Context: The US under theTrump Administration has increased tariffs on Aluminium imports from 10% to 25% (effective March 12, 2025).
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends in India-US trade relations; Protectionist policies.
Overview of India’s Aluminium Exports to the US:
India is the world's second largest aluminium producer after China.
The US has become India’s largest market for aluminium exports, particularly for aluminium conductors used in power transmission.
Key Indian Aluminium Products Exported to the US:
Aluminium Conductors used in high- and medium-voltage cables for power transmission- 38% of US imports (by weight) in 2024, valued at $130 million.
Unwrought aluminium – $185 million
Nails and fasteners – $107 million
Aluminium wire – $98 million
Aluminium tube and pipe fittings – $16 million (26% of US imports in this category)
India’s aluminium exports to the US have grown significantly :
2016-17: $350 million
2022-23 & 2021-22: Over $1 billion each year
2023-24: $946 million
Despite this growth, India accounts for only 3% of total US aluminium imports.
US Tariff Policies : Then and Now
2018 Tariffs (Trump’s First Term):
Imposed 25% tariffs on steel and 10% on aluminium.
Some countries (E.g., Canada, Japan, EU, Mexico) were exempted, but India was not.
Despite tariffs, India’s aluminium conductor exports to the US increased.
2024 Tariffs (Trump’s Second Term):
New tariffs of 25% on aluminium imports, effective March 12, 2025.
Broader coverage – includes semi-finished and finished aluminium products.
Justification: Prevent tariff evasion and strengthen the US aluminium industry.
Impact on India’s Aluminium Industry:
India exports 40% of its aluminium production, with 6-8% of total exports going to the US. Tariffs may reduce export volumes and revenues for Indian aluminium manufacturers.
Downstream aluminium industry (E.g., machinery components, fasteners, wires) will also face challenges.
Comparison with the Steel Industry
India’s steel exports to the US are lower (4% of total exports in 2024). Direct impact on steel sales is limited, but there could be an indirect effect due to China’s excess steel entering India.
The new US tariffs also extend to steel products, affecting multiple sectors.
The new 25% tariffs will impact export revenues, but aluminium exports form a small share of overall business for most Indian companies. Diversification of export markets and domestic demand growth could help offset losses from the US market.
Context: Armenia and Azerbaijan officials have agreed on the text of a peace agreement toend nearly four decades of conflict between the South Caucasus countries. Armenia has agreed to surrender its claim over the primarily Armenian-populated Nagorno-Karabakh region.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location of Nagorno-Karabakh region.
About Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict
It is a long-standing territorial and ethnic dispute between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the Nagorno-Karabakh region, a landlocked mountainous area in the South Caucasus.
The region is internationally recognised as part of Azerbaijan, but has a majority ethnic Armenian population that has sought self-rule. The conflict has led to multiple wars, ceasefires, and international interventions.
Historical Background:
Soviet Era (1920s-1988)
1921: Soviet leader Joseph Stalin placed Nagorno-Karabakh under Azerbaijani control, despite its Armenian majority, as part of the divide-and-rule strategy.
Soviet Rule: Ethnic tensions remained dormant under Soviet control, but grievances persisted.
First Nagorno-Karabakh War (1988-1994):
1988: As the Soviet Union weakened, ethnic Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh demanded unification with Armenia.
1991: Following the collapse of the USSR, full-scale war erupted between Armenia and Azerbaijan.
1994: The war ended with a ceasefire, brokered by Russia, known as the Bishkek Protocol.
Outcome: Armenia took control of Nagorno-Karabakh and seven surrounding Azerbaijani districts. Over 30,000 people died, and nearly 1 million people were displaced (mostly Azerbaijanis).
Period of Ceasefire (1994-2020)
Despite the 1994 ceasefire, frequent border skirmishes occurred. Diplomatic efforts by the OSCE Minsk Group (Russia, U.S., France) failed to achieve a permanent solution.
Second Nagorno-Karabakh War (2020)
September 2020: Azerbaijan launched a major military offensive to reclaim lost territories. Turkey provided military support to Azerbaijan, supplying drones and military advisors.
November 2020: After six weeks of fighting, Azerbaijan regained much of its lost territory, including the strategic city of Shusha.
Russia brokered a ceasefire, deploying 1,960 Russian peacekeepers in Nagorno-Karabakh.
Outcome of the 2020 War: Azerbaijan reclaimed seven surrounding districts and parts of Nagorno-Karabakh. Armenia suffered a political crisis, with protests against the government’s handling of the war
2023 Azerbaijani Offensive & Armenian Withdrawal:
September 2023: Azerbaijan launched a final military operation, fully capturing Nagorno-Karabakh.
