
  • Symptoms: Flu-like symptoms, including high fever, severe headache, joint and muscle pain, and rash. In severe cases, it can lead to life-threatening dengue haemorrhagic fever. 

2. Zika: 

  • Caused by Zika virus, an RNA virus. 
  • Transmission: Bites of infected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Can be transmitted from mother to foetus during pregnancy; through sexual contact, blood transfusion; organ transplantation.
  • Zika infection during pregnancy causes microcephaly (underdeveloped brain) and other congenital malformations. 

3.  Chikungunya:

  • Caused by the chikungunya virus (CHIKV), an RNA virus.
  • Transmission: Bites of infected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. An infected person cannot spread the infection directly to other persons (i.e. it is not a contagious disease).
  • Symptoms: Fever, chills, headache, nausea, vomiting, joint pain, and rash. Severe joint pain (arthritis) which is the most common feature of the disease. 
  • Chikungunya is diagnosed by blood test (ELISA). 

Wolbachia Method for Mosquito Control

  • Wolbachia is a form of biological control method to reduce mosquito population. 
  • In this method, naturally occurring Wolbachia bacteria is introduced into male population by infecting insects in a laboratory, and then releasing them into the wild.
  • These Wolbachia-infected male mosquitoes mate with female mosquitoes (not infected with the same strain of Wolbachia). 
  • These bacteria are passed on to their offspring through the normal reproductive process, and their offspring are less likely to survive or reproduce. 
  • The method does not suppress mosquito populations or involve genetic modification, so it is safe for humans, animals and the environment. 
image 40

Challenges in controlling Mosquito population: 

  • Limitations of conventional methods: Aedes mosquito feeds indoors during the day, and at night under artificial light. Methods like outdoor fumigation, vaporisers, and bed nets are thus ineffective against it. Additionally, the mosquitoes have evolved to gain tolerance to these chemicals. 
  • Lack of Vaccines: Dengue vaccine trials are underway, but these offer no protection against Zika or chikungunya.
  • Expensive: High costs and weak institutional support limit the adoption of advanced mosquito control methods like Wolbachia. 
  • Increased plastic pollution: Plastic pollution is directly linked to the risk of ABVD transmission. Discarded plastics can collect water and act as mosquito breeding sites). 

Way Forward

  • Application of safe non-insecticides (topical repellents) on the skin. By releasing volatile compounds, these repellants impair the mosquito’s sense of smell, thus making human hosts essentially invisible to them.
    • E.g., Para-menthane-diol (PMD), derived from the essential oil of the lemon eucalyptus plant; Picaridin (derived from pepper plant)
  • Using materials coated with delayed-release transfluthrin. These spatial emanators, like jute sheets, provide 15-days of continued protection in living spaces. 
  • Local community actions to remove larval breeding sites of Aedes mosquitoes. Regular trash collection/flood management protects against ABVD.

Public Health Campaign in Delhi: 10 Weeks, 10 AM, 10 Minutes

  • Called the rule of 10, “10 Weeks, 10 AM, 10 Minutes,” it reinforces larval source reduction as the primary strategy. 
  • It encourages every residential welfare association to mobilise each household to set aside 10 minutes at 10 AM every Sunday for 10 weeks from September to November. 
  • The goal is to find and eliminate sources of stagnant water during this high-risk season.

Also Read: Malaria Elimination: Efforts & Challenges 

India-China Border Relations 

Context: India and China have renewed diplomatic activity such as border patrol agreements, resumption of direct flights and efforts to expand trade and cultural exchanges. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India - China bilateral relations. 

India-China border is un-demarcated and is referred to as the Line of Actual Control (LAC). The border length is around 3,488 km as per India, while China claims it to be about 2,000 km. The different interpretations by the two countries leads to frequent disputes. 

