Current Affairs

All (4265)Current Affairs (4243)Mains Practice (77)Mains PYQs by Subjects (40)

Seas rising faster around Lakshadweep and Maldives

Context: Recent scientific research using coral microatolls has revealed that sea-level rise (SLR) in the central Indian Ocean, particularly around the Maldives, Lakshadweep, and Chagos Archipelago is accelerating. Earlier studies suggested that significant acceleration started only in the 1990s, but new evidence shows that seas in this region have been rising since the late 1950s.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Implications of Climate Change.

Rising Sea Levels in Indian Ocean

Rising sea levels are among the most visible and threatening consequences of global warming. The Indian Ocean, which is the third largest ocean basin in the world, has been experiencing sea-level rise at an accelerated pace.
The Indian Ocean’s levels have been rising at around 3.3 millimetres per year, which is higher than the global average, which in turn amplifies changes in ocean dynamics and atmospheric circulation.
These shifts have a direct impact on coral reefs, fisheries, and low-lying island nations such as the Maldives, Lakshadweep, and the Chagos Archipelago.

Key Findings of the Study:

A team of researchers from the National University of Singapore studied coral microatolls in the Maldives. The study reconstructed sea-level history from 1930 to 2019, extending the existing records by nearly 90 years. The findings showed that :

Sea levels rose by around 0.3 metres over the 90-year period.
The rate of rise has accelerated over time: it was between 1 and 1.84 mm/year from 1930 to 1959, and between 3.91 and 4.87 mm/year from 1990 to 2019. This indicates that sea-level rise in the Indian Ocean began accelerating in the late 1950s.
The periods of coral growth interruption coincided with El Niño events, negative Indian Ocean Dipole events, and the 18.6-year lunar nodal cycle, all of which influence sea levels and stress corals.

Implications of Rising Sea Levels:

Ecological: Coral reefs face bleaching due to reduced sunlight, warmer waters, and acidification, threatening biodiversity and marine productivity.
Human & Economic: Low-lying islands risk inundation; livelihoods from fisheries and tourism are endangered; flooding, erosion, and storm surges increase vulnerability.
Geopolitical & Security: Strategic islands like Maldives and Lakshadweep face displacement, migration, and sovereignty challenges, impacting maritime trade and security.

Way Forward

Strengthening Scientific Monitoring: Expanding tide gauge networks, improving satellite observations, and using natural recorders such as coral microatolls can help fill critical gaps in sea-level data, and thus improve the accuracy of climate models and projections.
Ecosystem-Based Adaptation: Restore mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs as natural buffers.
Policy & Governance: Integrate sea-level rise into planning and disaster frameworks; secure climate finance and technology for island nations.
Resilient Infrastructure: Build climate-proof housing, elevate infrastructure, and strengthen flood protection.
Regional & Global Cooperation: Use IORA, UNFCCC, and regional platforms for joint monitoring, data sharing, and coordinated adaptation.

APK Scam: How Fake Apps are used for Financial Fraud

Context: APK scam is one of the fastest-growing cybercrime threats in India. The sophisticated social engineering scam is driven by malicious Android Package Kit (APK) files that stay undetected and exploit public trust in digital systems.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Android Package Kit (APK) Scam. Mains: Cybercrimes: Types, Challenges and Regulations.

What is Android Package Kit (APK) Scam?

APK scams involve malicious files which are used to install apps on Android devices outside of the official App store. The App often has hidden malware that can steal personal data, passwords, banking information, or install spyware.
Rising cases: There has been a 900% jump in cyber crimes between 2021 and 2025. The National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal has logged over 12 lakh different types of APK Scams in India since the beginning of 2025 (till date).

How does the APK Scam work?

APK files on Android devices are much like .exe files on Windows computers; both are used to install Apps. These files can be exploited by fraudsters to spread malware.
Fraudsters build or source these Apps to mimic the appearance and language of official portals (E.g., government subsidy schemes like PM-Kisan, tax refund platforms, electricity boards, or banks asking for KYC updates).
These fake Apps are often circulated through social media platforms and accompany convincing messages that urge users to act immediately. Once downloaded, the App seeks multiple permissions including access to contacts, messages, call logs, location, microphone, and notifications.
The App harvests data in real-time, and transmits it in encrypted bits to external servers operated by fraudsters. These bits are decoded to extract valuable information, including banking credentials, OTPs, contacts, and location coordinates etc.