Over 100,000 Armenians fled, effectively ending Armenian claims over the region. The self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh’s Armenian administration) dissolved itself.
Armenia-Azerbaijan Peace Agreement (2025)
March 2025: Both nations signed a peace treaty, recognising each other’s sovereignty.
Armenia has accepted Azerbaijan’s control over Nagorno-Karabakh.
Both nations agreed to establish diplomatic relations and restore trade routes. The border demarcation process has been initiated.
The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict has shaped the geopolitics of the South Caucasus for decades. The 2025 peace agreement provides a framework for long-term stability in the region. India has always encouraged the parties to move forward on ensuring long-term peace and security through dialogue and diplomacy.
The dispute primarily concerns fishing rights in the Palk Bay region between India and Sri Lanka, where both Indian and Sri Lankan fishermen depend on marine resources for their livelihood.
Indian fishermen, particularly from Tamil Nadu and Puducherry, often cross the International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL) into Sri Lankan waters in search of better fishing grounds.
The issue has intensified after India ceded Katchatheevu Island to Sri Lanka under the 1974 Indo-Lanka Maritime Agreement, which led to the restriction of traditional fishing rights for Indian fishermen.
Key Issues in the dispute
1. Illegal fishing and Bottom Trawling:
Indian fishermen have been accused of bottom trawling in Sri Lankan waters.
It is a fishing method that is considered highly destructive as it damages the seabed and depletes fish stocks and marine biodiversity.
Sri Lankan Navy has taken strict measures, including patrolling, arresting 146 Indian fishermen, and seizing 18 boats in 2024 alone, to prevent illegal fishing activities.
Indian fishermen argue that limited fishing zones in India’s coastal waters due to coral reefs and rocks force them to venture into Sri Lankan waters.
2. Livelihood Concerns:
Economic disparity: Indian fishermen, who are relatively wealthier, use mechanised boats, while Sri Lankan Tamil fishermen, still recovering from the civil war, depend on traditional fishing methods.
Indian fishermen face legal restrictions: The Tamil Nadu Marine Fishing Regulation Act, 1983, restricts fishing activities along the Tamil Nadu coastline, which makes deep-sea fishing the only alternative.
Joint deep-sea fishing schemes initiated in 2017 by the Indian government have not been widely adopted due to high investment costs and the reluctance of fishermen to shift from their traditional practices.
3. Diplomatic issues: Sri Lanka’s legal claims under international law:
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) supports Sri Lanka’s right to regulate its waters.
Article 19 of UNCLOS considers unauthorised fishing in another country’s territorial waters a security threat.
Article 21 of UNCLOS allows Sri Lanka to implement laws to prevent violations of its fisheries regulations.
The lack of direct involvement of the Tamil Nadu government in diplomatic talks has weakened India's negotiation position and led to concerns over the federal structure being overlooked.
Implications of Indo-Sri Lanka Fishing Conflict
Humanitarian concerns: Frequent arrests of Indian fishermen lead to prolonged detentions, legal complications, and financial hardship for affected families. Psychological impact on fishing communities due to persistent fear of arrests and violence.
Security implications: Increased coast guard deployments and surveillance in the Palk Bay region divert resources from other emerging maritime security threats. Concerns over piracy and drug trafficking, with reports of narcotics being transported through the Palk Strait.
Political tensions: Allegations against the Sri Lanka Navy’s actions in the Palk Bay have fueled diplomatic tensions between the two nations. Political tensions have influenced India’s support for UN resolutions on Sri Lanka’s human rights record.
Environmental degradation: Bottom trawling harms fish breeding grounds, depletes the stock, and damages the seafloor for a foreseeable future. Coral reef destruction disrupts marine ecosystems, impacting fish breeding and coastal protection.
Economic Consequences: Overfishing has reduced fishery resources and fishers' income. Sri Lanka alleges that it loses around USD 730 million annually due to Indian poaching while Indian fishermen face declining incomes due to resource depletion and frequent arrests.
Way Forward
Diplomatic Measures:
Resume fishermen-level talks, which were last held in 2016, to build consensus and address concerns from both sides.
Ensure Tamil Nadu’s participation in bilateral discussions to reflect the concerns of affected fishing communities.
Utilise Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s upcoming visit to Sri Lanka (April 2025) as an opportunity for high-level discussions on fisheries cooperation.
