Context: The Standing Committee on Housing and Urban Affairs has presented a report (“Smart Cities Mission: An Evaluation”) in Lok Sabha.
Highlights of the Report
The committee has emphasised the need to launch the next phase of the mission with a thrust on Tier-2 cities located within 100 km of State capitals.
It emphasised ensuring the right to privacy and securing of digital platforms from cyber-attacks arising out of misuse of digital infrastructure created under the mission.
Report highlighted that some projects would not be able to meet the deadline of June 2024. (*Initial deadline was 2021, which was extended to June 2023 and then June 2024 )
Following reasons were cited for Delay-
Difficulties in resettlement of local population.
Legal issues like those pertaining to land procurement.
Frequent transfers of smart cities CEOs which prove disruptive for seamless continuation of projects.
Several project require convergence with other government ministries or agencies which caused delays.
Smart City Mission
Smart Cities Mission was launched in 2015.
The main objective of the Mission is to promote cities that provide core infrastructure, clean and sustainable environment and give a decent quality of life to their citizens through the application of ‘smart solutions’.
The Mission aims to drive economic growth and improve quality of life through comprehensive work on social, economic, physical and institutional pillars of the city.
The Union Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs is responsible for implementing the mission in collaboration with state governments.
Financing
The Smart Cities Mission in India is a centrally sponsored scheme.
It also requires state governments and urban local bodies (ULBs) to contribute an equal amount for implementing projects under the Smart City Proposal (SCP).
States are expected to seek funds for projects outlined in the Smart City Proposal from multiple sources including the following:
Using State/ULB’s resources (from collection of user fees, beneficiary charges & impact fees, land monetisation, debt, loans, etc.)
Deploying additional resources transferred due to acceptance of recommendations of the Fourteenth Finance Commission (FFC)
Utilising innovative finance mechanisms, such as municipal bonds with credit rating of ULBs, Pooled Finance Development Fund Scheme and Tax Increment Financing (TIF)
Leveraging borrowing from financial institutions including bilateral and multilateral institutions (both domestic and external sources)
Availing the National Investment and Infrastructure Fund (NIIF)
Fundamental Principles
Community at core of planning
Ability to generate greater outcomes with the use of lesser resources
Selection of cities through competition and flexibility in implementation
Innovative methods for an integrated and sustainable solution
Careful selection of relevant technology
Sectorial and Financial convergence
Strategy
Components of area-based development in the 100 Smart Cities Mission in India comprise city improvement (retrofitting), city renewal (redevelopment) and city extension (greenfield development), along with a pan-city initiative.
Area-based development that will transform existing areas, including slums, into better planned residential areas by retrofitting and redevelopment, thereby improving habitability of the whole city
Greenfield projects that will develop new areas in the city to accommodate the expanding population in urban areas
Pan-city development envisaging the application of select smart solutions to the existing city-wide infrastructure
The core infrastructure elements in a Smart City are as follows:
Adequate water supply
Assured electricity supply
Sanitation including solid waste management
Efficient urban mobility and public transport
Affordable housing, especially for the poor
Robust IT connectivity and digitalisation
Good governance, especially e-governance and citizen participation
Sustainable environment
Safety and security of citizens, particularly women, children and the elderly
Health and Education
Administrative Structure
Guidelines on Smart City provide monitoring at three levels – national, state and city
National: An Apex Committee, headed by the Secretary of the Ministry of Urban Development and comprising representatives from related ministries and organisations, has the mandate to approve proposals, monitor progress and release funds.
State: A High Powered Steering Committee (HPSC) to be headed by the Chief Secretary of the State, which would steer the Smart City Mission as a whole.
City: A Smart City Advisory Forum in all Smart Cities, comprising the District Collector, Chief Executive Officer of Special Purpose Vehicle (an SPV is created for implementation at the city level.
Its role is to release funds, and implement, monitor and evaluate the Smart City development projects), member of Parliament, member of Legislative Assembly, Mayor, local youth, technical experts and representatives of the area Resident Welfare Association to advise and enable collaboration
Context: Since January 1 this year, two people have died due to Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD), a viral infection, in Karnataka.
What is KFD?
Kyasanur forest disease (KFD) is a tick-borne viral haemorrhagic fever endemic to South-western part of India.
The disease is caused by a virus belonging to the family Flaviviridae.
The disease was first noticed in the Kysanur Forest area in Shivamogga district, Karnataka in 1956 and was named after the region.
Presently, a southward and northward spread of the Kyasanur Forest disease virus (KFDV) along the Western Ghats has been reported in the adjoining states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Goa and Maharashtra.
