Geography & Environment & Disaster management

All (4049)Current Affairs (4038)Mains Practice (126)Mains PYQs by Subjects (40)

Climate Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)

Context: Officials from India are discussing with EU to meet the requirements as the Climate Border Adjustment Mechanism is being operationalised by the EU from January 1, 2026.

About Climate Border Adjustment Mechanism

CBAM is a regulation introduced by the European Union (EU) to put a 'fair' price on carbon emitted during the production of items identified as carbon-intensive from non-EU countries.
This will be in the form of higher import levies which will be applicable from 1st January 2026.
Items covered under the CBAM include cement, iron & steel, aluminum, fertilizers, electricity and hydrogen.
EU importers of these goods will have to report on the volume of their imports and greenhouse gas emissions embedded during their production but without paying any financial adjustment at this stage.
CBAM aims to fight carbon leakage which aims to equalize the price of carbon between domestic products and imports. This will ensure that EU's climate policies are not undermined by production relocating to the countries with less ambitious green standards or by replacement of EU products by more carbon-intensive imports.

Significance of CBAM

CBAM will allow EU to meet its commitment of reaching net zero carbon dioxide emission by 2050.
CBAM is to create a level playing field with EU companies which already account for their carbon emission through the bloc's Emission Trading System (ETS).
CBAM will encourage global industry to embrace green and more sustainable technologies.

How the Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary is being developed as India’s second home for cheetahs

Context - The Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary will be the second home for cheetahs in India, after the Kuno National Park. The Madhya Pradesh government has announced that it has completed its preparations for the ambitious project.

Key facts related to Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary

The sanctuary is spread across an area of 368.62 sq km, in the districts of Mandsaur (187.12 sq km) and Neemuch (181.5 sq km) in western MP.
It sits atop a flat rocky plateau, with the Chambal River cutting the sanctuary into two almost equal halves.
It has Savanna ecosystem (comprising open grasslands interspersed with dry deciduous trees and shrubs.) due to shallow topsoil.
It has trees like Salai, Kardhai, Dhawda, Tendu, Palash etc.
It is part of World famous Chaturbhuj Nala rock shelters.
It is knowns for some rare wildlife species like Wild Dogs (Dholes), Chinkara, Leopard, Otter, Mugger crocodile.

Tonga volcano could cause unusual weather for rest of decades

Context: The eruption of the underwater volcano Hunga Ha’apai off Tonga in 2022. The volcano has had weather altering impact across the globe.

About Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai

It is under water volcano eruption (Submarine volcano)
It is part of the highly active Kermadec-Tonga subduction zone
It is associated with volcanic arc, which extends from New Zealand north-northeast to Fiji.
It is formed by the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Indo-Australian Plate.

Unusual Eruption

Unlike typical volcanic eruptions, Hunga Tonga, an underwater volcano, emitted minimal smoke but significant water vapor (100-150 million tonnes).
Water vapor ascended into the stratosphere, a dry layer 15-40 km above the surface, which usually lacks clouds and rain.

Stratospheric Effects

Water vapor in the stratosphere contributes to ozone layer depletion and acts as a potent greenhouse gas. (Water vapor in stratosphere leads to release of active OH which in turn reacts with ozone to form oxygen and monoatomic oxygen)

Modeling Future Climate

Two simulations compared: one with the eruption's water vapor injection and one without eruption of water vapor.

Findings

August-December 2023 witnessed a large ozone hole partially attributed to Hunga Tonga.
Predicted the ozone hole's enlargement two years in advance; subsequent years unlikely to be impacted.
Positive Southern Annular Mode in summer 2024 led to unexpected wetter conditions in Australia contrary to El Niño expectations.
Global mean temperature impact negligible (0.015°C).

Long-term Regional Impacts

Northern Australia to experience colder, wetter winters until approximately 2029.
North America anticipates warmer winters, while Scandinavia expects colder ones.
Volcanic eruption influences atmospheric wave dynamics, impacting weather patterns.

Study presents one perspective; acknowledges limitations and welcomes further research.

Recurving of Cyclones

Context - Remal’s impact was severe in the Northeast because of its unusual trajectory. It developed over the east central Bay of Bengal on Saturday (May 25) evening and intensified into a severe cyclonic storm on Sunday morning over the north Bay of Bengal, with wind speeds clocking over 100 kmph

Unusual path of Remal

The bay was unusually warm with some parts recording a temperature of 32 degrees Celsius (warm for water) which contributed to the intensity of the cyclone. A severe cyclone will rapidly weaken after it interacts with land, but Remal maintained its intensity as it moved to the northeast, causing unprecedented heavy rainfall, landslides, mudslides and flooding in that region.

