Current Affairs

Context: Ranajit Guha, a distinguished historian who left an indelible mark on the field of Indian history, sadly passed away in April 2023. He was renowned for his significant contributions and was particularly influential within the Subaltern Studies group.

About Ranajit Guha

• Famous works: A Rule of Property for Bengal: An Essay on the Idea of Permanent Settlement, (Today, it is recognized as a classic in modern Indian history); History at the Limit of World-History; An Indian Historiography of India: A Nineteenth Century Agenda & Its Implications; Dominance without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India; Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India. 
• During the 1980s, he initiated a transformative approach to studying South Asia and the Indian subcontinent. He observed that the prevailing mainstream historical studies were inadequate for comprehending the complexities of the region's past. 
• This led to a shift away from the predominantly elitist approach to studying the history of the region. The new methodology, known as Subaltern Studies, emerged as an influential post-colonial and post-Marxist school of history. 
• Guha defined the term ‘subaltern’ as the demographic distinction between the overall Indian population and those identified as the elite. 
• As part of the project, he examined the landmark legislation of 1793 known as the Permanent Settlement of Bengal. He posed a previously unasked question: How did the application of the 18th-century French economic doctrine of Physiocracy, aimed at creating entrepreneurial farmers in Bengal, result in the creation of the neo-feudal zamindari system?

Subaltern Studies 

• The term ‘subaltern’ draws inspiration from the work of Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937). Initially, the term referred to peasants excluded from the industrial capitalist system. 
• The Subaltern historians departed from Gramsci's interpretation, arguing that the history of subaltern groups was autonomous from that of the dominant classes while acknowledging their subordinated status.
• The Subaltern Studies examines non-elites and subalterns as agents of political and social change. They demonstrate a particular interest in studying the discourses and rhetoric of emerging political and social movements, rather than solely focusing on highly visible actions such as demonstrations and uprisings.
• In Indian context: Explores the dynamics of dominance and subordination within colonial systems, notably in India. Dissatisfied with the prevailing conventions of Indian history writing, a group of writers joined the collective and made significant contributions to its volumes. 

Unveiling the Phases of Subaltern Studies

The Subaltern Studies project, renowned for its innovative approach to historical analysis, can be divided into two distinct phases. 

Phase I of the Subaltern Studies:

• Represented a radical departure from conventional Indian historiography, characterized by the confrontation between the elite and the subaltern. 
• The project aimed to break free from the economic determinism found in various Marxist theories and challenge the elitism of bourgeois-nationalist and colonial interpretations. 
• The project highlighted the distinctions between the politics of the people and elite politics, as elite mobilizations were vertical in nature and people's mobilizations took a horizontal form.
• The elite mobilization tended to be legalistic and peaceful, whereas subaltern mobilization often exhibited a more spontaneous and confrontational nature.
• Phase II, embracing discourse analysis in Subaltern Studies:

• The second phase saw a significant change in its approach, influenced by postmodernist and post-colonialist ideologies that reshaped its trajectory. 
• The impact of postcolonial perspectives became evident, particularly in the works of Partha Chatterjee. 
• Chatterjee's influential book, ‘Nationalist Thought and Colonial World’ (1986), applied a postcolonial framework, which portrayed colonial power-knowledge as dominant and irresistible.
• Over time, many other writers associated with Subaltern Studies moved away from Marxist ideology, leading to intellectual divergences within the group.

Critiques of the Subaltern Studies Project

Despite influential contributions to historiography, it has faced extensive criticism from various quarters. Critiques have emerged from Marxist, Nationalist as well as Cambridge School historians.

• Scholars like, Javeed Alam argued that the autonomy of subaltern politics is based on the perpetuity of rebellious action, irrespective of whether the consequences are positive or negative.
• This perspective neglects the historical trajectory of militancy and overlooks the implications of such theoretical constructs. 

• In the review essay by Sangeeta Singh, a critical picture is presented of Guha's understanding of the spontaneity of peasant rebellion. It was seen as a reflexive action, which is problematic, as it equated spontaneity with action based on traditional consciousness.
• Guha's assertion about the centrality of religion in rebels' consciousness was viewed as supporting the British official view that downplayed the disruptive role of colonialism in rural and tribal structures.
• Ranjit Das Gupta, argued that the project tended to focus on moments of conflict and protest while downplaying the dialectics of collaboration among subaltern groups.
• David Ludden, pointed out its rigid theoretical division between ‘elite’ and ‘subaltern’ and its confinement of subaltern politics to the lower strata, thereby alienating subalternity from political histories of popular movements.

Despite the controversies, the project has undeniably made significant contributions to historical scholarship, reshaping our understanding of marginalized voices and challenging dominant narratives.

Context: Ministry of External Affairs characterized mural within recently constructed parliament building as a representation of expansion of the ancient Ashokan empire. The mural illustrates the Ashoka empire's growth and conveys concept of accountable and citizen-centred governance that Ashoka embraced and promoted.

About Mural Paintings

• Murals are artworks displayed on solid structures, such as walls, and have rich and extensive history. 
• Spanned from 2nd century BC to 8th-10th century AD. 
• Murals are found predominantly within natural caves and rock-cut chambers.
• Examples: Ajanta, Ravan Chhaya Rock Shelter, Bagh caverns, Sittanavasal caves, and Kailasanatha temple in Ellora.
• Main Themes: Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.