Enforcing Maritime Regulations:
Enhanced patrolling and surveillance of IMBL can help prevent illegal fishing activities.
A dedicated Joint Working Group (JWG) should be established to ensure continuous dialogue and problem-solving mechanisms.
Sustainable Fisheries Management:
Enforce a ban on bottom trawling and promote eco-friendly fishing techniques to protect marine ecosystems.
Provide financial support and training for deep-sea fishing to enable fishermen to transition to sustainable methods.
Sustainable fishing like catch limits and quotas can ensure fish populations recover quickly and release fish fingerlings to compensate for depleting resources.
Joint Marine Resource Management: A regional fisheries management authority should be established to regulate fishing activities and prevent overexploitation of marine ecosystems.
Alternative Livelihood Programs:
Tamil Nadu should offer alternative livelihoods and skill development in areas of marine tourism, seaweed farming, and inland aquaculture for fishers facing restrictions.
Technology and Governance:
Implement real-time satellite monitoring to track fishing activities and prevent violations of the IMBL.
Enhance coast guard coordination and create a structured dispute resolution framework to address conflicts effectively.
Promote regional cooperation through SAARC and BIMSTEC to develop a joint framework for sustainable marine resource management.
The countries need to focus on long-term resolution of the disputes to secure the livelihood security of both Indian and Sri Lankan fishermen, while maintaining maritime peace, ecological balance, and economic cooperation.
Context: Insurgents of the Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) stopped a long-distance train in Quetta region and took passengers hostage on March 11, 2025.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location: Balochistan; Balochistan Liberation Army (Key Facts)
About Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA):
Who is the BLA?
It is a Baloch ethnonationalist group advocating for an independent Balochistan.
It has been banned in Pakistan (2006) and designated as a global terrorist organization by the U.S. (2019).
BLA’s role in the attack:
The attack was led by BLA’s Majeed Brigade, a suicide squad (Fidayeen unit) active since 2011.
Other specialised BLA units (STOS, Fatah Squad, and Zirab Units) were also involved.
Earlier, it has carried out attacks on Pakistani establishments and projects, especially in Baluchistan region.
March 2024: Attack on a security complex near Gwadar port.
October 2024: Suicide bombing killed two Chinese nationals working on CPEC projects.
Brief background of the Baloch Insurgency
Economic and Political Issues:
Balochistan is Pakistan’s largest but least developed province, rich in oil, gas, gold, and copper.
Ethnic Baloch leaders accuse the Federal government (dominated by Punjab) of economic exploitation.
Historical Background:
Post-Partition (1947-48):
Balochistan remained independent until March 1948 under a friendship treaty with Pakistan.
The Khan of Kalat initially resisted joining Pakistan but was pressured into signing the accession.
Many Baloch continued to support independence, leading to decades of insurgency.
Insurgency and its Impact:
Tens of thousands have been killed in Baloch insurgencies over the years.
Pakistan often accuses India of supporting Baloch insurgents, an allegation which India denies.
Insurgents frequently target Chinese personnel & CPEC projects, fearing they would not benefit.
Context: Police arrested former Philippines President Rodrigo Duterte at Manila's international airport following directives from the International Criminal Court (ICC) regarding a case of crime against humanity.
Relevance of the topic: Prelims: International Criminal Court; Crimes against Humanity.
Major Highlights:
Dutertefaces a charge of “the crime against humanity of murder” committed during his “war on drugs”.
He ran a brutal anti-drugs drive during his time in office from 2016 to 2022.
Drug suspects were deprived of “due process under the law” and the crackdown allegedly killed around 30,000 people, including children.
The Philippines had quit the ICC in 2019, but the ICC maintains that it had jurisdiction over killings before the country’s pullout from ICC.
International Criminal Court
ICC is an international tribunal to address impunity for the gravest crimes threatening the global community.
It was established under the Rome Statute, a multilateral treaty adopted in 1998. Rome Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002 after ratification by 60 countries.
ICC is an independent international organisation and is not part of the United Nations.
ICC has 18 judges who are elected by the Assembly of State Parties and have non-renewable 9-year terms.
The seat of ICC is in The Hague, Netherlands.
Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court:
ICC investigates and prosecutes individuals accused of the gravest crimes of international concern, as defined under the Rome Statute:
Genocide
War Crimes
Crimes against Humanity
Crime of Aggression
What are Crimes Against Humanity?
The Rome Statute of the ICC includes the most extensive list of crimes against humanity. These can include:
Murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation or forcible transfer of population, imprisonment, torture, rape, sexual slavery.
