International Relations & Security

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India and Italy seek to Deepen Ties

Context: Recently, India’s External Affairs Minister met Italy’s Deputy Prime Minister in New Delhi. They reviewed bilateral cooperation in a range of areas, including defence, trade and investment and energy. A collective resolve was taken to implement the Joint Strategic Action plan 2025-29 launched by the Indian Prime Minister and Italian Prime Minister in 2024.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: India-Italy: Bilateral relations. 

India-Italy Joint Strategic Plan of Action (2025-29)

  • Unveiled during the G20 Summit in Brazil in November 2024. It outlines a comprehensive roadmap for enhancing bilateral cooperation across multiple sectors. 
  • The plan reflects the shared vision to deepen strategic partnership and achieve tangible outcomes benefiting both nations.

Highlights of the Joint Strategic Action Plan

  • Political Dialogue: Regular high-level meetings and reciprocal visits between Heads of Government. Annual bilateral consultations between foreign ministries to discuss mutual interests and deepen cooperation.
  • Economic Cooperation: Strengthening trade and investment in sectors- green technologies, pharmaceuticals, food processing, agriculture, advanced manufacturing etc. Promoting industrial partnerships and mutual investments through platforms like the Joint Commission for Economic Cooperation.
  • Connectivity: Collaboration on sustainable transport initiatives and maritime infrastructure development. Active participation in India-Middle East- Europe Economic Corridor (IMEEC) to enhance connectivity and trade.
  • Science Tech and IT: Expanding cooperation in emerging technologies- Artificial Intelligence (AI), telecommunications, digital services, Industry 4.0, clean energy, and critical minerals. Launching initiatives like Indo-Italian Innovation and Incubation Exchange Program to foster academic and industrial collaboration.
  • Space Sector: Strengthening collaboration between ISRO and Italian Space Agency (ASI) in areas like Earth observation, heliophysics, lunar exploration, and commercial space partnerships.
  • Energy Transition: Joint efforts to promote renewable energy solutions, such as green hydrogen and biofuels. Supporting global initiatives like International Solar Alliance and Global Biofuels Alliance.
  • Defence Cooperation: Co-production of military equipment and enhanced security collaboration to address regional challenges.
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India-Italy Relations

  • Trade between India and Italy has doubled in FY24 (from 2020) to 15 billion Euros. 
  • There are over 2 Lakh Indians living, working and studying in Italy (The highest in the EU).
  • Italy has joined multilateral initiatives promoted by India like the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), Coalition for Disaster Relief Infrastructure (CDRI), International Solar Alliance (ISA) etc.
  • Italy is part of the Coffee Club and can support India’s candidature for the UNSC in future. 

India ends Transshipment Facility for Bangladesh

Context: Indian government has terminated the transshipment facility that allowed export cargo from Bangladesh to third countries via Indian Land Customs Stations, en route to Indian ports and airports.

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: India - Bangladesh bilateral relations: Key Developments 

India-Bangladesh Transshipment Facility

  • The transshipment arrangement began in 2020. Under this system, cargo could be transported through Indian borders and shipped from Indian ports or airports, destined for third countries including Bhutan, Nepal, and Myanmar. 
  • The arrangement facilitated smoother trade flows and reduced logistical costs for Bangladesh, particularly for its vital readymade garment sector. 
  • The move was a goodwill gesture from India to enhance regional trade integration, under India’s Neighbourhood First Policy.

Reasons for withdrawal of the Transshipment Facility:

  • Following Bangladesh's advocacy of extending China’s economic reach into India's strategically crucial Northeast region, India has terminated the transshipment facility citing significant congestion at Indian ports and airports, leading to logistical delays and higher export costs for India.

Significance of the Move:

  • India’s balancing Act: The move is widely seen as India’s balancing act— maintaining regional cooperation while safeguarding internal logistical priorities and asserting its stance amid growing Chinese influence in South Asia.
  • Impacts on India-Bangladesh relations: The move is expected to complicate the already fragile India-Bangladesh relationship; given Bangladesh's increasing ties with China.
  • Increased efficiency of India’s logistics sector: The suspension could improve the efficiency of logistics, especially at key hubs like New Delhi’s Indira Gandhi International Airport, which handled a large portion of Bangladesh’s air cargo.

Also Read: India-Bangladesh Border Fencing Issue 

India’s revocation of the transshipment facility is a significant shift in bilateral relations with Bangladesh and can have broad implications for regional trade. 

UAE Deputy Prime Minister visits India

Context: The Deputy Prime Minister and the Minister of Defence of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) had his first official visit to India in April 2025.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India - UAE bilateral relationship.