Note – Exact reason for Remal’s unusual trajectory is still under investigation. However a related concept of recurving of cyclone is important from the examination’s perspective.

About Recurving of Cyclones

One of the most important aspects of cyclone track forecasting is recurvature, A cyclone track is said to recurve when it changes its path from the predominant zonal flow (normally westwards) to predominant meridional flow (normally northwards) and often again back to zonal flow in the opposite direction (normally eastwards).

The recurvature is said to be abrupt if the meridional flow is short-lived and there is sudden change in the direction of more than 60°.

Tropical cyclones in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres tend to move westward and drift slowly poleward and then eastward. Trade winds are responsible for the general westward motion of tropical cyclones (Environmental steering).

Reasons for Recurving.

Coriolis force drifts the cyclones towards right in N.H (Ferrell’s law) and hence pole wards and then eastwards (Beta Drift).
Presence of subtropical highs, over oceans poleward of the trade winds. These regions of clockwise circulation in the Northern Hemisphere make the winds on the western edges of these large-scale circulations move toward the poles.
Interaction of tropical cyclones with mid latitude westerlies change the original westward path of tropical cyclones towards north and then eastwards.
Upper air jet streams further push the cyclones towards right.
Interaction among several cyclonic wind system, a new avg point of centre is made and cyclones changes its path (Fujiwara effect).

Urban Heat Island

Context: Carbon Brief analysis revealed nearly 40% of the Earth hit its highest-ever daily temperature between 2013 to 2023.

About Urban Heat Island (UHI)

Definition:

An urban heat island refers to a phenomenon where urban areas experience significantly higher temperatures compared to surrounding rural areas.

Global Cases of rising temperature:

The United Kingdom crossed 40 degrees Celsius for the first time ever in July 2022.
A small town in China’s northwest recorded 52-degree Celsius last year, the highest ever for that country.
In 2021, Sicily in Italy recorded 48.8 degree Celsius, the highest for Europe ever.
Recent temperatures in New Delhi, notably a reported 52.9°C, raise concerns, pending verification. Doubts arise due to inconsistencies with other stations, with Safdarjung recording 46.8°C, an 80-year high.

Why does this happen?

The sun’s heat and light reach the city and the adjoining rural areas in the same way.
The difference in temperature between urban and less-developed rural areas has to do with how well the surfaces in each environment absorb and hold heat.
If you travel to a rural area, you’ll probably find that most of the region is covered with plants grasses, trees, and farmland.
Plants take up water from the ground through their roots and store the water in their stems and leaves. The water eventually travels to small holes on the underside of leaves.
There, the liquid water turns into water vapor and is released into the air. This process is called transpiration. It acts as nature’s air conditioner.

Development Process:

Daytime: During the day, urban surfaces absorb solar radiation, heating up and raising local temperatures. Buildings and structures trap heat, creating thermal energy reservoirs.
Nighttime: Urban areas release stored heat slowly, resulting in elevated nighttime temperatures compared to surrounding rural areas. This phenomenon is known as the "urban heat island effect.

Causes of UHI Development:

Human Activities: Urbanization leads to the creation of structures such as buildings, roads, and pavements, which absorb and retain heat.
Urban Canyon effect: The tall buildings within many urban areas provide multiple surfaces for the reflection and absorption of sunlight, increasing the efficiency with which urban areas are heated.
Modification of Land Surface: Urban development alters the land surface through the removal of vegetation, which reduces evaporative cooling and increases heat absorption.
Anthropogenic Heat: Activities like transportation, industrial processes, and energy consumption release heat, contributing to elevated temperatures.

Albedo Effect: Urban surfaces, such as concrete and asphalt, have lower albedo (reflectivity), absorbing more solar radiation and increasing temperatures.
Limited Green Spaces: The reduction of green spaces like parks and gardens decreases the cooling effect of vegetation and exacerbates heat retention.