The border is divided into three main sectors

  • Western Sector (Ladakh, ~1597 km): Aksai Chin (~38,000 sq. km) under Chinese occupation, and China also controls Shaksgam Valley ceded by Pakistan in 1963.
  • Middle Sector (Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, ~545 km) which is the least disputed, though differences exist near the Barahoti plains.
  • Eastern Sector (Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim, ~1346 km) where China claims about 90,000 sq. km of Arunachal Pradesh as “South Tibet,” while the Sikkim boundary is formally settled but still faces PLA activity.
image 39

India-China Border Dispute

  • Historically, the 1914 Simla Agreement drew the McMahon Line between British India and Tibet, but China rejected it.
  • China occupied Tibet in 1950 and built a road in Aksai Chin in the 1950s.
  • The 1962 India-China war resulted in India’s defeat, with China retaining Aksai Chin and withdrawing from its advances in Arunachal Pradesh, leaving the boundary issue unresolved. India-China relations after the 1962 war remained tense, with little progress on the boundary dispute.
  • In 1988, Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to Beijing marked a turning point, as it re-opened dialogue after decades of mistrust.
  • However, political instability in India (1989-1991) slowed progress until P.V. Narasimha Rao’s government (1991-1996) was able to re-focus on China.
image 38

Initial Steps (1988-1992): 

  • Between 1988 and 1993, six rounds of talks of the Joint Working Group (JWG) were held.
  • The dialogue included both diplomats and military commanders, with first meetings at Bum La (eastern sector) and Chushul/Moldo (western sector) in 1992.
  • Border trade resumed in 1992 after a gap of over 30 years, and consulates were re-opened in Mumbai and Shanghai in December 1992.

Border Peace and Tranquillity Agreement (BPTA), 1993: 

  • Signed during Prime Minister Narasimha Rao’s visit to Beijing in September 1993.
  • Core Principle: The boundary dispute would be resolved peacefully, and neither side would use or threaten force.
  • The Agreement recognised the Line of Actual Control (LAC) for the first time in an official bilateral document. Both sides agreed :
    • Not to cross the LAC; if intrusions occurred, forces would withdraw upon caution.
    • To jointly check and determine contested segments of the LAC.
    • To maintain minimal force levels along the LAC and reduce them on the principle of mutual and equal security.
    • To freeze the military situation, acknowledging India’s geographic disadvantage compared to China’s easy access through the Tibetan plateau.

The agreement emphasised setting aside the boundary dispute to build cooperation in other areas.

1996 Agreement on Confidence-Building Measures: 

  • Signed during Chinese President Jiang Zemin’s visit to India in 1996.
  • Expanded upon the 1993 BPTA by specifying military confidence-building measures (CBMs).
  • Both sides agreed :
    • Not to use force and to continue peaceful consultations.
    • To reduce or limit military forces and heavy weaponry (tanks, artillery, missiles) in border areas.
    • To avoid large-scale military exercises near the LAC; if held, exercises would be directed away from the other side.
    • Article X: Stressed the need for a common understanding of the LAC alignment. Both sides committed to exchange maps for clarification and confirmation.

Challenge of LAC Clarification

  • In 2000, both sides exchanged maps of the relatively undisputed Central sector.
  • In 2002, maps of the western sector were exchanged, but were rejected within minutes as they represented maximalist positions of both sides.
  • By 2005, efforts to clarify the LAC were abandoned.
  • Key contested areas included: Samar Langpa, Trig Heights, Depsang, Kong Ka La, Pangong Tso, Spanggur Gap, Mount Sajun, Dumchele, Demchok, and Chumar. These same areas became flashpoints in later standoffs, including in 2020.

The 1993 and 1996 agreements marked important milestones in institutionalising peace and stability along the border. However, the failure to define and clarify the LAC meant that the agreements could only postpone and not prevent future confrontations.

The failure to achieve a mutually accepted definition of the Line of Actual Control left the core dispute unresolved making subsequent tensions and face-offs inevitable.

Also Read: hTaking stock of India-China Bilateral Ties 

Crisis in Nepal: Why is Kathmandu Burning?

Context: Recently, Nepal witnessed a violent youth-led movement dominated by a generation known as ‘Gen Z’. It is the largest anti-establishment uprising since the abolition of monarchy in 2008. 