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Key Highlights of the Meeting

  • Both countries discussed ways to further strengthen the India-UAE Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in the areas of trade, investments, defence, energy, technology, education, sports and people-to-people ties.
  • Announcement made during the visit:
    • Setting up of the campuses in UAE (IIM in Dubai; Indian Institute of Foreign Trade in Dubai)
    • Grant of land for UAE-India Friendship Hospital in Dubai focussed on affordable healthcare to the blue-collar Indian diaspora.
    • Development of ship-repair clusters at Kochi and Vadinar. 
    • Increase defence industry collaboration, and explore opportunities for enhancing partnership in defence manufacturing. 

India-UAE Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement:

  • India-UAE CEPA was signed in 2022. Since the signing of CEPA, bilateral merchandise trade has nearly doubled to USD 83 billion in FY24. 
  • CEPA has been successful in diversifying the trade basket and it will help achieve the non-oil trade target of US$ 100 billion by 2030.

Also Read: India-UAE Bilateral Relations 

PM Modi’s visit to Sri Lanka 2025

Context: India and Sri Lanka inked seven MoUs — including one on defence cooperation — during the Indian Prime Minister’s visit to Sri Lanka in April 2025. The Indian PM was honoured with Sri Lanka's highest civilian award Mithra Vibhushana. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India - Srilanka ties: Key developments. 

Key Highlights of the Meeting

  • Defence Cooperation Pact: 
    • An umbrella agreement providing a framework to pursue ongoing defence sector cooperation in a more structured manner. Aims to formalise joint military exercises, training programmes, and high-level exchanges.
    • SL President reaffirmed commitment to not allow SL territory to be used against India’s security or regional stability. The countries agreed to work together on the Colombo Security Conclave and security cooperation in the Indian Ocean.
  • Energy Cooperation: 
    • The two sides signed an MoU to interconnect their electricity grids to facilitate power trade.
    • Tripartite MoU involving the United Arab Emirates will focus on the development of Trincomalee (SL) as an energy hub, including the construction of a multi-product energy pipeline.
    • Virtually inaugurated the commencement of Sampur solar power project (SL).
  • Economic Cooperation:
    • MoU to share India’s digital solutions with SL to support its digital transformation.
    • Support package of about 2.4 billion SL rupees for the social and economic development of SL’s eastern provinces.
  • Cultural Cooperation: 
    • Relics of the Buddha, found in 1960 in the Aravali region in Gujarat, would be sent to SL for an exposition during the Vesak festivities — commemorating the birth, enlightenment and the death of the Buddha. 
    • India would support the renovation of the Thirukoneswaram temple in Trincomalee and the construction of the sacred city in the Anuradhapura Mahabodhi temple complex, and the Sita Eliya temple in Nuwara Eliya.

Also Read: India-Srilanka Relations  https://compass.rauias.com/current-affairs/sri-lankan-president-india-visit/ 

Countries plan to quit Ottawa Convention

Context: Several NATO member countries bordering Russia have recently announced plans to withdraw from the 1997 Ottawa Convention, which bans the use, production, stockpiling, and transfer of anti-personnel landmines.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Ottawa Convention on Landmines. 

About Ottawa Convention (1997)

  • The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction of 1997 is informally known as the Ottawa Treaty or Mine Ban Treaty.
  • The post-Cold War disarmament treaty aims at eliminating anti-personnel landmines (APLs) around the world.
  • Mandates:
    • Total Prohibition on use, production, stockpiling and transfer of anti-personnel landmines. 
    • Destruction of existing stockpiles within four years of joining the treaty. 
    • Victim assistance and mine clearance obligations.
  • By March 2025, 165 states had ratified or acceded to the treaty.
  • Non-signatories: United States, China, Russia, India and Pakistan.

Countries Announcing Withdrawal

  • Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania have announced intent to withdraw from the treaty. Norway is the only NATO border nation maintaining its commitment.
  • Reason: Rising military threats from Russia, especially amid ongoing conflict in Ukraine. Countries argue the need to match Russian capabilities, as Russia is not a signatory.
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Implications of Withdrawal

  • Return to Stockpiling and Production: With exit, countries regain legal ability to produce, use, and stockpile landmines. Poland has explicitly expressed intentions to resume production.
  • Reversal of Global Disarmament gains: Undermines decades of activism aimed at creating a mine-free world. Erodes the normative stigma associated with landmine use.
  • Potential Expansion to Other Treaties: Some nations (E.g., Lithuania) are considering withdrawal from the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions. These weapons disperse smaller bombs over a wide area, compounding humanitarian risks.

Landmines cause indiscriminate harm. 80% of victims are civilians, many of whom suffer permanent disabilities. Ukraine was declared the most mined country in the world in 2024. 