It is also known as monkey fever, as monkeys also get infected and death of monkeys act as a warning sign.
It became active due to ecological changes like deforestation, anthropogenic intrusion in pristine ecosystems.
Representation of KFD virus
Transmission and Identification
The disease spreads through ticks.
Primates that come in contact with infective ticks contract the disease.
Human beings who visit the same forest area can contract the disease.
A blood test is done to identify if someone has KFD.
Symptoms
Fever, redness of the eyes, severe headache, and body pain are common symptoms.
Three-four days after the onset of initial symptoms, the patient may have gastro-intestinal symptoms.
In severe cases, bleeding from the nose is noted.
Treatment
There is no specific treatment, doctors handle the symptoms, and monitor the vitals daily.
The ICMR is said to be in consultation with Indian Immunological for development of a vaccine.
The forest department is distributing DEPA oil, a tick repellent, to families who have to go into the forest.
The State Government has also decided to provide free treatment to patients.
An intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) is a long-range ballistic missile system primarily designed for nuclear weapons delivery. They are powerful and destructive weapons, capable of travelling vast distances at incredibly high speeds.
Key features of ICBMs:
Range: Range greater than 5,500 kilometres with maximum ranges varying from 7,000 to 16,000 kilometres.
Speed: ICBMs can travel at speeds exceeding 20,000 kilometres per hour.
Payload: Typically designed to carry nuclear warheads, though they could potentially be used to deliver other types of weapons, such as chemical or biological weapons.
Deployment: ICBMs can be launched from silos underground, mobile launchers on land, or submarines at sea.
Countries having operational ICBMs: Russia, United States, China, France, India, United Kingdom, Israel and North Korea.
India’s ICBM:
Agni V is India’s solid-fuelled ICBM and has a strike range of 7,000-10,000 km.
Its next iteration is called Agni VI, which will also have an MIRV feature.
Multiple Independently-targetable Reentry Vehicles (MIRVs) permit a missile to deliver multiple nuclear warheads to different targets, in contrast to a traditional missile which carries one warhead.
MIRVs missiles confuse anti-ballistic-missile protection systems by releasing multiple warheads, some of which may be dummies, with different targets.
Context: HDFC Bank has raised $750 mn through Regulation S Bonds.
About Regulation S Bonds
Regulation S is a regulation of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) of the United States of America. It provides that offers and sales of securities that occur outside of the United States are exempt from the registration requirements of Section 5 of the Securities Act of 1933 (the “Securities Act”).
Section 5 of the Securities Act requires that all securities offered or sold by means of interstate commerce be registered unless an exemption is available.
The purpose behind Section 5 is to ensure adequate disclosure before a security is offered to the public so that the public may make informed investment decisions
Regulation S permits these types of transactions to occur without SEC registration.
Benefits: It allows issuers and other distributors of securities to raise capital more quickly, more discreetly and less expensively than would be the case if registration were required. This encourages foreign investors to buy US financial assets in order to increase the liquidity of US markets.
Risks: Abuse of Regulation S means that securities are being offered or sold without adequate disclosure to the public.
Context - Momentum is also growing in favour of a Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty. There is a proposal in academic literature which sets out the case for a coal elimination treaty by 2030 with the aim of phasing out the mining and the burning of coal.
Summary:
The text discusses the evolving discourse on phasing out fossil fuels, beginning with its emergence in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at COP26 in 2021. COP28 in Dubai in 2023 further emphasized the transition away from fossil fuels to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, aligning with the goals set in the Paris Agreement. The text argues that unabated fossil fuel production is incompatible with achieving long-term temperature goals and preventing climate disruption.
Important points:
Economically diversified nations like Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom are deemed more capable of transitioning due to their non-fossil fuel income and higher per capita income.
In contrast, countries such as Azerbaijan, Congo, Iraq, Nigeria, Oman, and Timor Leste, heavily dependent on fossil fuels, face limited capacity to transition and cannot be expected to lead in phasing out fossil fuels.
Further the international law asserts that a state has a right to use natural resources within its territory for economic development while highlighting due diligence obligations to prevent trans-boundary harm.
In this regard there are unclear applications of environmental impact assessment (EIA) obligations in the context of global commons, particularly for fossil fuel extraction.
Scholars are noted for advocating EIA requirements (for local as well as global impact) and emphasizing human rights concerns, citing potential violations in tribal areas of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha.