Nepal’s President has appointed former Chief Justice Sushila Karki as the country’s new Prime Minister and dissolved Parliament. He announced fresh elections on March 5, 2026.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India and its Neighbourhood: Crisis in Nepal & its Implications on India. 

Gen Z Protests in Nepal

  • Youth-led movement dominated by those born between 1996 and 2012, a generation known as “Generation Z”, frustrated with corruption, nepotism, unemployment, and political dysfunction. 
  • The protest began after the government banned 26 social media platforms in August 2025, cutting off their main space for expression and mobilisation. 
  • The situation escalated when several protestors in Kathmandu were killed by police firing, turning a demand for digital freedom into a nationwide anti-establishment uprising.

Enraged youth set fire to government buildings, vandalised the homes of former Prime Ministers, attacked ministers, and even freed political prisoners from Central Jail.

Causes of the Protests?

  • Unfulfilled promise of 2008 Republic: Wave of discontent against geriatric and nepotistic leadership that ran Nepal with 17 different prime ministerships in the last 20 years. The governance has remained weak, unstable, and unresponsive.
  • Corruption and Nepotism: Anger against entrenched political elites and their children’s lavish lifestyles while ordinary citizens face unemployment and poverty due to economic stagnation.
  • Youth Disillusionment: Nepal has one of the world’s youngest populations (median age 25). Youth face high unemployment, lack of opportunities, and widespread inequality.
  • Ban of Social Media Platforms: The government’s ban on 26 social media platforms (Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, X, YouTube) cut off Gen Z’s primary space for political expression.
  • State Violence: The killing of protesters by security forces was the tipping point that transformed peaceful dissent into nationwide outrage. 

Nature of the Protests: 

  • Leaderless Mobilisation: Unlike the Jana Andolans of 1990 and 2006, the movement lacked structured leadership or clear political objectives.
  • Spontaneous and Digital-Driven: Mobilisation was initially through social media pages such as Next Generation Nepal.
  • Nihilistic Rage: Protesters attacked homes of five former Prime Ministers, vandalised state institutions, and freed political prisoners, showing an anti-establishment thrust rather than specific reform demands.
  • Urban-Centric but Spreading: While centred in Kathmandu, protests spread to other cities, reflecting nationwide disillusionment.

As protests turned violent, the Prime Minister of Nepal resigned, while the President remained absent deepening the leadership vacuum. In response, the Army was deployed to restore order.

Implications of the Gen Z Protests in Nepal: 

  • Delegitimisation of Political Elites: Attacks on the homes of former Prime Ministers and ministers reflected a collapse of public trust in traditional parties and leaders. 
  • Expansion of Military Role: The Army’s takeover of security functions raises concerns about potential military influence in political decision-making.
  • Emergence of New Political Voices: The protests weakened trust in established political parties and created space for new leaders. At the same time, pro-monarchy groups tried to use the unrest to push for a return of the old order.
  • Regional and Economic Impact: Instability threatens Nepal’s economy, deters investment and tourism, and poses security and diplomatic challenges for India and South Asia.

Implications for India: 

  • Border Management and Security: Political instability in Nepal poses risks of refugee inflows, illegal activities, and cross-border crime across the open India-Nepal border.
  • Strategic Competition: Prolonged chaos could allow China or other external actors to expand their influence in Nepal, challenging India’s traditional strategic space.
  • Economic Disruptions: Instability undermines India’s trade and investment in Nepal, including energy, infrastructure, and hydropower projects.

India must focus its attention on supporting a crucial transition towards a new, more democratic and developed Nepal. 

