One of the key legislations passed by Parliament in 2023, was the Jan Vishwas Act, 2023 that amended 42 legislations and decriminalised around 180 offences governing environment, agriculture, media, industry and trade, publication, and other domains that create barriers to the ease of doing business in the country.
The aim of the legislation was to decriminalise “minor offences” to improve the “ease of doing business” in the country.
Need for decriminalisation:
Too much regulation:
The Indian Penal Code makes the Indian state very powerful. At present, there are 25,000+ employer jail provisionseven for minor offences, of which 5,000+ arise from central legislation.
For Example:
The Factories Act, 1948, read with 58 rules, contains more than 8,682 imprisonment clauses.
The Legal Metrology Act, 2009, read with 29 rules, has 391 imprisonment clauses.
The Electricity Act, 2003, read with 35 rules, has 558.
The Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, read with nine rules has 134.
The Jan Vishwas Act, only removes 2 percent of 5,239 jail provisions in central legislation. (only the tip of the iceberg)
Concernswith excessive criminalization laws: (Criminalization is the god that has failed)
Corruption, Bureaucratic red tapism in granting compliance, excessive regulation of industries.
selectively using imprisonment clauses in vaguely drafted laws.
creating transmission losses between how those laws are written, interpreted, practised and enforced.
Against the maxim - “Minimum Government, Maximum Governance”.
Benefitsof decriminalisation:
Cuts corruption, red tapism and facilitates Ease of doing business and creates job and economic growth.
Decriminalisation reduces the load on the judicial system.
Jan Vishwas 2.0:
The government has already announced that it is working on a second version of the Jan Vishwas Act to decriminalise even more offences. It will be instrumental to deliver lower corruption, higher wages and productive enterprises.
Way Forward:
The government needs to comply with the Pre-Legislative Consultative Policy so that the general public can also participate in the process of law making.
A government committee with cognitive diversity should identify proper criteria for decriminalisation, by working on the limitations of Jan Vishwas Act. Subsequently, every central ministry must work towards removing all the 5,000+ jail provisions that do not meet the committee’s criteria.
Context: A report titled ‘The Artificial Imposter’ published in May 2023 revealed that 47% of surveyed Indians have either been a victim or knew someone who had fallen prey to an AI generated voice scam. The numbers are almost twice the global average of 25%. Even as several cases went unreported, India has topped the list with the maximum number of victims to AI voice scams.
AI generated voice scam:
Voice clone: A voice clone is a synthetic audio/ deep fake created using generative AI tools which are trained on sample audio of a person. To create a clone, a source audio is needed which can be anything from an Instagram story to a YouTube video or even a short conversation on the phone.
Voice data acquisition: Scammers can acquire someone's voice data from publicly available sources like social media videos, voicemails, or even just a few seconds of conversation.
Voice cloning software: Using this data, they can then employ specialised AI software that analyses the voice patterns, tone, and inflection, and creates a replica that sounds eerily similar to the original. E.g., Using softwares Murf, Resemble, Speechify etc.
Concerns:
Increased scams: Voice cloning adds a layer of realism to scams, making them harder to detect, especially for emotionally vulnerable individuals. These cloned voices are then used in various scam scenarios, including:
Emergency scams: A cloned voice of a family member, friend or known person might create urgency for help after a supposed accident, or being in urgent need for money, tricking the victim into sending money.
Impersonation scams: Scammers can impersonate anyone – bank officials, customer service representatives etc. – to gain access to sensitive information or financial accounts.
Privacy concerns: Using voice cloning technology without proper consent or authorisation can potentially infringe on privacy rights and intellectual property laws.
The report found that 86% Indians were prone to sharing their voice data online or via voice notes at least once a week which has made these tools potent.
Ease of acquiring voice data from online sources raises serious privacy concerns, making individuals vulnerable to these scams.
Regulatory mechanism:
India currently lacks specific laws directly addressing voice cloning. However, existing legal frameworks can be applied to address its misuse, depending on the context and intent.
Privacy:
Information Technology Act, 2000: This act protects sensitive personal information, including voice recordings. Unauthorised recording or dissemination of someone's voice without consent could violate this law.
Right to Privacy: Recognised by the Supreme Court, the right to privacy as a fundamental right protected under Article 21, extends to voice data and its protection against unauthorised access and misuse.
Impersonification:
Section 66D of the IT Act of 2000 provides a provision to prosecute individuals who use communication devices or computer resources with malicious intent, to cheat or impersonate someone, which can result in imprisonment for up to three years and/or a fine of up to ₹1 lakh.
Intellectual Property:
Copyright Act, 1957: While the act primarily covers literary and artistic works, some interpretations suggest it might encompass distinctive voices of celebrities or public figures. Misappropriation of such voices for commercial gain could be challenged under copyright.
Trademark Act, 1999: If a voice is used as a trademark associated with a brand or individual, its unauthorised use could constitute trademark infringement.
Fraud and Deception:
Indian Penal Code (IPC): Sections related to cheating, forgery, and impersonation can be applied if voice cloning is used to deceive someone for financial gain or other malicious purposes.
Context: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has effectively conducted a trial of a 100 W-class Power System utilising Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) technology on its orbital platform, POEM3.
About Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell
A Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell is a type of electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy from the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen or another oxidising agent into electrical energy.
The key component of a PEM fuel cell is the polymer electrolyte membrane, which serves as the electrolyte.
Key feature of PEM fuel cells
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM): The PEM is a solid polymer electrolyte typically made of a perfluorosulfonic acid material, such as Nafion.