Indian case:
Despite its progress in renewable energy, Fossil fuels still dominate India's power sector, with millions employed in related sectors.
India needs transition support, economic opportunities, and livelihood creation, particularly in the face of serious unemployment concerns.
India was successful at COP 26 in adjusting language from "phasing out" to "phasing down" unabated coal.
The text advocates for India's coalition building strategy with like-minded developing countries to counter perceived hypocrisy from developed nations, especially major fossil fuel producers planning production increases.
Context: Opposition uproar over coal mine project in Chhattisgarh.
Hasdeo-Arand area
The Hasdeo Arand coalfield is spread over an area of 1,879.6 km2 and comprises 23 coal blocks.
Hasdeo Arand is a large coalfield with 1.369 billion tons of proven coal reserves and 5.179 billion estimated coal reserves.
Ecology
The forest is home to 82 species of birds, 167 varieties of vegetation out of which 18 are considered threatened, and endangered butterfly species.
The forest is a habitat and a major migratory corridor for elephants and has had confirmed sightings of tigers.
Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education has described it as "the largest un-fragmented forest in Central India consisting of pristine Sal and teak forests."
The forest also acts as the water catchment area for the Hasdeo river, thus maintaining its perennial flow.
Hasdeo river
Hasdeo River is the largest tributary of Mahanadi River.
The river flows in the state of Chhattisgarh.
It joins Mahanadi River near Shiladehi (Birra).
Hasdeo Bango Dam is constructed across this river. The river originates in a place about 10.0 km (6.2 miles) from Sonhat in Koriya district.
The major tributary of Hasdeo River is Gej River.
The river flows through the Hasdeo Arand forest.
Development so far
The coalfield was recommended to be mined in by the Chhattisgarh government in 2010 by diverting 1,898.393 hectares of forest to the Parsa East and Kanta Bavan (PEKB) coalfields which would be allotted to RRVUNL, a state-owned power utility of Rajasthan.
This was challenged in the National Green Tribunal (NGT) which suspended the mining work in 2014, but the order was stayed by the Supreme Court, where the matter remains pending.
In 2013 Adani Enterprises announced that its subsidiary Adani Mines would become the mine developer and operator for the PEKB coalfields under a contract with RRVUNL, giving it access to the 450 million tons of coal reserves of the mine.
Coal mining was halted in the PEKB coalfields by mid-August 2022 following widespread protests against the phase 2 extension of it led by local villages that would've been displaced or affected by it.
Context: The government plans to implement satellite-based toll collection on highways before the Model Code of Conduct is enforced for the Lok Sabha elections 2024.
The technology has been under consideration for the past few years, however, the concept for the technology being used is not yet finalised and is still in various stages of development.
Major Highlights:
The satellite-based toll collection technology will allow barrier-free movement of vehicles and they will not be required to stop for toll payments.
Working Mechanism:
Onboard unit:
Every vehicle registering for the Global Navigation Satellite System of toll collection will be equipped with an on-board unit (OBU) that will be linked to a constellation of satellites via a GPS receiver.
The OBU transmits the vehicle's location and identification information to the toll collection system. The OBU will also be linked with a wallet from which the toll amount will be deducted.
Satellite tracking: Satellites track the movement of the vehicle and determine the distance travelled on tolled roads.
Toll calculation: The toll collection system calculates the toll based on the actual length of the highway traversed by the vehicle and the vehicle's class (E.g., car, truck).
Automatic payment: The toll amount is automatically deducted from the driver's prepaid account or linked credit card.
This will replace the radio frequency identification-based FASTag system that was rolled out in 2016 and made mandatory from January 2021.
A total of 8.13 crore FASTags have been issued and a penetration of 98% has been achieved, till date.
RFID technology:
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) refers to a wireless system comprising two components: tags and readers.
Reader is a device that has one or more antennas that emit radio waves and receive signals back from the RFID tag. Readers can be mobile so that they can be carried by hand, or they can be mounted on a post or overhead.
RFID Tag is embedded on the windscreens of the vehicles for transporters. It can store a range of information from one serial number to several pages of data. The tags use radio waves to communicate their identity and other information to nearby readers.
Context: For decades, oncologists have relied on chemotherapy, radiation and surgery to treat cancer patients. CAR T-cell therapy is among the most promising recent developments, especially because it has shown the ability to eradicate advanced leukemias and lymphomas.
In October 2023, India’s drug regulator Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation approved NexCAR19 as India's first indigenously-developed CAR-T cell therapy.
Now, a 64-year-old has become the first patient in the country to be free of cancer cells after being administered this therapy.