West Bengal demands Indo-Bhutan River Commission 

Context: The Chief Minister of Bengal reiterated her demand for the establishment of an Indo-Bhutan River Commission with West Bengal as one of its members.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Issues in Centre-State relations. 

image 37

Need for Indo-Bhutan River Commission

  • In north Bengal, especially in the districts Jalpaiguri and Alipurduar, around 72 rivers and streams descend from Bhutan. They include some prominent rivers like Jaldhaka, Torsha, Raidak and Sankosh. 
  • During the monsoons these rivers spill over the banks and cause flood like situation in Bengal, particularly if it rains in the upper catchments of these rivers in Bhutan.
    • The rivers flood and erode tea estates, forests, and human habitats. 
    • Huge sediments are deposited on the banks of these rivers, which compound the problems in these districts. 
  • Bengal has low-lying deltaic plains surrounded by rivers which resembles a “boat-like basin”. The Ganga river in Bengal remains swollen due to inflows from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, thus limiting the water absorption capacity and aggravating the situation.

Stand of Central Government

  • The Union Ministry of Jal Shakti has clarified that there are no plans to constitute a joint river commission with Bhutan. 
  • Bilateral mechanisms between India and Bhutan already exist to address flood-related concerns.
    • Joint teams and groups have been formed for flood management and forecasting of floods caused by the rivers which enter India from Bhutan.
    • There are 36 hydro-meteorological stations in Bhutan at the catchments of the trans-border rivers, and the central water commission gets regular data for flood forecasting.

The issue reflects the larger Centre-State tension in India’s federal framework, where the state perceives political bias in the distribution of central resources for disaster relief and infrastructure. 

Himachal Pradesh declared a Fully Literate State

Context: In September 2025, Himachal Pradesh was declared ‘fully literate’. It became the fifth state/UT in India to achieve this milestone after Goa, Ladakh, Mizoram, and Tripura.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Government initiatives/schemes to promote literacy; State of literacy in India. 

What does Fully Literate Mean?

  • The Ministry of Education defines literacy as the ability to read, write, and compute with comprehension i.e., to identify, understand, interpret and create, along with critical life skills such as digital literacy, financial literacy etc. 
  • A state/UT is considered “fully literate” once it achieves 95% literacy.
  • Himachal Pradesh has achieved a literacy rate of 99.3%, qualifying it for the tag.

The declaration is part of the ULLAS (Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society) programme launched in 2022 to achieve 100% literacy by 2030.

What is the ULLAS Programme? 

  • ULLAS (Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society) is a literacy programme for people over 15 years of age who may not have attended school.
  • It was launched in 2022 with the aim of achieving 100% literacy by 2030, which is one the 17 Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations.
  • The program is also in line with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 which calls for adult education initiatives to achieve 100% literacy.

How does someone attain literacy?

  • Under the ULLAS program, adult learners are taught basic reading, writing, and math (arithmetic like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) that a child in school would learn up to class 3.
  • They are also taught how to read and measure time, make sense of calendars, use currency notes, write cheques, and safely make digital transactions.
  • This training is provided either through a mobile App or offline, by students or community volunteers.
  • After that, the Functional Literacy Numeracy Assessment Test (FLNAT), a 150-mark reading, writing and numeracy test, is administered in a person’s chosen language.
  • On passing the test, the learner is certified by the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) as having acquired foundational literacy and numeracy

To learn who requires training under the ULLAS program, states conduct door-to-door surveys, or rely on other data. Those identified as not being literate are given requisite training and administered the FLNAT.

image 36

State of Literacy in India

  • Census 2011: 
    • In the 2011 Census, any person aged 7 years and above who could read and write with understanding in any language was considered literate.
    • As per this Census, the literacy rate among women was 64.6%, while among men it was 80.9%.
    • The Census also measured adult literacy, defined for those aged 15 years and above, and found the national figure to be 69.3%. 
  • National Sample Survey (NSS) 71st round:
    • The National Sample Survey (NSS) 71st round (January-June 2014) showed an adult literacy rate of 71% for India.
  • Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2023-24: 
    • PLFS 2023-24 reported a national literacy rate of 77.5% for the population aged 7 years and above.
    • As per PLFS, 22.3% of people in India aged 15 and above were not literate.
    • Among the states and UTs, the highest proportion of illiterate adults was in Bihar (33.1%), followed by Andhra Pradesh (31.5%) and Madhya Pradesh.