Shift from Globalism to Regionalism 

Context: The growing redundancy of the multilateral institutions like the United Nations and its affiliates is indicating the shift from globalism to regionalism and minilateralism. As globalism recedes, regional groupings will emerge as new power blocs in the future.

Relevance of the Topic : Mains: Is global multilateralism being replaced by regional and minilateral groupings?

Shift from Globalism to Regionalism

  • After the Second World War, the dream of a globally governed world began to take shape. Institutions like the United Nations (UN), the World Trade Organisation (WTO), and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) were created to ensure peace, economic cooperation, and global governance. 
  • However, the 21st century is witnessing a visible decline in the influence and relevance of these global institutions. In place of globalism, regionalism and minilateralism are emerging as the defining features of the new world order.

Several recent events underscore the decline of globalism: 

  • Protectionist Policies: E.g., Trump’s recent reciprocal tariff policy, and the consequent tariffs imposition by other countries, marks a clear departure from globalism and further strengthens protectionist, inward-looking economic nationalism.
  • Russia-Ukraine War: The inability of the UN to stop or effectively manage the Russia-Ukraine conflict has exposed the limitations of global diplomacy. Instead, NATO — a regional military alliance — emerged as the key player, expanding its influence and support to Ukraine.
  • West Asia Tensions: The Israel-Hamas war shows the failure of global institutions to ensure peace and security in volatile regions. In contrast, regional players like Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey are asserting themselves more actively, often outside global frameworks.
  • COVID-19 Pandemic: During the pandemic, countries prioritised their own needs, closing borders and hoarding vaccines. Global coordination, as expected from the WHO and other agencies, was minimal, while regional cooperation like the EU’s joint vaccine procurement worked better. 

The Rise of Regional Blocs

Even in the last century, despite tall claims, the real geopolitics revolved around groups and regions. These groupings are based on geography, shared culture, economic interests, and strategic alignment.

  • European Union (EU): Originally a post-war economic pact, the EU has evolved into a major political and economic power bloc. It now leads on issues like climate change, data protection, and trade regulation.
  • ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations): A group of 11 Asian nations, ASEAN has grown into a key player in Asia-Pacific affairs. It plays a central role in regional diplomacy and trade frameworks like the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP).
  • BIMSTEC & IORA: In South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region, India is pushing for regional integration through groupings like BIMSTEC and the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA). While still underperforming, these platforms offer immense potential for future cooperation.
  • Quad and BRICS:  Minilateral platforms like the Quad (India, US, Japan, Australia) and BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) are now shaping geopolitical strategies outside the framework of global institutions.

India’s Stance in Regionalism: 

  • India has historically approached geopolitics with idealistic notions like Non-Alignment and global justice. However, the limitations of such an approach have become evident. Today, the Indian government is trying to reinvigorate India’s regional leadership. This can be seen by India’s emphasis on the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) diplomacy, active participation in QUAD and BIMSTEC, and efforts to deepen ties with Africa and Southeast Asia. This shows a shift toward strategic realism.
  • South Asia remains the least integrated despite being the most contiguous geographically and culturally. Half-hearted efforts have been made to build regional alliances.
    • SAARC, despite early promises, is dysfunctional due to India-Pakistan tensions. 
    • In 28-years of BIMSTEC existence, its leaders have met only six times, once virtually. It grapples with challenges like a lack of resources and manpower. 
  • Greater integration of the IOR through minilaterals like BIMSTEC, the Western Indian Ocean initiative involving Mauritius and other island countries, and India-East Africa cooperation, must be a priority for the Indian leadership.

Conclusion: As the global order transitions into a multipolar, multi-regional world, countries that understand and invest in regional alliances will be better positioned to secure their interests. India, with its strategic location and growing economy, has both the opportunity and responsibility to lead regional integration in South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region.

6th BIMSTEC Summit 2025

Context: The 6th BIMSTEC Summit was held in Bangkok, Thailand in April 2025. BIMSTEC serves as a vital bridge between South and Southeast Asia, and is emerging as a powerful platform for advancing regional connectivity, cooperation and shared prosperity. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about BIMSTEC.

Mains: Significance of Regional groupings: BIMSTEC.

About BIMSTEC

  • Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) is a regional organisation comprising seven member states around the Bay of Bengal region. 
  • BIMSTEC constitutes a unique link between South and South-East Asia, with:
    • five members from South Asia (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka) 
    • two from South-East Asia (Myanmar and Thailand).
  • The organisation came into being in 1997 through the 'Bangkok Declaration'.
  • Permanent Secretariat: Dhaka (operational since 2014)
  • BIMSTEC Summit Meetings are held once every two years, preceded by the Ministerial Meeting, and hosted by the Member State holding the BIMSTEC Chairmanship.
  • All decisions of the Summit Meetings are made on the basis of consensus.
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Evolution of BIMSTEC

  • 1997: The economic bloc was formed with four members with the acronym 'BIST-EC' (Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka and Thailand Economic Cooperation). 
  • 1997: Later, in the same year, following inclusion of Myanmar, the group was renamed 'BIMST-EC' (Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand Economic Cooperation). 
  • 2004: With the admission of Nepal and Bhutan, the group was renamed to 'Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation' (BIMSTEC).