This paves the way for the commercial launch of the therapy in India, where it is expected to be available to cancer patients at a tenth of the cost abroad.
For now, ImmunoACT has received CDSCO approval for use in patients aged 15 years and older.
What is CAR-T cell therapy?
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy is a type of cell-based gene therapy which involves altering the genes inside T-cells to help them attack cancer cells.
T-cells are special cells (a type of white blood cells that find and fight illness and infection) whose primary function is cytotoxic, meaning it can kill other cells.
In the therapy, T-cells are harvested from the patient’s blood.
Researchers modify these cells in the laboratory so that they express specific proteins on their surface known as chimeric antigen receptors (CAR).
These cells are then grown and multiplied in the laboratory and then inserted back into the patient.
This genetic modification allows CAR T-cells to effectively bind to the cancer cells and destroy them — especially in blood cancers like leukaemia and lymphomas.
As CAR-T cells directly activate the patient’s immune system against cancer, it makes the treatment more clinically effective than surgery, Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy.
India is one of the first developing countries to have its indigenous CAR-T and gene therapy platform.
Advantages over other treatments:
Precision targeting: CAR-T cells are designed to specifically recognise and attack cancer cells. This specificity reduces damage to healthy cells/tissues, minimising side effects compared to conventional treatments like chemotherapy.
Long-lasting effect: The therapy directly activates the patient’s immune system against cancer cells, thus potentially providing long-term remission to patients.
Treatment for refractory cases: CAR-T cell therapy has shown promise in treating patients who have not responded to standard treatments or with cancer relapse.
Concerns:
Potential side effects are also significant, associated with:
Cytokine release syndrome (a widespread activation of the immune system and collateral damage to the body’s normal cells).
Neurological symptoms (severe confusion, seizures, and speech impairment).
The complexity of preparing CAR T-cells has been a major barrier to their use. Also, the therapy involves considerable cost (about Rs 40 lakh in India) and skilled technical and human resources for its administration.
About NexCAR19:
NexCar19 is a type of CAR-T and gene therapy developed indigenously in India by ImmunoACT, which is a company incubated at IIT Bombay.
The therapy is designed to target cancer cells that carry the CD19 protein. This protein acts like a flag on cancer cells, which allows CAR-T cells to recognise and attach themselves to the cancer cells and start the process of elimination.
The therapy is for people with B-cell lymphomas who did not respond to standard treatments like chemotherapy, leading to relapse or recurrence of the cancer.
Recovery typically occurs within two weeks after one cycle of the treatment. In our data, approximately 70% of patients respond to the treatment, with variations between leukaemia and lymphoma cases.
About 50% of these responsive patients achieve a complete response.
CAR-T therapy vs other treatments:
While chemotherapy and immunotherapy may add a few months or years to a cancer patient’s life, cell-and-gene therapy is designed to cure and provide lifelong benefit.
It makes treatment easier with a one-time therapy [unlike several sessions of chemotherapy] that can be truly transformative for a patient. It is a lifeline for non-responsive cancer patients.
Context: The Wildlife Institute of India and the Zoological Survey of India have been carrying out assessment of the black-necked cranes.
About the Previous Survey
As per the survey conducted by Wildlife Institute of India in 2016-2017 in Ladakh region, the population size of black necked crane was around 66-69 individuals.
In Arunachal Pradesh, a small population of approximately 11 individuals arrives during winter months.
The important steps taken to protect bird species include:
The Black-necked Crane (Grus nigricollis) is listed in Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, thereby according them the highest degree of protection.
The species is also listed in Appendix I of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of wild fauna and flora and the Convention on conservation of Migratory Species (CMS).
The important habitats of Black-necked Crane have been notified as a Protected Areas, for example, Changthang Sanctuary, Ladakh.
The Tso Kar Wetlands Complex (Ladakh), an important foraging and breeding ground for Black-necked Crane has been designated as a Ramsar Site in December 2020.
Black Necked Crane
IUCN Status - Near Threatened
Characteristics
Both the sexes are almost of the same size but male is slightly bigger than female.
The upper long neck, head, primary and secondary flight feathers and tail are completely black and body feather is pale gray/whitish.
A conspicuous red crown adorns the head.
The bill is greenish and the legs and feet are black.
The juveniles have a brownish head and neck and plumage is slightly paler than that of adult.
Distribution
The high-altitude wetlands in the Tibetan plateau are the main breeding ground of the species.
This species is mainly found in China and some populations are also found in India, Bhutan and Vietnam.