Factors Influencing UHI Intensity:

Urban Morphology: The layout, density, and height of buildings influence UHI intensity. Compact urban areas with tall buildings tend to trap more heat.
Climate: Local climatic conditions, such as wind patterns and humidity, can affect the intensity of UHI.
Urban Design: Factors like street orientation, building materials, and green infrastructure can either exacerbate or mitigate UHI effects.

Impact of UHI:

Health Risks: Higher temperatures in urban areas can lead to heat-related illnesses and exacerbate air pollution, affecting public health.
- Urban Heat Islands (UHIs) exacerbate heat waves, increasing heat-related illnesses and fatalities.
- Heat exposure correlated with mental health issues and decreased academic performance.
- UHIs worsen air quality, accelerating pollutants' production and impacting health.
Energy Consumption: Increased cooling demands in urban areas result in higher energy consumption and associated greenhouse gas emissions.
Ecological Effects: UHI can disrupt ecosystems, alter local climate patterns, and affect biodiversity.
- Urban Heat Islands (UHIs) raise water temperatures, harming aquatic ecosystems.
- Rapid temperature changes due to UHIs stress aquatic life, causing fish kills.
- UHIs alter breeding strategies and habitat ranges of species.
Social Impacts: Vulnerable populations, such as the elderly and low-income communities, are disproportionately affected by UHI, exacerbating social inequalities.
- According to a study by the International Labour Organization (ILO), in 1995, the working hours lost in India due to heat stress were 5.87 per cent in agriculture and construction, 2.95 per cent in industry, and 0.63 per cent in services.
- These numbers are anticipated to increase to 9.04 per cent in agriculture and construction, 5.29 per cent in industry, and 1.48 per cent in services by 2030.

Mitigation Strategies:

Green Infrastructure: Increasing vegetation cover through parks, green roofs, and tree planting helps mitigate UHI effects by providing shade and enhancing evaporative cooling.
Urban Planning: Designing urban spaces to prioritize pedestrian-friendly environments, incorporating green spaces, and promoting sustainable building practices can reduce UHI intensity.
Cool Roofing and Materials: Using reflective roofing materials and heat-absorbing coatings on pavements can lower surface temperatures and mitigate heat absorption.
Heat Island Reduction Programs: Implementing policies and initiatives focused on reducing urban heat island effects, such as urban forestry programs and building codes promoting energy-efficient designs.

Krishna River System

Key facts about Krishna River

Second longest river of Peninsula that flows towards east.
Originates near Mahabaleshwar in Western Ghats
Basin states: Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka having a total area of 2,58,948 Sq.km

Left bank tributaries	Right bank tributaries
Bhima (2^nd largest)	Venna
Musi (Hyderabad located at bank)	Koyna
Munneru	Panchganga
Paleru	Dudhganga
Don	Ghatprabha
	Malprabha
	Tungbhadra (Largest)

Explained: Danger from landslides

Context: Cyclone rain-triggered landslides in the Northeast spotlights need for building resilience to multi-hazard disasters. Six people were killed in West Bengal in incidents triggered by cyclone Remal that struck the coastline on Sunday night.

What makes Landslide a unique disaster?

They are very localised phenomenon and hence harder to track and study with satellites.
Lack of data further does not allow the machine learning models to get developed.

Factors which make area susceptible to landslide:

As per Geological Survey of India, about 0.42 million sq.km covering nearly 12.6% of land area of India is prone to landslide. Major landslide prone areas in India:

Western Ghats and Konkan Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra)
Eastern Ghats (Araku region in Andhra Pradesh)
North-East Himalayas (Darjeeling and Sikkim)
Northwest Himalayas (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, J&K).

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NDMA National Landslide Risk Management Strategy:

Generation of User-Friendly Landslide Hazard Maps taking local factors into account and integrating it with the risk mitigation plans.
Development of Landslide Monitoring and Early Warning System focussing on multi-hazard EWS as landslide are known to have cascading impacts on the downstream areas. For e.g. a landslide in an area can lead to floods, erosion, deforestation etc.
Awareness Programmes for the local community regarding steps which they should take or avoid during such disasters.
Capacity Building and Training of Stakeholders so as to launch an immediate response as and when the calamity hits.
Structural measures including modifying slope geometry, using chemical agents to reinforce slope material, installing structures such as piles and retaining walls, grouting rock joints and fissures, diverting debris pathways, and rerouting surface and underwater drainage.
Preparation of Mountain Zone Regulations & Policies

Southern sojourn (Antarctica)

Context: Delegates from over 60 countries have convened in Kochi, Kerala to attend the 46th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM).