BIMSTEC Charter

  • The BIMSTEC Charter, which lays the institutional and legal foundation of the grouping, officially came into force in 2023.
  • This formalises BIMSTEC as a regional organisation with a defined structure and working mechanism. It provides a clear framework for cooperation among its member states. 

Salient features of the BIMSTEC Charter include

  • Legal Personality: The Charter grants BIMSTEC legal status as an international organisation. This enables it to engage formally with other entities, enter agreements, admit new members or observers, and expand its influence globally.
  • Objectives: BIMSTEC’s core goals:
    • To promote economic growth and social progress in the region.
    • To enhance collaboration across diverse sectors such as trade, technology, energy, connectivity, and security.
    • To address common challenges like poverty eradication, climate change, terrorism, and organised crime.
  • Guiding principles: BIMSTEC operates based on universally accepted principles:
    • Respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity.
    • Non-interference in internal affairs of member states.
    • Peaceful coexistence and mutual benefit in all cooperative efforts.
  • Institutional Structure: The Charter establishes a hierarchical structure for decision-making:
    • Summit Meetings: Heads of State or Government meet periodically to set strategic direction.
    • Ministerial Meetings: Ministers oversee specific areas of cooperation.
    • Senior Officials’ Meetings: High-ranking officials implement decisions and monitor progress.
  • Sectoral Division: To streamline cooperation, BIMSTEC divides its focus into six priority sectors (trade & investment, energy, technology etc.). Each sector is led by a designated member state to ensure effective coordination.
  • Dispute Resolution Mechanism: A provision is included for resolving disputes amicably among member states to ensure smooth functioning of the organisation.

Key updates from the 6th BIMSTEC Summit (2025) held in Bangkok:

1. Institutional and Strategic Developments:

  • Adoption of the Bangkok Vision 2030: The Vision aims to build a prosperous, secure, and inclusive Bay of Bengal region. Reflects shared goals for deeper regional integration, sustainable development, and economic prosperity.
  • Emphasis on Collective Progress: PM Modi reiterated the motto of "Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas, Sabka Prayas" to underline India’s commitment to inclusive development and regional cooperation.

2. Security and Institutional Cooperation: 

  • Institutionalisation of Home Ministers' Mechanism: BIMSTEC Home Ministers’ meeting is being institutionalised as a permanent mechanism. Areas of cooperation include:
    • Counter-terrorism
    • Cybersecurity
    • Combating drug and human trafficking. 

3. Connectivity: Physical, Digital, and Energy: 

  • Physical and Energy Connectivity: PM Modi stressed that physical infrastructure must be complemented with digital and energy linkages. He called for accelerating efforts towards electric grid interconnection across BIMSTEC countries.
  • Digital Connectivity: Proposed integration of India's Unified Payments Interface (UPI) with the digital payment systems of other BIMSTEC member states.

4. Economic and Trade Cooperation:

  • BIMSTEC Chamber of Commerce: Proposal to establish a regional chamber of commerce to foster business-to-business ties.
  • Annual BIMSTEC Business Summit India suggested the institution of a yearly summit to bring together regional business leaders and policymakers.
  • Local Currency Trade: India proposed a feasibility study on the possibility of conducting trade within the BIMSTEC region using local currencies to reduce dependency on external currencies.

5. Connectivity: 

  • Establishment of Sustainable Maritime Transport Centre in India to work to enhance coordination in capacity building, research, innovation and maritime policies.

6. Disaster Preparedness and Management:

  • Establishing the BIMSTEC Centre of Excellence for Disaster Management in India to cooperate in disaster management, relief and rehabilitation.
  • BIMSTEC Joint Disaster Management Exercise: The 4th joint exercise of BIMSTEC Disaster Management Authorities will be held in India later in 2025.

7. Space:

  • India proposed initiatives- setting up ground stations for manpower training for BIMSTEC countries, manufacturing and launch of Nano Satellites, and use of remote sensing data.

8. Agriculture: 

  • Centre of Excellence in Agriculture which aim is to enhance: Best practice exchange, Research collaboration and capacity building among farmers in the region

9. Education, Skilling, and Youth Exchange: 

  • BODHI Initiative (BIMSTEC for Organised Development of Human Resource Infrastructure): Under this initiative, 300 youth from BIMSTEC countries will be trained in India annually.
  • Scholarships to be provided at Forest Research Institute and Nalanda University. 
  • An annual training programme for young diplomats from BIMSTEC countries will be organised. 