High altitude marshes and lakes of Tibetan Plateau (Tibet, Qinghai, Xinjiang, Gansu), Sichuan (China), and eastern Ladakh (India) are the known breeding grounds of black-necked crane.
The major wintering flocks are in Tibet, Yunnan and Guizhou (China) and Bhutan (Phobjika and Bomdaling Valleys).
A small wintering population is also found in Sangti and Zimithang valleys of Arunachal Pradesh in India.
Threats
The unavailability of sufficient undisturbed habitat with suitable water levels is a major impediment.
The increased human pressure (like grazing pressure on the limited pastures near the wetlands), and industrial development (like construction of dams) is also leading to the degradation of the wetland habitat.
Further, the major threat to the black-necked crane is the damage to the eggs and chicks, caused by feral dogs.
Wildlife Institute of India
It is an autonomous institution of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India
Established in 1982, it offers training programs, academic courses and advisory in wildlife research and management.
Located in Dehradun (Uttarakhand).
Zoological Survey of India
It was established in the year 1916.
It works under the Ministry Of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
Scientists in ZSI are engaged in exploring, naming, describing, classifying and documenting animals from all over India.
Headquarter is located in Kolkata, and it has 16 regional centres all over India.
Context:The case of Gyanvapi Mosque in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh is caught in the midst of a legal and social controversy. The mosque is said to have been built during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in the 17th century.
About the news article:
Historian Audrey Truschke, in ‘Political motives, writing in Aurangzeb: The Man and the Myth’, mentions that ‘Hindu and Jain temples dotted the landscape of Aurangzeb’s kingdom and these institutions were protected by the state.
According to Truschke, the support for the temples could be revoked when they acted against the imperial interests or the Mughal state and therefore, targeted destruction of temples were undertaken.
Truschke also talks about how in 1659, Aurangzeb asked the imperial officials to check for the unlawful harm or disturbances being created for the Brahmins of Benares and nearby places.
Historian Catherine Asher, in ‘Architecture of Mughal India’, portrays the destruction of Temples during the reign of Aurangzeb, as results of several political events.
As per the historical records, Man Singh’s great-grandson, Jai Singh, helped Shivaji flee from the court of Aurangzeb in 1666.
As per the writings of Asher, the destruction of Vishvanath temple in Benares in 1669, which was rebuilt by Raja Man Singh (during Akbar’s reign) was largely to punish those who were suspected of supporting Shivaji.
The Vishvanath temple was built before the entry of the Muslims in India and in the 12th century was attacked by Qutbuddin Aibak.
Scholar, Satish Chandra, in his works has mentioned that the destruction of temples during Aurangzeb’s reign was mainly to check on the spread of subversive ideas against the Mughal state.
In Maasir-i-Alamgiri ( A Persian language chronicle by Saqi Mustaid Khan) mentioned that, Aurangzeb learned that at Benares, the Brahman disbelievers used to teach false books in established schools to their admirers and students (both Hindu and Muslim).
In 1669, Aurangzeb took strong actions against some temples in Thatta, Multan and Benares.
History Kashi Vishwanath temple:
Dedicated to Lord Shiva, in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.
It is one the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines in India.
Built in Nagara style of temple architecture which is characterized by its towering spire (shikhara) and intricately carved stone facades.
The twelve Jyotirlinga shrines in India are:Somnath in Gujarat; Mallikarjuna at Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh; Mahakaleswar at Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh; Kedarnath in Uttarakhand; Bhimashankar in Maharashtra; Vishvanath at Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh; Trimbakeshwar in Maharashtra; Baidyanath Jyotirlinga in Deoghar, Jharkhand; Nageswar at Dwarka in Gujarat; Rameshwar at Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu and Grishneshwar in Aurangabad in Maharashtra.
Kashi Khand of Skanda Purana is dedicated to the city of Varanasi. As per the Kashi Khanda, there were a total of 1099 temples, out of which 513 were specifically devoted to the worship of Shiva.
The original temple (also known as Adi Vishveshwara Temple) was destroyed by the Ghurids in 1194, when Muhammad ibn Sam defeated Jayachandra of Kannauj near Chandawar and razed the city of Kashi.
In 1230, the temple was rebuilt near the Avi Mukteshwar Temple, away from the main site, during the reign of Iltutmish (Delhi Sultanate ruler, 1211–1266).
It was demolished again during the rule of Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517).
Raja Man Singh built the temple during Akbar's reign, however the orthodox section in Hindus boycotted it as Man Singh’s sister was married to Mughal ruler Akbar
Raja Todar Mal completed the reconstruction of the temple in 1585.