Challenges:

Google or any other intermediary does not scrutinise every application that is being hosted on their server. Fraudsters use mule accounts and shell identities to pay for hosting and publishing on search engines.
Strong encryption techniques hide malicious code from detection tools. By remaining dormant during installation certain APKs can bypass antivirus softwares.
Even after earlier versions are blacklisted, the same APK file is reused with minor modifications in the interface (name, logo and URL or web address of the file) thus, allowing it to bypass detection.

Also Read: How is Cyberbullying tackled under the Law in India?

Issue of Restoration of Statehood to Jammu and Kashmir

Context: The Supreme Court has recently sought a detailed response from the Centre on the issue of restoration of statehood to Jammu and Kashmir.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Concept of Federalism, Constitutional Framework for Creation of States.

Mains: Issue of Restoration of Statehood to Jammu and Kashmir.

Abrogation of Article 370

The abrogation of Article 370 and enactment of the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 bifurcated the State into two Union Territories:
- Jammu & Kashmir (with legislative assembly)
- Ladakh (without legislative assembly).
The Supreme Court in 2023 upheld the abrogation, but it also directed the Union Government to restore statehood and conduct Assembly elections.

Constitutional Framework for Creation of States

The Constitution of India provides three processes for creating States: admission, establishment, and formation.

Admission requires an organised political unit and is guided by international law, as was the case with Jammu and Kashmir’s accession in 1947 through the Instrument of Accession signed by Maharaja Hari Singh.
Establishment involves acquisition of new territories, such as the cases of Goa and Sikkim.
Formation refers to reorganisation of existing States under Article 3, which has expanded India’s map from 14 States in 1956 to 29 States before the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019.

Article 3 empowers Parliament to form, alter, or rename States, but it does not authorise converting a State into a Union Territory on a permanent basis. Thus, continuing to keep Jammu and Kashmir as a Union Territory is against the spirit of federalism embedded in the Constitution.

Implications of Non-Restoration:

Denial of statehood leads to a democratic deficit, since a Union Territory places overriding powers in the hands of the Lieutenant Governor rather than the elected government.
It also dilutes citizens’ rights to self-governance, which is central to India’s democratic framework.
Continued Union control risks alienating the people of Jammu and Kashmir and may undermine long-term stability and integration.
From a constitutional perspective, it sets a dangerous precedent where any State could potentially be downgraded to a Union Territory, eroding the spirit of federalism.

Why Restoration of Statehood is Imperative?

Restoring statehood is imperative to uphold federalism, which the Supreme Court in Kesavananda Bharati (1973) held to be part of the Basic Structure.
The Rajya Sabha under Article 83(1) ensures continuous representation of States in national decision-making , and denial of statehood disrupts this equilibrium and weakens India’s cooperative federalism.
It empowers the elected government and restores the principle of self-rule, thereby addressing the democratic aspirations of the people.
It reinforces the separation of powers by complying with the Supreme Court’s directions.
It helps maintain national unity with federal balance, preventing over-centralisation that could erode trust among States.

While temporary Union control may be justified on grounds of security, its prolonged continuation undermines both the letter and spirit of the Constitution. The restoration of statehood to Jammu and Kashmir is not merely a political demand but a constitutional obligation essential for safeguarding India’s federal design.

Integrated Agriculture: Lavender Honey and Apiculture

Context: In Kashmir’s Pulwama, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research’s Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (CSIR-IIIM) is producing India’s first monofloral lavender honey, a kilogram of which sells for up to ₹6,000.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Lavender: Govt. Schemes to promote Integrated Agriculture.

Mains: Integrated Agriculture: Apiculture & Floriculture.

Lavender Honey

The product is developed under the flagship CSIR Floriculture Mission, and is poised to feed the market for functional foods and grow sustainable agriculture and rural bio-enterprise.
A kilogram of it sells between ₹5,000 and ₹6,000 in the global market, six times higher than the price of regular organic honey.
The CSIR-IIIM is in the process of filing for geographical indication (GI) for Kashmir lavender honey and upscale its production in the coming years.

About Lavender

Lavender is a perennial aromatic plant native to countries bordering the Mediterranean. It is a non-native species of aromatic plant in India.
It is used as an ornamental plant and commercially cultivated as a culinary herb and to extract essential oils.