India-Thailand Relations: Towards a Strategic Partnership

Context: Recently, the Prime Minster of India met the Prime Minister of Thailand in Bangkok prior to the 6th BIMSTEC summit. The two countries have agreed to upgrade their relations to a ‘strategic partnership’. This move reflects India’s broader Act East Policy and Indo-Pacific vision.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India-Thailand Relations. 

Historical and Cultural Linkages

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  • India and Thailand share civilisational ties rooted in history, culture, and religion. 
  • Buddhism as a bridge: Spread of Buddhism from India to Thailand has fostered spiritual and philosophical exchanges for centuries.
  • Cultural Linkages:
    • Ramayana has inspired Thailand’s national epic Ramakien.
    • Sanskrit and Pali influence the Thai language and rituals.
    • Exchange of scholars from Ayutthaya (Thailand) and Nalanda (India) in ancient times.
    • Indian influence is visible in Thai architecture, traditional medicine, and performing arts.
    • An Indian Cultural Centre now known as the Swami Vivekananda Culture Centre was established in Bangkok in 2009.
  • Thailand has reaffirmed the ties by the issuance of a commemorative postage stamp based on the Ramayana mural paintings during PM Modi’s 2025 visit.

Political Relations between India and Thailand: 

  • The relationship gained momentum after India launched its 'Look East Policy' in the early 1990s, which has evolved into the 'Act East Policy'. 
  • Thailand, in turn, has embraced its 'Act West Policy', seeking deeper engagement with South Asia.
  • Both nations support multilateralism and collaborate closely in regional forums like ASEAN, BIMSTEC, ADMM-Plus, and the East Asia Summit.

Economic Relations

  • India and Thailand are important economic partners within Southeast Asia.
  • During FY 2023-24, Thailand was the 21st largest trading partner of India with total bilateral trade of around USD 14.94 Billion. 
  • Thailand is part of India’s regional trade ambitions through ASEAN and BIMSTEC. 
  • Bilateral Pacts signed:
    • MoU on Digital Technologies.
    • Collaboration on MSMEs (Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises).
    • Agreement on National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC) at Lothal, Gujarat.
  • Trade & Investment:
    • Focus on boosting trade and business exchanges.
    • Potential seen in sectors like defence, tourism, culture, and education.
  • Connectivity: Northeast India-Thailand linkages:
    • Emphasis on increasing connectivity, cultural exchange, and trade with India’s northeastern states. E.g., India-Myanmar-Thailand trilateral highway. 
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Indo-Pacific Vision and Strategic Significance

  • Shared Maritime Concerns: Both countries support a free, open, inclusive, and rules-based Indo-Pacific. Opposition to unilateral actions and expansionism (especially China’s maritime misadventurism).
  • India’s Strategic Positioning:
    • Thailand is a key partner in the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative.
    • Reinforcement of ASEAN Centrality and ASEAN-India Strategic Partnership.

Defence Cooperation:

  • The bilateral defence engagements have expanded over time and include high-level visits, capacity-building and training programs, and the annual joint military exercises.
  • Defence Exercises:
    • Exercise MAITREE (Army).
    • Exercise SIAM BHARAT (Air Force).
    • India-Thailand Coordinated Patrol (Navy).

Indian Diaspora in Thailand:

  • The Indian community in Thailand is estimated at over 250,000, including both historical and recent migrants. They are primarily engaged in trade, jewellery business, hospitality, and various service sectors. 
  • Prominent Indian-origin associations and Buddhist spiritual networks further bridge societal connections between the two nations.

India-Thailand Strategic Partnership:

  • In the recent visit in 2025, the Indian Prime Minister announced the elevation of bilateral ties to a "Strategic Partnership" following delegation-level talks with the Thai PM. 
  • This development signifies a deepening of ties in security, trade, and regional cooperation in the Indo-Pacific. 
  • Enhancing Security Cooperation:
    • Establishment of a Strategic Dialogue between Security Agencies.
    • Joint efforts to tackle maritime security, cybercrime, human trafficking, and illegal migration. 

Rising Tensions in West Asia

Context: West Asia is home to some of the world's most complex geopolitical dynamics. The Trump administration, alongside Israel, is escalating tensions in West Asia by targeting Iran and its allied groups, while simultaneously attempting to negotiate a new nuclear deal.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key locations in West Asia; Axis of Resistance; JCPOA. 

Mains: Escalating Tensions in West Asia.