Delhi-Meerut Namo Bharat RRTS Corridor

Context: The Namo Bharat Regional Rapid Transit System (RRTS) corridor between Delhi and Meerut is nearing full operationalisation.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key Features of Delhi-Merrut Namo Bharat Regional Rapid Transit System (RRTS)

Delhi-Meerut Namo Bharat Regional Rapid Transit System

  • The Delhi-Meerut Namo Bharat RRTS is India’s first regional rapid rail project.
  • The Namo Bharat corridor is the first of several RRTS lines planned to connect parts of the National Capital Region.
image 35

Key Features: 

  • The Delhi-Meerut corridor covers a total length of 82 kilometres.
  • The corridor will enable passengers to travel from Sarai Kale Khan in Delhi to Meerut in under one hour.
    • At present, a 55-kilometre stretch from New Ashok Nagar on the Delhi border to Meerut South is operational. The remaining stretch will be inaugurated soon.
  • The trains are capable of reaching a top operational speed of 160 kilometres per hour.
  • The project has been developed at a cost of over ₹30,000 crore.
  • The system has been implemented by the National Capital Region Transport Corporation (NCRTC).

Benefits and Significance: 

The corridor currently sees a daily ridership of 60,000 and once fully operational it is expected to take one lakh cars off the road.

  • Expected to reduce travel time and ease congestion between Delhi and nearby urban centres.
  • Reduce air pollution and cut carbon emissions, thus contributing to sustainable mobility.

Why have scholars struggled to decipher Harappan Script?

Context: India will host its first-ever international conference on Manuscript Heritage from 11 to 13 September at Bharat Mandapam in New Delhi. The scholars from around the world will also present their work on the Harappan Script.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Indus Valley Civilisation and Indus Valley Script. 

First Global Conference on Manuscript Heritage

  • Hosted by: Ministry of Culture
  • Title: Reclaiming India's Knowledge Legacy Through Manuscript Heritage 
  • The event aims to bring global attention to India’s vast and diverse manuscript tradition.

India is home to more than 10 million manuscripts in various languages and subjects such as philosophy, science, mathematics, medicine, rituals, and literature. 

Why have scholars struggled to decipher Harappan Script?

  • In 1924, Sir John Marshall announced the discovery of the Bronze Age culture or Harappan Civilization that thrived in the Indus Valley between c. 3300 BCE and 1300 BCE. 
  • The Harappan script, and the underlying language spoken by Harappans spoke are still undeciphered more than a century after the discovery. 
  • Various interpretations exist about the underlying language represented by the Harappan script. It has been claimed to be Sanskrit; a form of proto-Dravidian; and even Ho and Santali. However, such claims are often made with scant evidence. 

The Challenge to Decipher a Script: 

To decipher a script, the following subproblems have to be solved in order.

  • Deciding if a set of symbols actually represent a writing system
  • Devising appropriate procedures to isolate or segment the stream of symbols into a sequence of single signs 
  • Reducing the set of signs to the minimal set for the writing system forming (its alphabet, syllabary, or inventory of signs) by identifying all allographs (the same sign written in a variant form, for example a printed ‘a’ and a cursive ‘a’) 
  • Assigning to each symbol their specified value, whether phonetic or otherwise
  • Trying to match these values to a specific language.

Associated Challenges in Indus Script: 

In the case of the Indus script, many of these problems remain unsolved due to three main reasons.