Benefits of cultivating Lavender:

Purple Revolution: Expansion of lavender cultivation for commercial purposes (E.g., production of lavender honey, essential oils etc.)
Lavender isnot susceptible to pest infestation and acts as a pest barrier due to its antifungal, antimicrobial, and anti-bacterial properties.
- The highly fragrant crop produces volatile organic compounds diffusing a strong scent that deters insects and pests by overpowering the insect’s olfactory receptors. This makes the pest unable to detect other scents (E.g., apple blossoms).
- Rodents attack the roots and stems of fruit-bearing trees like apples and plums. Lavender has been proven to keep away rodents.

CSIR-Aroma Mission:

Launched in 2016, the mission focuses on cultivation of aromatic crops (lavender, rose, lemongrass, rosemary, vetiver, mint, etc.) and generating new avenues of self-livelihood and entrepreneurship.
Under the CSIR-Aroma Mission, lavender farmers are offered end-to-end support, including cultivation, processing, value addition, and marketing.

CSIR Floriculture Mission:

Launched in 2021, the mission focuses on promoting the floriculture sector in India. It includes commercial floral crops, seasonal/annual crops, wild ornaments and cultivation of flower crops for honey bee rearing.
Floriculture can give 5 times more return than the traditional crops to farmers besides having potential to provide employment to a large number of people.

Beekeeping/ Sweet Revolution

The scientific practice of Beekeeping (Apiculture) has the potential to promote eco-friendly and sustainable agriculture along with higher yields leading to increase in income levels of farmers. The Sweet Revolution can act as a major tool to promote socio-economic development.

Beekeeping has great potential for the small and marginal farmers, landless labourers etc. on account of following reasons:

Increases crop yields by 20-30% through cross pollination.
Additional source of income for paid pollination service.
Less capital Intensive and hence can be practiced by poor farmers.
Requires no land and can be practiced by landless labourers.
Other products such as bee pollen, bee-venom costlier than honey.
Nutritional Security: More than a third of the global food basket is comprised of bee pollinated crops.
Growing demand for honey in the overseas market and hence scope for more export earnings.

The Government has launched the National Beekeeping and Honey Mission in 2020 to harness the potential of the Sweet Revolution. Beekeeping should be considered as an input of agriculture, which could enhance the efficacy of other inputs and accordingly training should be provided to farmers.

Orcas: Killer Whales

Context: Many Orcas, often called killer whales, have been found sharing freshly killed prey with humans. Orcas shared their offerings to humans including seaweed, invertebrates, fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Orcas: Killer Whales.

About Orcas

Orca is a toothed whale and the largest member of the oceanic dolphin family.
They are called killer whales because of their reputation as powerful predators in the marine world.
It has distinct pigmentation: black on top, white on the bottom and having recognisable white eye patches.
They live and hunt in groups led by a matriarch (the oldest female) and the group’s behaviour largely depends on the matriarch.
While orcas are known to be prosocial animals, they rarely interact with humans.
They have a larger brain size relative to the size of the body. This trait is linked to better cognition, learning, and social behaviour.
IUCN Status: Data Deficient.

NGO Educate Girls wins Ramon Magsaysay Award 2025

Context: Educate Girls, an Indian non-profit organisation working to educate unprivileged girls across the country, has been named as one of the three winners of the Ramon Magsaysay Award 2025.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Ramon Magsaysay Award 2025.

Ramon Magsaysay Award 2025

Educate Girls is the first Indian organisation to win the Ramon Magsaysay Award.
The other awardees are Shaahina Ali from the Maldives (an environmental activist) and Flaviano Antonio L. Villanueva from the Philippines (a human rights defender).

About Educate Girls (NGO)

Educate Girls (Foundation to Educate Girls Globally) is a leading Indian non-profit organisation working towards bridging gender gaps in education.
It was founded in 2007 by Safeena Husain.
Its core mission is to identify out-of-school girls, enrol them into classrooms, ensure their continued education and improve learning outcomes.
The NGO adopts a community-driven model by mobilising local volunteers such as Team Balika and Preraks, who act as change agents within their villages.
The organisation emphasises that investing in girls’ education creates a multiplier effect- improving health outcomes, delaying early marriages, enhancing incomes, and transforming communities.
It began its work in Rajasthan (one of the states with the highest gender disparity in education), and later scaled operations to states like Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar. It has succeeded in bringing millions of girls back to school, while simultaneously changing community mindsets around girls’ education and gender roles.
In recognition of its transformative work, Educate Girls became the first Indian non-profit organisation to receive the prestigious Ramon Magsaysay Award in 2025.