Iran and its Nuclear Aspirations

  • Iran’s nuclear program has been a major concern for the U.S. for decades. 
  • The U.S. wants Iran to give up its nuclear programme, restrict its conventional military capabilities and sever ties with the Axis of Resistance.  
  • Iran has only expressed willingness to engage in “indirect talks”, focusing only on the nuclear programme —essentially a return to the 2015 JCPOA framework.

About Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA)

  • The JCPOA, commonly known as the Iran nuclear deal, was signed on July 14, 2015, between Iran and the P5+1 (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, plus Germany) along with the European Union.
  • Aim: To prevent Iran from developing nuclear weapons.

Key Provisions of JCPOA: 

  • Uranium Enrichment Limits: Iran agreed to enrich uranium only up to 3.67% , far below the 90% needed for weapons.
  • Reduction of Nuclear Stockpile: Iran had to reduce its stockpile of enriched uranium by 98% and limit it to 300 kg.
  • Centrifuge Restrictions: Iran could only use a limited number of first-generation centrifuges. Advanced centrifuges were prohibited.
  • Reactor Modifications: Iran agreed to redesign its Arak Heavy Water Reactor to prevent the production of weapons-grade plutonium.
  • Monitoring & Inspections: The IAEA was granted access to Iranian nuclear facilities to verify compliance.
  • Sanctions Relief: In return, the US, EU, and UN lifted economic sanctions, allowing Iran access to frozen assets and global markets.

Why was JCPOA Controversial?

  • While JCPOA restricted Iran’s nuclear programme, it left its nuclear processing capabilities, extensive ballistic missile programme and support for the axis of resistance untouched. 
  • Lifting economic sanctions on Iran under the JCPOA, in exchange allowed the country to rejoin the economic and diplomatic mainstream of West Asia, ultimately enhancing its strength as a conventional power — an outcome Israel found unacceptable.

US withdrawal from JCPOA and its consequences: 

  • In 2018, the US shared the Israeli narrative that the JCPOA was a flawed deal, and unilaterally withdrew from the agreement and reimposed sanctions on Iran.
  • In response Iran expanded its nuclear program, increased regional influence through proxies like Hezbollah, Hamas, and the Houthis.
    • According to the International Atomic Energy Agency, Iran now possesses enough stockpile of 60% enriched uranium to make six nuclear bombs if further enriched to weapons-grade purity (90%).

Key Developments in the West Asia in Israel's favour: 

In current scenario, Israelis are tightening the ring of fire around Iran after two key developments, which Israel thinks have shifted the regional dynamics in its favour:

  • Election of Trump as the US President: Trump unapologetically supports Israel’s war policies, and has given Israel the confidence to continue its mini-regional war without bothering about external pressure.
  • Fall of the Bashar al-Assad regime in Syria: Assad’s government was Iran’s only state ally in West Asia. It served as a land corridor between Iran, Iraq, and Hezbollah in Lebanon. With a Sunni Islamist government replacing Assad, this vital supply route has been severed, weakening Hezbollah and Iran’s regional influence.

With the axis weakened and the Assad regime gone, Israel thinks that the Iranian regime is more vulnerable today than at any time since the 1979 Islamic revolution.

Axis of Resistance:

  • Informal military network of militant groups and state-controlled armed forces in the West Asia (Middle East) that are supported by Iran and its Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC). 
  • In addition to the IRGC, the axis comprises:
    • Hezbollah in Lebanon
    • Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad in Gaza Strip and West Bank
    • Houthi forces in Yemen
    • Certain militias in Iraq.
  • Formed by Iran, it unites actors committed to countering the influence of the United States and Israel in the region.
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Targeted Attacks on Iran’s Allies

The US and Israel are systematically targeting Iran’s regional allies, known as the “Axis of Resistance,” to weaken Iran’s influence : 

  • In Yemen: US launched pre-emptive airstrikes against Ansar Allah (Houthis) in March 2025, crippling their military assets.
  • In Gaza: Israel resumed its bombing campaign, killing over 400 Palestinians overnight, effectively ending the fragile ceasefire.
  • In Lebanon: In March 2025, Israel conducted its heaviest airstrikes since November 2024, targeting Hezbollah’s infrastructure.

With Iran’s shrinking strategic space, Israel’s growing aggression and the near impossibility of diplomatic common ground between a hostile Trump administration and a wary Iranian regime, the risk of a large-scale military confrontation is today higher than ever. 

What is behind Nepal Protests?

Context: Recently, the worsening economic scenario in Nepal has led to protests and the demand for the return of King Gyanendra, the former monarch of Nepal, to power. In this context, let us see the political issues faced by the government of Nepal.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India-Nepal Relations: Basic Idea about state of events in Nepal.