Persecution against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, national, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender or other grounds.
Enforced disappearance of persons, apartheid, other inhumane acts involving serious harm to physical or mental health.
Conditions for Exercising Jurisdiction:
The ICC can exercise jurisdiction only under specific conditions:
Territorial or National Jurisdiction:
If the alleged crime occurred on the territory of a State Party.
If the alleged crime was committed by a national of a State Party.
UN Security Council (UNSC) Referral:
The UNSC can refer cases to the ICC, even if the crime occurred in a non-State Party.
Declaration of Acceptance:
A non-State Party can accept the ICC's jurisdiction by making a formal declaration.
Principle of Complementarity:
The ICC operates under the principle of complementarity, i.e., it acts as a court of last resort (seeks to complement, not replace, national courts).
The ICC can intervene only if the national judicial systems are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute crimes.
Parties to International Criminal Court:
As of March 2025, ICC has 125 member states.
However, countries such as India, China, USA, Russia etc. have not ratified the Rome Statute and are not members of ICC. Reasons for non-membership include concerns about sovereignty, potential misuse of the court, and conflicts with domestic laws.
Context:Ukraine, involved in a war with Russiafor the past 4 years, has surpassed India to become the world’s largest arms importer as per Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI).
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) Report: Key Trends.
About SIPRI
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) is an independent international institute dedicated to research on conflict, armaments, arms control, and disarmament established in 1966.
It publishes reports on global arms transfers, tracking trends in arms imports and exports.
It aims to provide data-driven insights for policy-making in global security and military affairs.
Major Highlights of the SIPRI Report (2025):
Ukraine became the largest importer of major arms in 2020-24, with a nearly 100-fold increase compared to 2015-19, due to the ongoing war with Russia.
India ranked as the second-largest importer of major arms, accounting for 8.3% of global imports. Indian arms imports declined by 9.3% from 2015-19 to 2020-24, primarily due to increasing domestic production.
Russia’s arms exports fell by 64%, reducing its share to 7.8%, making it the third-largest exporter after the US (43%) and France (9.6%).
Four Asian countries—India, Pakistan, Japan, and Australia—ranked among the top 10 importers of arms globally.
The US and French arms exports increased, while Russia, China, and Germany’s exports declined.
China dropped out of the top 10 arms importers for the first time since 1990-94, showcasing its growing domestic industrial base.
India’s position in global Arms Trade:
India was the top destination for arms exports from both Russia and France.
The largest share of Indian arms imports (36%) came from Russia. The share of Russian arms imports in India has declined significantly:
2010-14: 72%
2015-19: 55%
2020-24: 36%
India’s shift in suppliers is evident with increasing arms procurements from France, Israel, and the US.
Major defence deals with France:
36 Rafale jets (delivered)
6 Scorpene-class conventional submarines (P-75; all six submarines launched)
26 Rafale-M jets and 3 submarines (pending finalisation)
India’s Self-Reliance (Aatmanirbharta) in defence:
India’s defence production reached a record ₹1.27 trillion in 2023-24, marking a 17.25% growth—a seven-year high.
Since 2020-21, a large share of the capital acquisition budget has been allocated to domestic procurement.
2025-26 budget: ₹1.115 trillion (75% of total ₹1.49 trillion) earmarked for domestic acquisitions.
Increasing ability to design and produce indigenous weapons reduces reliance on imports.
The SIPRI report points to India reducing dependency on Russian arms, and France gaining prominence as India’s key supplier. Simultaneously, the rise of indigenous defence production in India aligns with the government’s push for self-reliance.
Context: The Prime Minister of India will embark on a state visit to Mauritius from 11-12 March 2025, and will be the guest of honour in the Mauritius Independence Day celebrations.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India-Mauritius bilateral relations and partnership.
Introduction:
India and Mauritius share a long-standing and multifaceted relationship, deeply rooted in history, culture, economic ties, and strategic interests.
The new government in Mauritius is led by Navinchandra Ramgoolam of the Labour Party. The visit of the Indian PM provides an opportunity to reaffirm India’s commitment to the security and prosperity of the island nation.
Importance of Mauritius for India
Importance of India for Mauritius
1. Strategic Location in the Indian Ocean:
- Mauritius' strategic location in the Indian Ocean, makes it a vital partner for India's maritime strategy and Vision SAGAR.
- The island nation plays a crucial role in India's Ocean Diplomacy, enhancing its influence in the Indian Ocean.