About Ramon Magsaysay Award

The Ramon Magsaysay Award was established in 1958 in memory of Ramon Magsaysay, the seventh President of the Philippines.
It is considered Asia’s most prestigious prize and is often referred to as Asia’s Nobel Prize.
The award celebrates greatness of spirit and transformative leadership in Asia.
The Ramon Magsaysay Award for Emergent Leadership is conferred to outstanding young individuals who are 40 years old or below, and to organisations not more than 10 years old that are engaged in exceptionally worthy work. It is supported by a grant from the Ford Foundation.

What are Blue Dragons?

Context: Several beaches in Spain have been closed after a tiny species of sea slug began to wash ashore. These slugs called blue dragons are capable of delivering one of the most ferocious stings in the animal world.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Blue Dragons.

What are Blue Dragons?

Blue dragons are a small type of sea slug, barely four centimetres long.
They are typically found in tropical waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian ocean, and have been rarely seen in the Mediterranean Sea.
- Their recent sightings in the Mediterranean Sea can be attributed to rising Mediterranean temperatures which brought more of their food sources like hydrozonas (E.g., Portuguese man o’ war) into the region.

Unique traits of Blue Dragons:

They live on the ocean surface and drift with the currents. While other sea slugs live on the seabed, blue dragons float upside down on the ocean surface. They can do so by swallowing and maintaining an air bubble in the stomach.
They camouflage themselves with the sea’s blue colour, and on their underside they are white, blending with sunlight when seen from below. It is a defensive strategy.
They feed on hydrozoans and jellyfish and incorporate the stinging cells of the jellyfish into multiple finger-like structures protruding from their bodies.
Their sting can be extremely painful to humans and cause redness, swelling, nausea, and vomiting. However, it cannot lead to death.

Note: The Mediterranean Sea is one of the fastest-warming water bodies. At the end of June, the temperatures exceeded 28 degrees Celsius with thermal anomalies of five degrees.

Daruma Doll

Context: The Prime Minister of India was presented a Daruma doll by the Chief Priest of the Shorinzan Daruma-Ji temple, Takasaki-Gunma during his recent visit to Japan.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Daruma Doll.

Daruma Doll

Daruma doll is a hollow, round, Japanese traditional doll modeled after Bodhidharma, the founder of the Zen tradition of Buddhism.
- Daruma tradition in Japan is based on the legacy of Bodhidharma known as Daruma Daishi in Japan. He was an Indian monk from Kancheepuram who is said to have travelled here over a thousand years ago.
- Bodhidharma spent nine years in meditation facing a wall at Shaolin Temple in China, demonstrating such unwavering determination that his legs atrophied from lack of use. This became the inspiration for the Daruma doll’s armless, legless form.
These dolls are typically red and can vary greatly in colour and design.
They are considered auspicious and a good luck charm in Japanese culture. Takasaki City in Gunma, Japan is the birthplace of the Daruma dolls.

The doll represents the popular Japanese proverb which translates to ‘fall seven times, get up eight,’ representing the power of resilience. The special gesture reaffirms the close civilisational and spiritual ties between India and Japan.

Nepal objects to India-China Trade through Lipulekh Pass

Context: Nepalese Prime Minister has voiced his concerns over India and China to resume using Lipulekh pass to carry out border trade. Nepal claims Lipulekh as its own territory, however, India has categorically dismissed it as “neither justified nor based on historical facts and evidence”.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Lipulekh Pass. Mains: An important aspect of challenges associated with India-Nepal Relations.

About Lipulekh Pass

The Lipulekh Pass is a Himalayan pass situated in the Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand, India. It is located on the border between Uttarakhand, Nepal and Tibet.
Lipulekh is strategically important to India as it provides access to Tibet and serves as a key route for the Kailash-Mansarovar Yatra.
- The pass is near the trading town of Taklakot (Purang) in Tibet and has been used since ancient times by traders, mendicants and pilgrims.
- It is also used by pilgrims to Kailash-Manasarovar Yatra.

Nepal’s claim to Lipulekh Pass and Kalapani Region:

Historical Basis: Nepal claims the southern side of the pass called Kalapani territory, based on the Treaty of Sugauli 1816 between British East India Company and Nepal.
The treaty delimited the boundary along Kali river (Sharda/Mahakali river). It stated that Nepal would cede the territories west of the Kali river.
- Nepal claims that the Kali river originates from Limpiyadhura, west of Kalapani and Lipulekh. On this basis, Nepal claims Kalapani, Lipulekh, and Limpiyadhura as its part.
- India claims that the Kali river originates at Kalapani village in Pithoragarh, where all its tributaries merge.