Background

  • The recent protests in Nepal are rooted in growing dissatisfaction with the country’s political and economic trajectory since the abolition of the monarchy in 2008. 
  • When the monarchy was dissolved, Nepal transitioned into a federal democratic republic with the hope of fostering stability, economic growth, and inclusivity. 
  • However, over the years, successive governments have been plagued by corruption, inefficiency, and political infighting, leading to widespread disillusionment among the population.
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Challenges to Democracy in Nepal

  • Political Instability: 
    • Nepal has seen over a dozen Prime Ministers in the last 15 years, preventing stable governance. Coalition governments are unstable due to power struggles, party infighting and frequent floor-crossing by lawmakers leads to a lack of policy continuity.
    • The electoral system encourages fragmentation of political parties, making it hard to form a majority government.
  • Weak Institutional Structure and Governance:
    • Judiciary interference: Politicisation of the courts has weakened judicial independence. It is seen that the judicial decisions have often favored those in power.
    • Bureaucratic inefficiency: Nepali bureaucracy is slow, unresponsive, and burdened by political appointments.
    • Delayed implementation of federalism: Though Nepal adopted federalism in 2015, power remains concentrated in Kathmandu, and provincial governments lack resources and autonomy.
  • Ethnic and Identity-Based Conflicts: 
    • The Madhesi movement (2015-16) protested against the new constitution, arguing that it marginalises their political representation.
    • Janajati (indigenous) communities continue to demand proportional representation and land rights. E.g., The 2023 protests against renaming Province No. 1 as "Koshi" turned violent, highlighting the ongoing ethnic and linguistic tensions. 
  • Electoral Manipulation: Vote-buying and electoral fraud events have been seen in past elections, undermining fair elections and post-election horse-trading leads to unstable coalition governments.
  • Corruption and poor governance: Nepal ranks poorly in Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index. Corruption scandals in infrastructure, education, and healthcare reduce public trust in democracy.
  • Foreign influence in Nepal’s politics: Nepal is sandwiched between India and China, leading to significant external influence.
    • While India has historical ties and economic leverage, China has increased its investments in Nepal, influencing politicians and civil society.
    • The U.S. Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) grant named Nepal Compact faced massive protests in 2022, with some fearing it would compromise Nepal’s sovereignty.
    • Nepal struggles to maintain a balanced foreign policy while protecting its sovereignty.

Thus, Nepal’s democracy remains fragile due to internal instability, weak institutions and corruption. While the 2015 Constitution provided a framework for federalism and inclusive governance, its slow implementation, coupled with rising political tensions, threatens democratic progress. 

The Katchatheevu controversy

Context: The Tamil Nadu State Assembly adopted a resolution urging the Union government to review the Indo-Sri Lankan agreement of 1974, and take steps to retrieve Katchatheevu from Sri Lanka. Over the years, the Sri Lankan Navy has continued arresting Indian fishermen and seizing their vessels near the island. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Katchatheevu Island.

Katchatheevu Island

  • Katchatheevu is a small uninhabited island (285 acre) in Palk Strait, that connects the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea.
  • Katchatheevu island was formed due to volcanic eruptions in the 14th century.  
  • It is administered by Sri Lanka at present. 
Katchatheevu Island

Historical Control and Ownership:

  • Ramanad Kingdom: The island was historically under the control of Ramanad Raja, a zamindar in Ramanathapuram in the Madras Presidency during British rule (1795 to 1803).
  • Administration under British colonial rule: Katchatheevu was administered as part of the Madras Presidency.
  • Disputed claims: Both countries have been claiming Katchatheevu since at least 1921, following a survey that placed the island within Sri Lanka’s boundaries.
  • Contestation by British Indian Delegation: The British Indian delegation contested Sri Lanka's claim, citing the historical ownership of the Ramanad kingdom.

Fishermen of both countries have been fishing in each other's waters without conflict for a very long time. The issue emerged when India-Sri Lanka signed the maritime boundary agreement. 

Indo-Sri Lankan Maritime Boundary Agreement of 1974:

  • The agreement was a treaty signed between the Indian government and the Sri Lankan government in 1974. 
  • It defined the maritime boundary between the two nations in the Palk Strait and near the Adam's Bridge. 
  • India recognised Sri Lanka’s sovereignty over the Katchatheevu island. 
  • It allowed Indian fishermen to access Katchatheevu for rest, drying of nets, and participation in the annual St. Anthony’s festival. 
  • It did not explicitly specify the fishing rights of Indians in the waters around Katchatheevu, leaving a critical issue unresolved.