In 1669, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb destroyed the temple and built the Gyanvapi Mosque in its place.
In 1780, Ahilyabai Holkar rebuilt the present temple adjacent to the mosque.
In 1835, Maharaja Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire donated gold for plating the temple's dome.
About Mughal ruler Aurangzeb:
Served as the viceroy of the Deccan in 1636-1637 and the governor of Gujarat in 1645-1647.
He jointly administered the provinces of Multan and Sindh in 1648-1652 and continued the expeditions into neighbouring Safavid territories.
Shahjahan in 1657, nominated Dara Shikoh as his successor. This was not accepted by Aurangzeb. He proclaimed himself as emperor in 1658. Thus, began the war of succession.
In April 1658, the allied army of Dara Shikoh and the kingdom of Marwar was defeated by Aurangzeb at the battle of Dharmat.
Then, at the decisive battle of Samugarh in May 1658, Aurangzeb’s sovereignty and suzerainty was cemented and was acknowledged throughout the empire. He imprisoned Shahjahan (his father) in the Agra fort.
The ‘Fatawa Alamgiri’ was imposed successfully by Aurangzeb as the principal regulating body of the empire and prohibited religiously forbidden activities in Islam.
He reigned for fifty years and during the first twenty-five years he resided in the North and personally occupied the affairs of northern India.
Aurangzeb retained Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) as his capital, but after some two decades the capital was shifted to wherever Aurangzeb would set up camp during his long military campaigns.
In 1681, his son, Prince Akbar, rebelled in Deccan. Aurangzeb from this time onwards was continuously engaged in the region and mainly the “Deccan Ulcer '' kept him engaged. He died at Ahmednagar, Maharashtra in 1707.
Deccan Ulcer:
Aurangzeb’s policy towards Deccan was basically motivated by curtailing the influence of the Marathas, containing the rebellions by Shia kingdoms-Golconda and Bijapur and keeping in check his own son’s rebellions.
He successfully annexed Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687). Historians see the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms as the major blunder, as these kingdoms acted as the barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas.
Now, Mughals had to face direct confrontations with the Marathas.
As per the historian, J.N. Sarkar, the ‘Deccan Ulcer’ ruined Aurangzeb.
Shaista Khan and Jai Singh, generals of Aurangzeb, were sent to capture Shivaji.
Jai Singh successfully captured Shivaji, but Shivaji escaped to the Deccan, using the Guerrilla warfare tactics, which was not an integral part of Mughal Army strategies.
The long battle with Marathas severely impacted the Mughal treasury.
Religious Policy of Mughal state under Aurangzeb:
He implemented a religious policy marked by orthodox Islamic principles. His policy had two aspects: to promote the tenets of Islam and to ensure that the people led their lives accordingly and to adopt anti-Hindu measures.
Influenced by the teachings of Ahmad Sirhindi, Aurangzeb aimed to transform India from Dar-ul-harb (land of infidels) to Dar-ul-Islam (Islamic land).
He rejected the Persian concept of kinship (Farr-i-Aizadi) in favour of a rule based on the Quranic concept of kingship.
Aurangzeb banned the Zoroastrian festival of Nauroz, discouraged un-Islamic ceremonies, and reinstated the jizya tax on non-Muslims in 1679.
However, Aurangzeb's emphasis on Sharia conflicted with his acknowledgment that secular decrees (Zawabit) could override Sharia law.
He took measures to promote Islam, such as forbidding the Kalima (Islamic confession of faith), on his coins, as he believed, the holy words might be desecrated under foot or defiled by the non-believers.
He appointed a Censor of Morals (Muhktasib) to enforce Islamic laws.
The ceremony of weighing the emperor against gold and silver on his two birthdays (i.e. according to the lunar and solar calendars) was stopped.
Following were the anti-Hindu measures adopted by Aurangzeb:
Demolishing temples and breaking idols:
The Mathura temple was built by Bir Singh Bundela, who had gained Jahangir's favour. Aurangzeb converted it into a large mosque and the name of Mathura was changed to Islamabad.
In the first year of his reign, he issued orders to the governor of Orissa to demolish all temples in the province.
Mosques were built at the sites of different temples.
He destroyed Vishwanath temple in Varanasi and Somnath temple in Kathiawar.
Imposition of Jizya in 1679, other taxes and conversions:
Akbar had abolished this tax on the Hindus but Aurangzeb again levied this tax.