News in brief

India is part of a group proposing a regulatory framework for Antarctic tourism at the 46th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.
The continent's pristine wilderness is increasingly attracting tourists (A recent joint study by universities in Tasmania, the U.K. and Australia said that the number of tourists rose from 8,000 in 1993 to 1,05,000 in 2022.), raising concerns about environmental impact and geopolitical implications.
While India supports regulation to preserve Antarctica's purity, it must also safeguard its own future tourism interests amidst growing global prosperity.

About Antarctic Parliament

The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, Goa, through the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), has organised the meeting.
It will be attended by the 56 member countries of the Antarctic Treaty.
The ATCM is meant to facilitate a global dialogue on law, logistics, governance, science, tourism, and other aspects of the southern continent. During the Kochi meet, India will also officially table its plan to construct Maitri II before the members. Any new construction or initiative in Antarctica requires the ATCM’s approval.

Note

Every year the original twelve Parties to the Treaty and those Parties that demonstrate their interest in Antarctica by conducting substantial research activity there – together called the Consultative Parties – meet “for the purpose of exchanging information, consulting together on matters of common interest pertaining to Antarctica and formulating and considering and recommending to their governments measures in furtherance of the principles and objectives of the Treaty” (Art. IX). This forum is the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM).
India had last hosted the ATCM in New Delhi in 2007.

Antarctic treaty

Definition of Antarctica: All the Land and ice shelves to the south of 60-degree latitude.
It will be treated as Global Common + Principles of Peace, Science and Environmental protection.
The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by the twelve countries. It entered into force in 1961 and has since been acceded to by many other nations. The total number of Parties to the Treaty is now 56 (including India)
Antarctica should be used only for peaceful purposes. No country should build military bases.
No country should claim sovereignty over Antarctica based on setting up of Research stations.
No Nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes
Countries to take appropriate efforts to abide by the provisions of the treaty.
- India and Antarctica:
  - India signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1983.
  - India ratified the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources in 1985.
  - India signed Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty in 1998. (Madrid Protocol)
  - India’s research stations in Antarctica: Dakshin Gangotri (De-commissioned now); Maitri and Bharati. Managed by National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Goa under the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
  - In 2022, India enacted the Antarctic Act, reaffirming its commitment to the Antarctic Treaty.

Pravara River

Context: Three personnel of the State Disaster Response Force (SDRF) died after their boat capsized during a rescue attempt the Pravara River in Maharashtra’s Ahmednagar district.

Key Facts about Pravara River

Location: Maharashtra, India
Origin: Eastern slopes of the Sahyadris between Kulang and Ratangad mountains in Ahmednagar District, Maharashtra.
It is the only major tributary of the Godavari to have both its source and confluence located within the same district—Ahmednagar.
It’s also the only tributary among the seven major ones that originates in the Western Ghats, similar to the Godavari itself.

Course:

Flows into Bhandardara town where Bhandardara Dam is constructed, forming Arthur Lake.
Arthur Lake periodically releases water, creating Umbrella Falls.
Flows eastward, reaches Sangamner where Mahalungi River merges.
Joins with River Mula before reaching Nevasa.
Empties into the Godavari River at Pravara Sangam, 208 km from its source.

Tributaries:

Mahalungi: Originates on southern and eastern slopes of Patta and Aundha mountains, merges with Pravara at Sangamner.
Mula: Rises on eastern slopes of Sahyadris between Ratangad and Harichandragad, joins Pravara before Nevasa.
Adhala: Originates north of Akole, merges with Pravara west of Sangamner.

Dams:

Bhandardara Dam: Located near Bhandardara town.
Nilwande Dam: Adjacent to the river.

Etymology: According to Indian Vedas, Sage Agastya meditated by consuming only water and air for a long time. Due to his incredible devotion, Lord Shiva appeared, blessed him, and left a stream of Ganga that came to be known as the Pravara River

GODAVARI RIVER SYSTEM

Longest river of Peninsula and third largest in India
Also known as Dakshin Ganga or Vridha Ganga because of its size, age and length.
Originates from Trimbak in Western Ghats in Nashik district, Maharashtra.