LTTE era and restrictions on movement:

  • During the LTTE (LiberationTigers of Tamil Eelam, a separatist group in Sri Lanka) era, the  Sri Lankan government restricted the easy movement of Sri Lankan fishermen in waters raising military operations issues.
  • In 2009, Sri Lanka started heavily guarding its maritime boundary in the Palk Strait. It was done to reduce the possibility of the return of Tamil insurgents to the country.
  • The Indian fishermen considered this an opportunity. But, with the end of the war in 2010, Sri Lankan fishermen again started their movement in Palk Bay and reclaimed their lost legitimate territory.

Distress of Indian Fishermen

  • The sea in the Palk Strait and the Adam's Bridge has for ages served as a traditional fishing ground for fishermen from both India and Sri Lanka. Indian fishermen, especially from Tamil Nadu's Rameswaram district, frequented the waters to fish.
  • Climate change, a growth in fish demand and increased use of bottom trawlers of late has resulted in fishermen venturing beyond territorial waters to get a good catch. The lack of catch near the coast and an absence of demarcations, at times, drive the fishermen into the perceived Sri Lankan waters.
  • The agreement of 1974 is often blamed for the distress of the Indian fishing community in the state of Tamil Nadu. The treaty deprived Indian fishermen of their traditional fishing rights in the sea around Katchatheevu island. 

Rising Geopolitical Conflicts in Arctic Region

Context: International observers have raised concerns about escalating tensions in the Arctic Region, warning that if left unchecked it could eventually spark conflict in the region. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Arctic Council.

Mains: Geopolitical conflict in the Arctic region. 

Drivers of Geopolitical conflict in Arctic region

  • Vast resources: Beneath the frozen Arctic landscape lie untapped reserves of natural resources such as fossil fuels, rare earth elements, phosphates, and copper as well as lucrative fishing grounds. According to a Geological Survey report, the Arctic region holds 13% of the world’s undiscovered oil reserves and 30% of its untapped natural gas reserves. 
  • New trade routes: The melting of Arctic sea ice has opened up new commercial trade routes creating new strategic opportunities for global powers. E.g., The Northeast Passage running along Russia’s Arctic coast. This route, connecting the Bering Strait to Norway, could shorten the maritime distance between East Asia and Europe by about 8,000 kilometers compared to the Suez Canal route.
  • Lack of legal safeguards: Unlike Antarctica, the Arctic lacks legal safeguards and is mainly governed by UNCLOS (UN Convention on the Law of the Sea), allowing nations to claim territories and build military infrastructure. This has led to overlapping claims and rising tensions. 
image 4

Geopolitical Tensions and Conflicts

  • Russia: 
    • In 2007, Russia sent the MIR-1 submarine to the North Pole to plant a Russian flag on the seabed beneath the Arctic ice cap — a symbolic demonstration of its presence and capabilities. 
    • Russia has maintained a number of military bases in the Arctic, most of them dating back to the Soviet era. 
    • In 2022, it conducted joint naval exercises with Beijing in the East China Sea, which indicated strategic implications for Arctic security. 
    • Russia views the Northern Sea Route as an essential part of its Arctic strategy, aiming to establish it as a major shipping route connecting Europe and Asia.
    • Russia has made extensive claims over the Arctic seabed, including the Lomonosov Ridge, which it asserts is a natural prolongation of its continental shelf. This has led to overlapping territorial claims with other Arctic nations, particularly Canada and Denmark. 
    • Russia has suggested that Norway’s Arctic island of Svalbard should fall under its control. 
  • China:  Even China, an Arctic outsider by geography, has declared itself a “near-Arctic state” in 2018.  China is planning to construct its first nuclear-powered icebreaker. Investments in infrastructure and resources by China raise concerns among Arctic nations.
  • NATO:  Since Sweden and Finland joined NATO following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, the alliance has intensified its military presence in the region, including large-scale exercises near the Russian border in Finland in 2024. 
  • US and Canada Dispute: The Northwest Passage, a potential Arctic shipping route that winds through Canada’s Arctic Archipelago, is a contentious point. Canada considers the passage part of its internal waters, granting it control over navigation, while the US claims it is an international waterway which means that any nation has freedom of navigation in the Passage.
  • Greenland Issue: The US President has expressed interest in buying Greenland, citing strategic reasons. Greenland hosts the Thule Air Base, a key US military installation. 

Also Read: Greenland: The island of US interest

Arctic Council:

  • It is an international body tasked with protecting the environment, conducting scientific research, and safeguarding the interests of indigenous peoples in the region.
  • Set up in 1996 by Ottawa Declaration.
  • Members: Canada, Denmark (through Greenland), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the U.S. 
  • These nations exercise sovereignty over the Arctic land and can also exploit resources within their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs).

The Arctic remains a region of immense potential. The Arctic may not yet rival the Suez Canal or the Malacca Strait as a global trade artery, but the slow, silent competition beneath its melting ice is reshaping the contours of international relations. 

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