  • Absence of Multilingual Inscriptions: The most helpful tool to decipher an unknown script is parallel or bilingual inscription (by direct comparison with other known scripts). Though the Indus Valley Civilisation had robust trade links with the contemporary Mesopotamian Civilisation, no multilingual inscriptions have been discovered so far.
  • Language Not Known: Harappan script falls in the category of “unknown script written in an unknown language”. This makes it the most challenging to decipher as there are no familiar points of reference, unlike Egyptian hieroglyphs (unknown script but known language family). 
  • Limited Knowledge of Civilisation: In comparison to contemporaneous ancient civilisations in Mesopotamia and Egypt, much less is known in general about the Harappan civilisation. Although some 3500 Harappan seals have been identified, as each seal has on average only 5 characters inscribed, there is not enough material to analyse.  
image 34

Key features of Indus Valley Script: 

  • Short inscriptions: Indus inscriptions are very short with only about 5 characters on average, with the longest having only 26 characters.
  • Boustrophedon script i.e., it is written from right to left on one line and then from left to right in the next line. 
  • Pictographic script: The script is not alphabetical. There are about 250 to 400 pictographs in the form of a picture; each letter stands for some sound, idea, or object. 

Also Read: Gyan Bharatam Mission: Mission for Manuscript Conservation

AdFalciVax: Recombinant Multistage Malaria Vaccine

Context: The Union government has granted licence to five firms for manufacturing and commercialisation of AdFalciVax, India’s first indigenous recombinant multistage malaria vaccine, developed by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and its partners.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Malaria & Malaria vaccines. 

Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by plasmodium parasites transmitted through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. 

AdFalciVax: Indigenous Malaria Vaccine 

  • India’s first indigenous recombinant multistage malaria vaccine. 
  • Developed by: Regional Medical Research Centre (RMRC), Bhubaneswar under the ICMR.
  • The vaccine is designed to prevent Plasmodium falciparum infection in humans and also reduce community transmission of the parasite.
    • Plasmodium falciparum is the deadliest malaria parasite (responsible for the most lethal form of malaria) and difficult to control. 
image 33

AdFalciVax: Recombinant Multistage Malaria Vaccine

1. Recombinant Malaria Vaccine: 

  • AdFalciVax is a recombinant malaria vaccine (made using genetic engineering). The vaccine uses Lactococcus lactis (a genetically engineered food-grade bacterial host).
    • Pieces of DNA from the malaria parasite (Plasmodium) are inserted into Lactococcus lactis (a safe bacterium often used in dairy fermentation). 
    • This genetically engineered bacterium acts as a bio-factory to produce the malaria antigens.

2. Multistage Malaria Vaccine: 

  • Existing Malaria vaccines like RTS, S/AS01 and R21/Matrix-M are single-stage vaccines i.e., they target the pre-erythrocytic/sporozoite stage.
    • Sporozoite stage is the stage when an infected female mosquito injects sporozoites (infectious cells of Plasmodium parasites) in the skin of a mammalian host.
  • AdFalciVax is amultistage vaccine i.e., it targets the two key stages of the Pasmodium parasite’s life cycle:
    • pre-erythrocytic/sporozoite stage
    • erythrocytic / blood stage: when the parasite infects red blood cells. (Only a few sporozoites leave the skin and travel through the bloodstream to reach the liver).

AdFalciVax targets the parasite before it enters the bloodstream, thus stopping the infection at the transmission stage. Hence, AdFalciVax vaccine not only protects the vaccinated human from developing Malaria but also reduces community transmission. 

Advantages of AdFalciVax

Preclinical data suggest that AdFalciVax have advantages over existing single-stage vaccines.

  • Broader protection by targeting two vulnerable parasite stages. 
  • Affordable, stable, and scalable solution. 
  • Thermal stability: Vaccine remains effective for over 9 months at room temperature.
  • Lower risk of immune evasion and potential for better long-term immunity. 

Pre-clinical validation of the vaccine

  • The pre-clinical validation of the vaccine has been conducted in collaboration with ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research and National Institute of Immunology (NII).

Need for the Vaccine

  • Reduce Malaria burden: Malaria remains one of the major public health problems in India. India carries 1.4% of the global malaria case burden, and accounted for 66% of cases in the Southeast Asia region.
  • Meet India’s target under National Health Mission: Annual Malaria Incidence to be less than 1 in 1000 individuals. 

The government aims to facilitate the commercialisation of the vaccine to prevent and minimise malaria transmission. 

Also Read: Malaria Elimination: Efforts & Challenges