Left bank tributaries	Right bank tributaries
Kadana	Mula
Purna	Pravara
Dudhna	Dharna
Penganga	Manjra
Wainganga	Maner
Pranhita
Indravati
Sabari
Seluri

Myitsone dam on Irrawaddy River (Ayeyarwady River)

Context: Myanmar's junta is reviving plans for a controversial $3.6 billion Chinese-backed Myitsone dam. The project was halted in 2011 due to public outcry over environmental damage and limited domestic benefits. The Myitsone dam project will see collaboration between Myanmar officials and China's SPIC. Despite warnings from past assessments and ongoing regional conflicts, the junta's move aligns with China's Belt and Road Initiative, emphasizing geopolitical interests over local concerns.

Myitsone Dam

Myitsone Hydroelectric Project is situated at the convergence of Mali and N'Mai rivers in Burma.
It is part of a larger plan comprising seven dams along the Irrawaddy, Mali Hka, and N'Mai Hka rivers, with a total capacity of 13,360 MW.
Once completed, Myitsone dam was projected to rank as the 15th largest hydropower station globally, with a capacity of 6,000 MW.
Located 37 kilometers from Myitkyina, the capital of Kachin State, the area is renowned for its ecological significance, deemed one of the world's eight biodiversity hotspots.
The dam site is situated close to the earthquake prone Sagaing fault line, raising concerns about seismic risks.
Submergence resulting from the dam will inundate significant historical and cultural sites along the Mali and N'mai Hka rivers, including areas regarded as the birthplace of Burma.
Notable landmarks like historical churches, temples, and the sacred banyan tree at the confluence of the Mali Hka and N'Mai Hka rivers will be submerged, impacting local heritage.

Irrawaddy river

Origin: The Irrawaddy River, also known as the Ayeyarwady River, originates from the confluence of two rivers, the Mali and N'mai, in the Kachin State of Myanmar (Burma).
Course: From its origin in the Himalayas, the Irrawaddy River flows southward through Myanmar, forming a major river basin. It traverses the central plains of Myanmar, passing through major cities like Mandalay and Bagan, before flowing into the Andaman Sea.
Length: The river stretches approximately 2,170 kilometres in length.
Ecological Features:
Biodiversity Hotspot: The Irrawaddy River basin is rich in biodiversity, hosting various species of flora and fauna, including endangered species like the Irrawaddy dolphin.
Important Bird Area: The river and its surrounding areas serve as crucial habitats for numerous bird species, making it an important bird area for conservation efforts.

Rivers of South and East Asia

South Asian Rivers:

Brahmaputra River (China, India, and Bangladesh) - Length: 3,848 km
Ganges River (India and Bangladesh) - Length: 2,525 km
Indus River (China, India, and Pakistan) - Length: 3,180 km

East Asian Rivers:

Yellow River (China) - Length: 5,464 km
Yangtze River (China) - Length: 6,300 km
Mekong River (China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam) - Length: 4,350 km

Southeast Asian River

Mekong River:

Countries: China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam
Length: Approximately 4,350 km
Importance: One of the longest rivers in Asia, the Mekong is vital for transportation, agriculture, and fishing in the region. It supports the livelihoods of millions of people and is a crucial waterway for trade.

Chao Phraya River:

Country: Thailand
Length: Approximately 372 km
Importance: The Chao Phraya River is significant for Thailand, particularly the Bangkok metropolitan area. It serves as a transportation route, a source of water for irrigation, and plays a role in flood control.

Salween River (Nu River):

Countries: China, Myanmar, Thailand
Length: Approximately 2,815 km
Importance: The Salween River is one of the longest free-flowing rivers in Southeast Asia. It sustains diverse ecosystems and provides water for irrigation, hydropower generation, and local communities' livelihoods.

Red River (Hong Ha):

Countries: China, Vietnam
Length: Approximately 1,149 km
Importance: The Red River is significant for both China and Vietnam. It supports agriculture, transportation, and hydroelectric power generation. In Vietnam, the river delta is crucial for rice cultivation and is densely populated.

India applies for Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount & Carlsberg Ridge to the International Seabed Authority

Context: Recently, India has applied to the International Seabed Authority for license to explore two regions in the Indian Ocean. These regions are (i) Afanasy Nikitin Seamount and (ii) Carlsberg Ridge.

Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount

It is a 400 km long and 150 km wide region located southeast of Sri Lanka in the Central Indian basin.
This region is located around 3,000 km away from the Indian coast.
The region is rich in cobalt, copper, manganese and nickel.
There are volcanic seamounts here at depths of 500-2000 m that formed around 80 million years ago when dinosaurs lived.
Named after a 15th century Russian merchant, who documented his travels to India.
Cobalt rich crusts form when metal ions in the water react with oxygen to form oxides and get deposited on the slopy top portion of the seamount over millions of years.
There is significantly high concentration of cobalt in 800-2000 m depth where oxygen levels are significantly low.
ANS has been also been claimed by Sri Lanka as its territory under different rules.

Carlsberg Ridge

Northwestern limb of Indian Ocean Ridge system.
Carlsberg ridge defines tectonic plate boundary where Indian and Somalian plates are moving away from each other.
Depth of 1800-3600 m.
Seismically active and has recorded major earthquakes.
Region has magma flowing out of earth's interior or ocean crust.
Seawater falling through cracks of ocean rocks interacts with magma and is spewed out through hydrothermal vents.
Plumes have sulphides rich in minerals such as zinc, copper, manganese, cobalt, gold, silver and rare-earth and platinum group elements when then get deposited on the seafloor.
Indian researchers have recorded chemical and temperature signatures in this region which could help identify the probable location of vents.

Current marine mining rights with India

India is the only country which has two exploration licenses from the International Seabed Authority for exploration in the Indian Ocean Region. Currently, India is licensed to explore two regions in the Indian Ocean.

Central Indian Ocean Basin: India has 75,000 sq. km. exploration license in the Central Indian Ocean Basin Region
Rodriguez Triple Junction: Located in southern Indian Ocean where three tectonic plates namely, African Plate, Indo-Australian Plate and Antarctic Plate meet near Mauritius. Also known as Central Indian (Ocean) Triple Junction (CITJ). This triple junction is named after the island of Rodrigues which lies 1,000 km from this.

Need for Deep Sea Mining

Import dependence of India on imports for minerals such as cobalt from UK, China and Norway.
Plateau of land-based mining: Mining on land has reached a breaking point and is hit by environmental conflicts leading to low-quality production.
Importance for energy-transition: Minerals such as cobalt, nickel, copper and manganese can be used to produce renewable energy such as solar and wind power, electric vehicles and EV battery technology. Thus, help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation of climate change.
Strategic importance: Other countries such as China and our neighbouring countries have been showing increasing interest to explore mineral resources in the Indian Ocean Region. This makes India's keen interest in getting marine licenses as strategically important.

Concerns against Deep Sea Mining

Lignite Coal

Context: Neyveli Lignite Coal India Limited (NLCIL) is a Central PSU headquartered in Neyveli, Tamil Nadu. NLCIL is the largest producer of lignite in the country. The PSU has been diversifying its business into various spheres like power generation and renewable energy.

About Lignite in India

Lignite is also known as brown coal as it is brown in colour.
Higher carbon content in coal reflects the quality of coal. It is the lowest quality of coal. Carbon content of lignite ranges from 65-70%.
Lignite is prepared in the first stage of organic maturity. Initially the peat is converted into lignite or ‘brown coal’ – these are coal types with low organic maturity.
It is a softer coal with a high moisture content and contains the greatest number of compounds other than carbon such as sulfur and mercury.
Lignite resources in India: Indian lignite deposits occur in the Tertiary sediments in the southern and western parts of peninsular shield particularly in Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Gujarat & Rajasthan and also in Jammu & Kashmir. The total known geological resources of lignite as on 01.04.2021 is about 46.02 billion tonnes, of which 79.3% resources (about 36.49 billion tonnes) are in Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan (13.8%) and Gujarat (5.92%).
Production of Lignite: Tamil Nadu is the largest producer of Lignite in India accounting for 49.97% of total lignite production in India. Tamil Nadu is followed by Gujarat (27.37%) and Rajasthan (22.67%).
Neyveli Lignite Mine is the largest open cast mine in India with eco-friendly technology.

Overburden in Open Cast Mines

Lignite is mined in open-cast mines in India. In open cast mines, coal or lignite can be extracted only after removing layers of soil and stones. This soil and stone is known as overburden.
This overburden is removed and treated for other uses to reduce the environmental impact of mining.
To address these concerns following are focus areas:
- Sustainable end use of land resources.
- Scientific reclamation of mined lands.
- Establising community-centric land uses such as restored forests and eco-parks.
- Afforestation