2. Cultural and Historical Ties:
- Over 68% of Mauritius' population is of Indian origin fostering strong cultural affinities and historical ties.
- These ties facilitate cooperation in various sectors, including education, culture, and community development projects.
3. Economic Benefits:
- Mauritius is an important trading partner for India.
- Comprehensive Economic Cooperation and Partnership Agreement (CECPA) enhances trade relations and provides preferential market access for both countries.
4. Security Cooperation:
- Mauritius supports India's stance against terrorism and piracy, contributing to regional security in the Indian Ocean.
- India has historically played a role in Mauritius' security, including military interventions like Operation Lal Dora in 1983.
1. Economic Support and Investment:
- India is one of Mauritius' largest trading partners and a significant source of foreign investment.
- India's development assistance, including funding for community projects, supports Mauritius' infrastructure and social development.
2. Strategic Partnerships:
- India's strategic assistance enhances Mauritius' maritime security, defence capabilities and reinforces its sovereignty claims.
- India supports Mauritius' claims over the Chagos Archipelago, aligning with its stance on decolonisation and regional stability.
Historical and Cultural Ties
Mauritius has a significant Indian-origin population, with nearly 70% tracing their ancestry to India, particularly from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. These historical ties date back to the colonial period when Indian indentured labourers were brought to work on sugar plantations.
Sir Seewosagur Ramgoolam, the father of the current Prime Minister, played a pivotal role in the country’s independence movement and shared a historical connection with India. He worked closely with Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose in Britain (1919-21) and assisted in the publication of Bose’s book, The Indian Struggle.
India has played a significant role in preserving and promoting the cultural and linguistic heritage of the Indian-origin population in Mauritius.
Institutions like the Mahatma Gandhi Institute and the Indian Cultural Centre have been instrumental in promoting Indian languages and traditions.
Additionally, Mauritius is home to the World Hindi Secretariat, supported by India.
Economic and Trade Relations:
Bilateral trade between India and Mauritius has seen steady growth, reaching $554 million in 2022-23.
Mauritius serves as a crucial gateway for India’s economic engagement with Africa due to its membership in the African Union and preferential trade agreements with African nations.
Mauritius is also an important financial partner for India, largely due to the Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA).
The DTAA has made Mauritius a major channel for foreign investments into India, positioning it as a successful international financial centre.
This financial partnership has been mutually beneficial, fostering investment and economic collaboration.
Strategic and Maritime Security Cooperation:
Mauritius plays a pivotal role in India’s maritime security strategy, particularly in the western Indian Ocean.
As a key member of the Colombo Security Conclave, alongside India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Bangladesh, Mauritius contributes to regional maritime security.
India has significantly strengthened Mauritius’ maritime capabilities by:
Establishing a chain of coastal radar stations.
Redeveloping the Mauritian island of Agaléga as a joint surveillance facility.
Granting Mauritius access to India’s Information Fusion Centre for the Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) in Gurugram.
Conducting oceanographic surveys through Indian naval assets such as INS Sarvekshak.
With China’s growing presence in the Indian Ocean, India’s strategic partnership with Mauritius has assumed even greater importance.
Both China and India are competing for influence in Mauritius. While India provides security support, China offers economic and investment opportunities.
Regardless of the political leadership in either country, India-Mauritius relations have remained stable and positive. With the recent election of Prime Minister Navinchandra Ramgoolam, India has an opportunity to reinforce its strategic and diplomatic ties. As India seeks to expand its influence in the Indian Ocean and Africa, Mauritius remains a key ally.
Context: Indian Premier League (IPL) founder Lalit Modi, who is facing charges of money laundering and tax evasion, has filed an application with the Indian High Commission in London to surrender his Indian passport. He is known to have acquired citizenship of Vanuatu.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location of Vanuatu.
About Vanuatu
Vanuatu is an archipelagic nation made up of roughly 80 islands.
Location: Oceania, South Pacific Ocean.
Capital: Port Vila
Located in the Pacific-Ring of Fire, making it prone to Earthquakes, Tsunamis and Vulcanic Eruptions.
Vanuatu is mountainous and covered with tropical rainforests.
Most of the islands are inhabited; the population is roughly 3 lakhs.
Vanuatu was once an Anglo-French condominium. It became an independent country in 1980.
Political system: Parliamentary Democracy.
Why is Vanuatu so lucrative?
Golden passport program:
Vanuatu has a golden passport program through which wealthy individuals can purchase its citizenship and obtain a passport by just paying USD 150,000 (Rs 1.3 crore).