Features of Mural Paintings 

• Distinguishing feature lies in grand scale, as they surpass confines of traditional paper and are meant to adorn the walls of expansive structures, typically caves and temple walls.
• Two notable qualities: organic integration with architecture and their significant public significance.
• Mural paintings possess a truly three-dimensional nature, as they interact with and inhabit space they occupy.
• To create vibrant pigments used in ancient Indian mural paintings, natural sources like terracotta, chalk, red ochre, yellow ochre were blended with animal fat. 
• Subjects: human and animal figures, hunting scenes, family life, courtly settings, deities, and narratives from the Buddhist Jataka tales.

Examples of Mural Paintings

Ajanta Cave Paintings

• Carved during 4th century AD from volcanic rocks, Ajanta caves comprise a remarkable collection of 29 caves.
• Created over a span of four to five centuries under the patronage of the Mauryan Empire.
• Caves no. 9 and 10 house murals from the Sunga period, while the rest belong to the Gupta period.
• The cave walls showcase a combination of murals and fresco paintings, the latter being created on wet plaster.
• In Cave 1, one can find paintings of several Bodhisattvas: Vajrapani (a protector and guide), Manjusri (a manifestation of Buddha's wisdom), and Padmapani Avalokitesvara (a symbol of Buddha's compassion).

Sittanavasal Cave (Arivar-Kovil) Paintings

• Situated in Tamil Nadu, these rock-cut caves are distinguished for their Jain temple paintings.
• These murals bear a striking resemblance to artworks found in Bagh and Ajanta.
• The thematic focus of paintings revolves around Jain Samavasarana (Preaching-hall), where Tirthankaras delivered sermons following their attainment of kevala-gnana (enlightenment).  
• Scholars have attributed caves to the Pallava period when King Mahendravarman I excavated the temple. 

About Ashoka (Mauryan Emperor)

• Ashoka, also known as Chakravartin Samrat Ashoka, was the third emperor of the Mauryan Empire from 268 to 232 BCE.
• He was the son of Bindusara and grandson of the dynasty's founder, Chandragupta. During his father's reign, Ashoka served as governor of Ujjain, Central India and according to Buddhist legends, he suppressed a rebellion in Taxila.
• He is credited with the construction of various stupas and viharas and notable ones are: Sanchi and Bharhut stupa in Madhya Pradesh; Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh; Mahabodhi Temple, Barabar Caves and Nalanda Mahavihara in Bihar and Sannati Stupa in Karnataka, India.  
• Ashoka played a crucial role in dissemination of Buddhism throughout ancient Asia. 

Kalinga War and conversion to Buddhism

• According to Ashoka's inscriptions, he achieved victory over the Kalinga region in his eighth regnal year.
• Edict 13 of Ashoka Rock inscriptions reveals deep remorse experienced by the king upon witnessing the devastation in Kalinga.
• However, epigraphic evidence suggests that his transformation was a gradual process. For instance, Minor Rock Edict issued in the 13th regnal year, mentions that he had been a practicing Upasaka (lay Buddhist) for over two and a half years.

Third Buddhist Council

• Convened in Pataliputra, under the patronage of Ashoka, around 250 BC.
• Aimed to unite, various Buddhist schools and purify the Buddhist movement.
• Moggaliputta Tissa, a Buddhist monk, presided over the council.
• Sthaviravada sect, which upheld the belief in the simultaneous presence of past, present, and future, was established as an orthodox school.
• Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka (third Pitaka), which explains the tenets of Dhamma.
• As a result of this Buddhist council, Ashoka dispatched Buddhist missionaries to various regions, including Gandhara, Kashmir, and Sri Lanka. 

Edicts of Ashoka

• Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka as well as cave walls.
• Language and Script: Mostly in Brahmi script and Magadhi and Prakrit languages; Kandahar inscriptions are in Greek and Aramaic, and inscriptions in north-western Pakistan are in Kharosthi script.
• The geographical distribution of these edicts outlines the vast expanse of the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka's rule, stretching from present-day Afghanistan in the west to present-day Bangladesh in the east, with its capital at Pataliputra.
• In one such inscriptions, lands beyond Ashoka's borders are mentioned, including Chodas (Cholas), Pandyas, Satiyaputa and Keralaputa (Chera). 
• Maski Inscription, Karnataka:

• The site has a minor rock edict and was first edict of Ashoka containing the name Ashoka instead of ‘Devanampriya’ or ‘Piyadassi’.
• The inscription was ‘dharma shasana’ which tells people to follow the tenets of Buddhism. 

Kalsi Inscription, Uttarakhand:

• The only place in North India where Ashoka has inscribed a set of fourteen rock edicts.
• It reflects the policies for commitment to non-violence and restriction of war.
• Kanganahalli inscription at Sannati, Karnataka:
• An inscription in Brahmi script reading ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King Ashoka) and a sculpture of King Ashoka. 

The edicts emphasize:

• Ashoka's commitment to peace, righteousness, and justice, as well as his deep concern for welfare of his subjects.
• By renouncing violence and war, and promoting peace and pursuit of dhamma (righteousness), Ashoka diverged from prevalent philosophy of statecraft.
• Shows his efforts to spread and develop dharma throughout his kingdom.
• Edicts mainly focus on social and moral precepts rather than specific religious practices or philosophical dimension of Buddhism.