Hence, the bone of contention is the differing interpretation of the origin of the Kali River.

India’s stand on Lipulekh Pass:

Border trade between India and China through Lipulekh Pass commenced in 1954 and has been going on for decades. This trade had been disrupted in recent years due to COVID-19 and other developments, and both sides have now agreed to resume it.
India rejects Nepal’s objection to resumption of India-China border trade through the Lipulekh Pass stating that the arguments are not based on “historical facts”. Any unilateral artificial enlargement of territorial claims by Nepal is untenable.

In the recent past the official map of Nepal, included in the constitution of Nepal, shows Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh and Kalapani located to the east of the Mahakali River as integral parts of Nepal.

Madhopur Barrage Breach

Context: After heavy rainfall in Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab two gates of the Madhopur Barrage downstream of Ranjit Sagar Dam on Ravi river collapsed, leading to flooding in Pathankot and Gurdaspur.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Madhopur Barrage, Ravi River, Ranjit Sagar Dam etc.

What are Headworks?

Headworks are structures built across a river to divert water into canals for irrigation, drinking, or industrial use.

What is Barrage?

Barrage is one of the components of Headworks. It is a low, gated structure built across a river to regulate and divert its flow into canals.

How does Barrage differ from a dam?

A dam stores large quantities of water in a reservoir. A barrage regulates/diverts river flow (like a tap), without large storage.

About Madhopur Barrage:

Madhopur Barrage was built in the 19th century on the Ravi River in Gurdaspur district near Pathankot.
It is located on the border with Jammu and Kashmir.
It diverts water into the Upper Bari Doab Canal for irrigation in Punjab.
It supplies water to Gurdaspur, Amritsar, Tarn Taran, and nearby regions through canals.

Causes of the Breach:

Natural Factors:

Heavy Rainfall & Floods: Sudden cloudbursts in Ravi’s catchment caused massive inflows.
High Release from Ranjit Sagar Dam: Upstream dam (20 km away) discharged 2.21 lakh cusecs creating extreme pressure.
Debris & Siltation: Flow carried debris that jammed gates and increased stress.

Human / Negligence Factors:

Delayed Operation of Gates: Water was released late, leading to sudden pressure buildup.
Poor Maintenance: Gates were not used regularly; rusting and mechanical jamming occurred. Inadequate greasing, oiling, and rust-prevention.
Aging Infrastructure: Built in 1959, parts of the barrage had deteriorated like other old barrages (E.g., Hussainiwala).
Outdated Design Assumptions: Structures not upgraded for climate change induced rainfall extremes.

India-Japan Joint Crediting Mechanism

Context: The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has signed an Memorandum of Cooperation (MoC) with the government of Japan on Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM) under Article 6.2 of the Paris Agreement of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Article 6.2 of Paris Agreement, National Designated Authority.

Mains: Significance of India-Japan Joint Crediting Mechanism.

The MoC was unveiled as part of the broader Indo-Japan cooperation framework titled Green Energy Focus for a Better Future.

Article 6.2 of the Paris Agreement

Under Article 6.2 countries can trade emissions reductions bilaterally. It enables a host country to sell units to a buyer country, in exchange for investments, support for capacity building, and access to technologies not available through domestic resources.
The buyer country purchases these units known as Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes (ITMOs) to address any gaps in meeting its own climate goals.

About the Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM)

The JCM is a Japanese initiative designed to promote global climate action. Under this mechanism, Japan implements and invests in low-carbon technologies in developing countries.
The resulting emission reductions are credited to both Japan and the host country, and Japan uses its share to meet its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
Unlike the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) established under Kyoto Protocol, host countries under JCM act as joint implementers, not just passive participants.
A Joint Committee manages the mechanism including rules, methodologies, project registration, and credit sharing.
India has established a National Designated Authority (NDA) to approve JCM projects and oversee the functioning of the domestic carbon market.

Significance for India’s Climate Commitments:

India has made ambitious NDC commitments under the Paris Agreement for 2030. These include:

Reducing the emission intensity of GDP by 45% from 2005 levels.
Achieving 50% cumulative electric power capacity from non-fossil fuel sources.
Creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent through afforestation.

JCM will support India in meeting these targets by providing foreign investment, advanced technology, and access to international carbon markets.