The process takes just one month and one can get a passport remotely.
Tax Haven:
Vanuatu does not impose any personal tax on its citizens. Any income earned (stocks, real estate, other), locally or internationally, is entirely tax free. The country neither has inheritance tax nor corporate tax.
Henley Passport Index ranks the Vanuatu passport as the 51st strongest in the world (out of 199 countries).
As per the 2024 Happy Planet Index, Vanuantu claimed the top spotas the happiest country out of 150 nations.
Context: The United States Supreme Court has rejected the plea of the 2008 Mumbai Terror Attack accused Tahawwur Hussain Rana against his extradition to India.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Extradition; India-US Extradition Treaty.
Background:
Rana had filed an “Emergency Application For Stay” after the US President approved his extradition following his meeting with the Indian Prime Minister.
Rana was arrested in Chicago, US in October 2009 for his involvement in the 26/11 attacks.
Rana will be extradited on the basis of the India-US Extradition Treaty signed by the two countries in 1997.
What is Extradition?
Extradition is the official transferof a person from one country to another, so that the formal authority over the person shifts to the country where the person is transferred.
The person who is transferred is either someone who is accused of a crime or a convicted criminal in the country to which he is being delivered.
The crime for which the person is being transferred should also be a crime under the law of the country which is transferring the person.
The Extradition Act, 1962 regulates the law relating to India’s extradition of fugitive criminals.
India has entered into extradition treaties with certain countries like the UK, US, Bangladesh, etc.
India-US Extradition Treaty:
India-US Extradition Treaty signed by the two countries in 1997. The treaty established a legal framework for the extradition of individuals charged with or convicted of serious offences in either country.
Extraditable Offences:
Crimes carrying a minimum punishment of one year imprisonment, including financial crimes.
Offences must fulfill the principle of dual criminality (punishable in both countries).
Extradition shall be granted regardless of where the act constituting the offence was committed.
Exceptions:
Political offences are not extraditable under the treaty. However, certain actions like wilful crime against the head of government, aircraft hijacking offences, crimes against internationally protected persons, hostage-taking remain outside the ambit of political crimes.
Extradition is barred when the person sought has been convicted or acquitted in the Requested State for the same offence.
Extraditions from the US:
According to data provided by the Ministry of External Affairs to Parliament, the treaty facilitated the extradition of 11 Indian fugitives between 2002 and 2018.
Context: The US President Donald Trump has withdrawn from the recently created United Nations Climate Damage Fund (Fund for Responding to Loss and Damage- FRLD) which is aimed at providing financial support to countries ravaged by climate change disasters.
It is noteworthy that the US has already pulled out of the Paris Agreement, stopped the participation of its scientists in a meeting of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and cancelled previously committed money for the Green Climate Fund.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Facts about United Nations Climate Damage Fund.
About UN Climate Damage Fund (Fund for Responding to Loss and Damage- FRLD):
1. Background:
It was established under COP 27 (2022) in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt and further operationalised at COP 28 (2023) in Dubai, UAE.
It is created in response to long-standing demands from low income developing nations for climate justice and financial assistance.
It recognises the disproportionate impact of climate change on developing and vulnerable nations, particularly Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Least Developed Countries (LDCs).
It forms part of the broader climate finance architecture under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement.
2. Objectives and Purpose:
The fund aims to:
Addressing Loss & Damage: Provide financial support to countries suffering from climate-induced disasters (E.g., cyclones, wildfires, droughts).
Support Recovery & Rehabilitation: Assist in rebuilding communities and infrastructure affected by climate change impacts.
Aid in Non-Economic Losses: Support responses to cultural, social, and environmental losses (E.g., displacement, biodiversity loss, damage to heritage sites).
Enhance Climate Resilience: Help vulnerable countries develop risk management strategies for climate adaptation.
3. Structure and Governance:
The Fund operates as an entity under the Financial Mechanism of the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement.
It is accountable to and functions under the guidance of both the Conference of the Parties (COP) and the CMA (Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement).
The fund is expected to work in coordination with other international climate finance mechanisms, including:
Green Climate Fund (GCF)
Adaptation Fund
Global Environment Facility (GEF)
4. Funding Sources and Contributions:
Developed countries are expected to contribute to the fund as part of their commitments under the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement.
Multilateral and private-sector contributions may also be encouraged.
Innovative financing mechanisms (E.g., levies on fossil fuel companies, climate taxes) can also be explored in future.
5. Challenges:
Sufficient Funding: Developing countries which are affected the most argue that contributions should be grants-based rather than loans.