Manucci held that the object of the tax was two-fold:first to fill up his treasury which had begun to shrink on account of expenditure on his various military campaigns and secondly to force the Hindus to embrace Islam.
For the Hindus the only way to escape from the payment of various taxes like pilgrim tax, trade tax, Jizya, etc. was conversion to Islam. Getting jobs after conversion also became easier. The Hindu prisoners were freed on their conversion to Islam.
However, Brahmins, women, children, elders, the handicapped, the unemployed, the ill, and the insane were all perpetually exempted.
Discriminatory toll/tax:
He enforced a higher tax burden on Hindu merchants at the rate of 5% (as against 2.5% on Muslim merchants), which was a sharp turn from Akbar's uniform tax code.
Later on Muslim traders were totally exempted from the payment of this tax.
Restrictions on Hindu educational institutions:
For destroying the culture of the Hindus, Aurangzeb destroyed their several educational institutions at Varanasi, Multan and Thatta.
He placed restrictions on the starting of new Pathshalas.
Despite Aurangzeb's staunch Islamic stance, his imperial bureaucracy employed a higher percentage of Hindus compared to his predecessors.
Between 1679 and 1707, the number of Hindu officials in the Mughal administration increased by half, representing 31.6% of Mughal nobility.
Many of these officials were Marathas and Rajputs, political allies of Aurangzeb.
Nevertheless, he encouraged high-ranking Hindu officials to convert to Islam, contributing to the complex religious dynamics of his reign.
Results of the religious policy of Aurangzeb:
Weakening the entire structure of the Mughal empire. It led to several conflicts and wars in different parts of the country.
Conflict with the Jats: In 1669, Hindu Jats began to organise a rebellion that is believed to have been caused by the re-imposition of jizya and destruction of Hindu temples in Mathura. The Jats were led by Gokula. By the year 1670, Jat rebels were quelled and the Mughal Army took control of Tilpat region. Gokula was caught and executed.
Conflict with the Satnamis:In 1672, the Satnami sect organised a revolt. Aurangzeb responded by organising a Mughal army of 10,000 troops, artillery, and a detachment of his imperial guards. His army crushed the Satnami rebellion
Conflict with the Sikhs:The ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, was opposed to forced conversion of the local population. Approached by Kashmiri Pandits against forced religious conversions, Guru Tegh Bahadur sent a message to the emperor that if he could convert Teg Bahadur to Islam, every Hindu will become a Muslim. In response, Aurangzeb ordered the arrest of the Guru. He was then brought to Delhi and tortured so as to convert him. On his refusal to convert, he was beheaded in 1675.
Conflicts with the Rajputs: Aurangzeb’s decision that the jizya (poll tax) should be levied on Hindus of all classes agitated the chiefs of Rajasthan, who had until then served the empire faithfully.
Conclusion:
The opinion of Historians and scholars on the religious policy of Aurangzeb is divided. Historians like Jadunath Sarkar, S.R. Sharma and A.L. Srivastava regarded the policy as being of religious bigotry and persecution, whereas Shibli Nomani, Zahiruddin Faruki and Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi justify most of Aurangzeb's actions as political expedients. Scholars like Satish Chandra and M. Athar Ali, give a neutral analysis without emphasizing the ‘for’ or ‘against’ controversy.
Context: The article talks about the situation in Myanmar which has been under military rule for the last three years. The country today is challenged with violent conflicts between the political class, military regime, and ethnic organisations with no one emerging as a clear victor
The historic analysis of Myanmar’s social and political structure reveals that neither before nor during British colonial rule the task of nation-building was done wherein a unified polity where its Bamar majority and a mixture of ethnic and religious minorities could live peacefully.
Present contestation?
There is a power struggle going on between the two centres with political class and ethnic organisations on one side and military on the other.
The political class, represented by the unrecognised group called the National Unity Government (NUG), has defied the odds to assert itself through militia units called the People’s Defence Forces. The NUG has articulated its vision of a ‘federal democratic union’. However due to the regime's ruthless suppression, its leaders operate underground or from Thailand.
The ethnic armed organisations on the other hand have inflicted a heavy toll on the Myanmar military along the Thai border in the south-east and the Chinese border in the north-east. The victories secured at the end of 2023 by the Three Brotherhood Alliance comprising the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army, the Arakan Army, and the Ta’ang National Liberation Army shook the army. However the ethnic organisations remain divided as under different factions some oppose the army, some support it quietly, and some stay neutral.