It will also enable the international trading of carbon credits generated from such projects under Article 6.2 of the Paris Agreement with Japan and other countries on similar lines without adversely impacting India’s NDC commitments.

Bail Provisions in USA and India

Context: The US President recently signed an executive order cutting federal funding for jurisdictions that allow cashless bail claiming that it leads to a rise in crime.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Concept of Bail, Cashless Bail, Bail Provisions in India.

Mains: Issues in India’s Bail Provisions and the Urgent Need for Reforms.

What is Bail?

Bail is the conditional release of an accused person from custody while awaiting trial. It is based on the principle of presumption of innocence ensuring that a person is not punished before conviction.
The court’s concern in granting bail is that the accused:
- does not abscond or evade trial,
- does not tamper with evidence or influence witnesses, and
- remains available to face justice.
Hence, courts require a monetary deposit or surety as a guarantee of compliance. If the accused fails to appear, the money is forfeited. This makes bail both a safeguard of liberty and a mechanism of accountability.

What is Cashless Bail?

Cashless bail refers to the release of an accused without depositing cash upfront. Instead, the accused may sign a personal recognisance (PR) bond, be placed under community supervision, or offer other non-monetary assurances.
The rationale is to ensure that liberty before conviction does not depend on financial capacity.

Bail Provisions in the USA:

In the US, bail traditionally required cash deposits. Failure to pay meant remaining in custody, regardless of the seriousness of the offence. Later many US states introduced cashless bail for relatively minor non-violent offences.

Bail Provisions in India:

Bhartiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 which replaced the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 lays down the process for releasing a person on bail. Among the conditions for bail is the furnishing of a bond or a bail bond.

Bond:

By signing a bond an accused agrees to their bail terms and assures the court they will remain present for the trial. This is usually accompanied by a cash deposit, with the amount depending on the nature of the crime and the economic condition of the accused.
This deposit can be forfeited if bail conditions are violated, and is refunded at the conclusion of the trial regardless of the outcome.
If an accused does not have the means to furnish cash, courts may consider releasing them on a personal recognisance bond (PR bond). This requires the accused to arrange for the cash within a specific time after being released on bail.

Bail bond:

A bail bond is a guarantee given by another person (family member, friend, or employer) to ensure that the accused complies with bail conditions and appears for trial. The surety may also be required to deposit a specified sum, which can be forfeited if the accused absconds.
Courts conduct verification of the surety’s documents, financial standing, and personal background to establish credibility.
Certain courts insist that the surety must possess financial assets, permanent residence, or be a local resident of the district.
In cities like Mumbai, a solvency certificate issued by a revenue officer is mandatory, often causing delays of several days or even weeks in the grant of bail.

Issues in Bail Provisions in India:

Economic Discrimination: 268th Law Commission Report (2017) held that financial surety-based bail is contrary to constitutional ethos, as it discriminates against the poor.
Undertrial Overcrowding: National Crime Records Bureau (2022) shows that over 75% of India’s prison population are undertrials, many detained only due to inability to furnish bail.
Procedural Delays: Mulla Committee on Prison Reforms (1983) flagged that cumbersome verification processes, such as solvency certificates, prolong custody even after bail is granted.
Judicial Hesitancy on PR Bonds: Despite the Supreme Court in Hussainara Khatoon (1979) emphasising bail as a right, trial courts remain reluctant to release accused on personal recognisance bonds.
Constitutional Concerns: The Supreme Court in Satender Kumar Antil vs CBI (2022) observed that denial of bail for inability to pay surety violates Article 21 (Right to Liberty).

Need for Bail Reforms in India:

Risk-Based Assessment: The Law Commission (268th Report) recommended shifting from monetary sureties to risk-based evaluation of absconding or tampering.
Greater Use of PR Bonds: Justice Krishna Iyer Committee on Prison Reforms (1987) stressed non-monetary bail to avoid criminalising poverty.
Strengthened Legal Aid: NALSA Report (2023) revealed 5000 undertrials in jail despite bail orders, highlighting the need for proactive legal services intervention.
Prison Decongestion: Supreme Court (2023) directed that undertrials not released within a week of bail must be reported to District Legal Services Authorities.
Systemic Reform: National Police Commission (1977-81) called for liberalised bail policies to ensure speedy justice and reduce undertrial population.

The principle that “bail is the rule, jail the exception” must guide criminal justice in spirit and practice. Without systemic reforms like wider PR bonds, simplified procedures and robust legal aid, bail will remain a privilege of the rich rather than a right of all.