Who Pays? While developed nations acknowledge the need for funding, discussions continue on how much they should contribute.
Coordination with Existing Funds: Avoiding duplication with other climate finance mechanisms.
US Withdrawal: The US,which is historically the largest emitter, has withdrawn from the fund, raising doubts about the future of the fund.
Context: Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese has recently launched the New Roadmap for Australia’s Economic Engagement with India. The Roadmapsets out how Australia can contribute to, and benefit from, India’s phenomenal growth.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India-Australian bilateral relations and trade partnership.
Introduction
India and Australia share a multifaceted relationshipand partnership based on strategic alignment, trade, education, clean energy, defence, and diaspora engagement.
The diplomatic relations between the countries began during India's Pre-Independence period in 1941 with the establishment of a Trade Office in Sydney.
India’s first High Commissioner arrived in Canberra in 1945.
Early trade links included coal exports from Australia and Indian labor recruitment for Queensland's plantations.
These ties have evolved into broader economic and strategic cooperation over the time.
Australia’s Perspective on India
India’s Perspective on Australia
Australia believes in India’s economic potential and expects it to become the world’s third-largest economy by 2030.
India views Australia as a trusted partner in its Indo-Pacific strategy, ensuring regional stability and security.
Supports India’s claim for a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).
Recognises Australia’s role in providing critical minerals essential for India’s clean energy transition and manufacturing sector.
Sees India as a natural partner due to economic complementarities and geographical proximity.
Views India as a key ally in Indo-Pacific region, fostering greater political and strategic cooperation.
Seeks deeper trade ties through agreements like ECTA and the upcoming CECA.
Appreciates Indian diaspora’s contributions in Australia, strengthening people-to-people connections.
Engages with Australia in Quad, defence dialogues, and maritime security cooperation.
The New Economic Roadmap
The Australian Prime Minister has recently launched the New Roadmap for Australia’s Economic Engagement with India.
The roadmap identifiedfour superhighways of growth - clean energy, education and skills, agribusiness, and tourism. It sets out a pathway to boost two-way investment
The roadmap also identifies nearly 50 specific opportunities to focus and accelerate Australia's engagement with India in several areas such as defence industries, sports, culture, space, and technology.
Australia is investing USD 16 million for an Australia-India Trade and Investment Accelerator Fund, which will help Australian businesses unlock new commercial opportunities in India.
India-Australia Relations
1. Economic and Trade Relations:
Complementary Economies:
India is Australia’s sixth-largest trading partner and fourth-largest export market.
Bilateral trade between India and Australia was over $24 billion in 2024.
Australia provides essential inputs for India’s manufacturing and clean energy goals.
India and Australia have already signed the Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA) to boost trade in 2022. Recent data shows that:
Export utilisation of Indo-Australian ECTA has reached 79%.
Import utilisation has reached 84%.
Key sectors of Cooperation include:
Clean Energy: Australia provides critical minerals (lithium, nickel, cobalt) to support India’s electric vehicle manufacturing and renewable energy goals.
India and Australia formed the Critical Minerals Investment Partnership in 2023 to build new supply chains in Australia to supply India with the Critical minerals.
An MoU between Khanij Bidesh India Ltd (India) and the Critical Minerals Facilitation (Australia) was signed in 2022.
Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA):
ECTA is a bilateral trade agreement to enhance economic ties between India and Australia. Signed in April 2022 and came into force in December 2022.
India will benefit from preferential market access provided by Australia on 100% of its tariff lines, including the labour-intensive sectors such as gems and jewellery, textiles, leather, footwear, furniture, food, and agricultural products, engineering products, medical devices and automobiles.
India will offer preferential access to Australia on over 70% of its tariff lines, including primarily raw materials and intermediaries such as coal, mineral ores and wines.
2. Strategic Partnership and Defence Cooperation
India and Australia have a growing defence and security partnership focused on peaceful, stable and prosperous Indo-Pacific.
Australia is a key participant in the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) alongside India, the US, and Japan.
Collaborations on maritime security, intelligence sharing, and joint military exercises.
Collaboration also includes agreements on cyber security, maritime cooperation, and defence exchanges like the General Rawat Young Defence Officers’ Programme.
3. Education & Skills
India Australia Rapid Innovation and Startup Expansion (RISE) Accelerator has been instituted.
Australian Universities are establishing campuses in Gujarat (GIFT City) and Noida.
Australia-India Cyber and Critical Technology Partnership (AICCTP) was established in 2020 to support collaboration on cyber and critical technology issues.