The most powerful pillar of the power architecture Tatmadaw or the military has never faced such a dismal situation. Most citizenry is opposed to it, viewing it as a oppressor and harbinger of basic fundamental rights. Further within Army there is now considerable discontent within the military against its current leadership.
Lastly, various attempts by multilateral organisations like the United Nations, ASEAN, Japan, and Myanmar’s neighbours have been unable to move the country towards reconciliation. In particular, that the military has resiled from the ASEAN’s Five Point Consensus has dashed the region’s hopes for a settlement.
India’s interests, options
Implications of Myanmar’s Military Coup
Border security:Refugees fleeing military crackdown are entering Mizoram. This has led to disagreement between centre & Mizoram which supports refugees. Centre’s instruction of sealing border with Myanmar has irked ethnically and culturally connected communities on both sides. Ex – Chin community.
Strategic concern: India cannot upset the Myanmar junta by providing refuge to the officials fleeing military crackdown.
Containing China: Myanmar being crucial in containing China, India will have to take a calculated steps to not push Myanmar closer to China.
Insurgency: Several ethnic armed organisations are active within Myanmar. Being opposed to Junta, EAOs can lead to escalation in violence across the border.
Indian Investments: Instability would threaten India’s investments in Myanmar. Ex. Kaladan Project, Sittwe port, IMT trilateral Highway, Special economic zone in Rakhine.
Opportunity to reduce influence of China:Myanmar army has enjoyed a relatively strong relationship with India. It played a key role in handling the insurgency and Hot Pursuits of India. Su Kyi led democratic government was closer to China. China supported it on Rohingya crisis.
Drug trafficking:Drug production has shot up exponentially in Shan Province of Myanmar. The region was earlier large producers of heroine. However, currently it is world’s largest producer & exporter of meth (more potent & profitable). Most key individuals controlling the drug trade are pro-junta businessman as well as ethnic militia.
Way Forward for India:
Maintaining Cordial Relations: India's current policy of maintaining cordial relations with the government while supporting democracy is acknowledged as successful in strengthening bilateral ties. This approach recognizes the need for a balanced stance. The recommendation is to thus balance friendly ties with the military government while expanding engagement with other stakeholders which can be done via backchannel diplomacy which seeks to protect India's national interests.
Non-Interference in Internal Affairs: Emphasizing non-interference in Myanmar's internal affairs is crucial. This stance aligns with diplomatic principles and respects the sovereignty of nations, reinforcing the idea that India's engagement is based on mutual respect.
Communication with Resistance Components: Establishing communication links with certain components of the resistance, such as the Chin National Army, Arakan Army, and the National Unity Government (NUG), demonstrates an understanding of the evolving situation and the need for inclusive dialogue.
Message of Cessation of Violence: Conveying a strong message advocating the cessation of violence and the restoration of normalcy to both the government and the resistance reflects India's commitment to peace and stability in the region.
International Conclave: The proposal to convene a Peace Conclave involving senior officials from Quad member states and the ASEAN Troika reflects a multilateral approach. This platform could provide a space for dialogue and collaboration on addressing the Myanmar situation and also acknowledging India's support for the transition to a federal democracy
Focus on Aung San Suu Kyi: Highlighting the need for immediate freedom for Daw Aung San Suu Kyi is a human rights and justice-oriented component in India's approach. This reinforces the importance of individual liberties in the broader diplomatic context.
Context:The provisions of the Anusandhan Research Foundation (ANRF) Act have been brought into force to boost Research and Innovation for growth and development of the country.
About Anusandhan Research Foundation (ANRF)
It’s objective is to provide a high-level strategic direction for research, innovation, and entrepreneurship in the fields of natural sciences which will have long-term effect and long term outcomes for the citizens of India.
It also aims at equitable funding and democratisation of resources in research and academics by encouraging private sector involvement.
It will also promote interdisciplinary research, with the goal of propelling India into the league of developed nations and making the country a global science and research player.
It will efficiently involve State Universities and Institutions.
It will have a Governing Board headed by the Prime Minister of India (ex-officio President of the board).
The President of the Governing Board shall constitute an Executive Council to undertake the implementation of provisions.
ANRF will constitute
the Anusandhan National Research Foundation Fund for salaries, allowances, and administrative purposes;
the Innovation Fund for funding outstanding creativity in the areas supported by the Foundation;
the Science and Engineering Research Fund for the continuation of projects initiated under the Science and Engineering Research Board Act, 2008;
one or more special purpose funds for any specific project or research.
Note:The central government will prescribe rules for the utilisation of these Funds. Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) will audit the accounts of the Foundation annually.