4. Other Sectors
Health: Australia-India MoU on Cooperation in the Field of Health and Medicine signed in 2017.
Agri-business: Strengthening cooperation in food security and sustainable farming techniques.
Tourism: Enhancing people-to-people exchanges through increased travel and cultural understanding.
5. Role of Indian Diaspora
Indian Diaspora is a 10-lakh strong and the fastest-growing population group in Australia.
It acts as a ‘human bridge’ between the two nations, strengthening business and cultural ties.
The Centre for Australia-India Relations, supported with ₹132 crore, is led by prominent Indian-Australian leaders to boost people-to-people connections.
The Maitri Grants Program (funded with ₹22 crore) aims to enhance the people-to-people, business-to-business and cultural links between the two nations.
Challenges and Opportunities in the relationship
Challenges:
India's business environment remains complex for foreign companies due to regulatory hurdles.
Structural issues like job creation, inequality, and climate risks pose challenges to sustained growth.
Opportunities:
India's projected growth trajectory (6–8% annually) makes it an attractive partner for Australian businesses.
Critical mineral supplies from Australia can support India’s EV manufacturing ambitions (E.g., lithium for batteries).
After ECTA, the negotiations for a Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) are underway.
CECA is intended to cover 5 main tracks i.e. goods, services, digital trade, government procurement and Rules of Origin/Product Specific Rules Schedule.
With the Roadmap in place, the India-Australia relationship is set to become stronger and more consequential.
India and Australia’s relationship is evolving into a comprehensive and strategic partnership, driven by shared economic interests, geopolitical alignment, and cultural affinity.
Context: The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has sought assistance from the Union Law Ministry of India under the Hague Service Convention to serve summons to Gautam Adani and his associates in a securities fraud case.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about SEC; Hague Service Convention
About Hague Service Convention
The Hague Service Convention is formally known as the Convention on the Service Abroad of Judicial and Extrajudicial Documents in Civil or Commercial Matters (1965).
It is an international treaty that standardises the process of serving legal documents across borders.
Key features of the Hague Service Convention
Established in 1965 to standardise the service of judicial and extrajudicial documents across borders.
Purpose:
To facilitate the service of judicial and extrajudicial documents in civil and commercial matters between signatory countries.
To ensure timely and actual notice of legal proceedings for defendants in foreign jurisdictions.
Central Authority: Each member country designates a Central Authority to receive and process service requests.
It has been signed by 84 states, including India and the U.S.
It is applicable only when both the sending and receiving countries are signatories.
Modes of transmission vary by country but generally include:
Primary method: Service through the designated Central Authority.
Alternative channels: Diplomatic/consular service, postal service (if permitted), direct service by judicial officers, or direct contact between government authorities.
Service of Process in India
India acceded to the Convention on November 23, 2006, with expressly opposing all alternative service methods under Article 10.
India opposes all alternative service methods, including postal service, except for nationals of the requesting country.
Service must be done exclusively through the Ministry of Law and Justice (India’s Central Authority).
Requests must be in English or accompanied by an English translation.
India’s Central Authority can reject a service request under Article 13 if it compromises sovereignty or security but not based on exclusive jurisdiction claims.
The service process typically takes 6 to 8 months and is treated as an Indian court summons under Section 29(c) of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908.
Judicial Precedents on Alternative Service Methods
Federal Trade Commission v. PCCare247 Inc. (2013) (U.S.):
It allowed service in India via Facebook and email, arguing these methods were not explicitly objected to under Article 10.
Punjab National Bank (International) Ltd. v. Boris Shipping Ltd. & Ors. (2019) (UK):
Rejected alternative service methods, ruling that service must comply with India’s designated procedure under the Convention.
Rockefeller Technology Investments v. Changzhou SinoType Technology Company (2020) (U.S.):
Ruled that contractually agreed service methods can override a state’s objections under Article 10.
Default judgments under the Convention
A default judgment may be issued under the Convention if a foreign government refuses to cooperate in serving summons on a defendant residing within its jurisdiction.
Article 15 allows a default judgment if:
The document was transmitted using a Convention-approved method.
At least six months have passed without service confirmation.
The court deems that all reasonable efforts were made to obtain proof of service.
India allows default judgments even without a service certificate, provided Article 15 conditions are met.
Duong v. DDG BIM Services LLC (2023) (U.S.): The U.S. court acknowledged Article 15 as a safety valve, allowing default judgment when India’s Central Authority fails to process service requests efficiently.