Use of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane: This membrane allows protons to pass through while blocking the passage of electrons. It plays a crucial role in separating the anode and cathode reactions.
Components and Working of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell
Anode and Cathode: At the anode, hydrogen gas is typically supplied, and it undergoes electrochemical oxidation to produce protons (H⁺) and electrons (e⁻). The electrons flow through an external circuit, creating an electric current.
Catalysts: Platinum or other platinum-group metals are commonly used as catalysts on the anode and cathode to facilitate the electrochemical reactions.
Electrochemical Reactions:
At the anode: 2H2→4H+ + 4e-
At the cathode: O2 + 4H+ + 4e- →2H2O
Proton Exchange: Protons generated at the anode move through the PEM to the cathode, while electrons flow through an external circuit, creating an electrical current.
Characteristics of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Cell (PEMC)
Operating Temperature: PEM fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures (typically between 60 to 80 degrees Celsius), allowing for quick start-up times (less warm up time) and increased efficiency in certain applications.
Catalyst Requirement: To facilitate the separation of electrons and protons in hydrogen, PEM fuel cells use a noble-metal catalyst, typically platinum leading to high cost.
Carbon Monoxide Sensitivity: The platinum catalyst in PEM fuel cells is highly sensitive to carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning. If the hydrogen used in the fuel cell is derived from a hydrocarbon fuel, it may contain trace amounts of carbon monoxide. The presence of CO can significantly degrade the performance of the platinum catalyst, leading to a decrease in fuel cell efficiency.
Carbon Monoxide Reduction Reactor: To address the issue of carbon monoxide poisoning, an additional reactor is often employed to reduce the levels of carbon monoxide in the fuel gas before it reaches the fuel cell. This reactor adds complexity and cost to the overall system.
Water Management: PEM fuel cells require effective water management to maintain the hydration level of the polymer electrolyte membrane. Water produced during the electrochemical reactions needs to be removed from the membrane to prevent flooding.
Applications of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell
PEM fuel cells are commonly used in various applications, including transportation (such as fuel cell vehicles), stationary power generation (backup power systems, distributed generation), and portable electronic devices.
These fuel cells are known for their high efficiency, fast start-up times, and ability to operate under varying loads.
However, challenges such as cost, durability, and sensitivity to contaminants in the hydrogen fuel remain areas of ongoing research and development.
Context: A recent study on child marriage in India, published in The Lancet, has highlighted a positive trend of decreasing child marriages across the country. However, the study also pointed out that four states, namely Bihar (16.7%), West Bengal (15.2%), Uttar Pradesh (12.5%), and Maharashtra (8.2%), still account for more than half of the total number of child marriages among girls in India.
The study titled ‘Prevalence of girl and boy child marriage across States and Union Territories in India, 1993–2021’ reveals significant findings about the state of child marriage in India.
High Prevalence of Child Marriage in Girls: one in five girls in India is still married before reaching the legal age.
Regional Variations: While some Indian states have successfully reduced the prevalence and headcount of child marriages among girls, others like West Bengal have struggled significantly.
National Figures: Nationally, the percentage of women aged 20-24 years who were married before 18 is 23.3%.
These findings underscore the ongoing challenge of addressing child marriage in India, particularly in regions like West Bengal, and highlight the need for targeted policies and interventions.
What is child Marriage?
Child marriage, a practice found in certain societies, particularly in India, typically involves two distinct forms. The first form is where a young child, often a girl under eighteen, is married off to an adult man. This form is more direct and immediate in its execution. The second form is more of a future arrangement: parents of a young girl and boy agree to marry their children to each other when they both reach a more suitable age. In this latter case, the boy and girl usually do not meet until the time of their wedding ceremony.
This practice, deeply rooted in cultural and social norms, often raises significant concerns regarding the rights and welfare of the children involved.
Laws for minimum age for Marriage
Hindu marriage act (1955), Indian Christian marriages act (1872) and Special Marriage Act (1954) prescribed minimum age of marriage as 18 years for bride and 21 years for groom.
Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 prohibits marriage below 18 years for women & 21 years for men.
Despite legal age of marriage for women being set at 18 years, it was found that in almost all States, women continued to get married before they turned 18. For ex.
**Given facts published by UNICEF- Ending child Marriage -A profile of progress in India (2023)
Reasons for child Marriage:
Socio-cultural reasons
Traditions and cultural mandates: The concept of "honour" is deeply entrenched in many societies, where a girl’s chastity is closely tied to family honour. Families may marry off girls early to ensure they remain virgins until marriage, thus upholding the family’s reputation.
Demand for dowry : The illegal yet persistent practice of dowry puts pressure on families to marry daughters early, as the dowry amount tends to increase with a girl’s age and education level. As Girl children are sometimes viewed as an economic burden, and marrying them off can be seen as a way to alleviate financial stress through the system of dowry.
Caste, community and ethnic pressure : If the children are married at an early age, they will not exercise deviant behaviour of searching of their partners on their own, which can be out of the caste or community groups.
Economic and Educational backwardness: The prevalence of child marriage is higher among poorer households. Financial constraints often lead to earlier marriages for girls. Because of this Child marriage is more common in rural areas and amongst certain social groups like Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Education level greatly affects the likelihood of child marriage, with a higher incidence among women with no or primary education.
Safety and security problems of girls:
Where schools are far from home, the journey to and from school can be dangerous for girls. Risks include abduction, trafficking, or assault.
Poverty in rural areas makes families believe that they do not need to go for family planning as more children will lead to more hands to work. Families think that boy will remain with them and girls will be married off to other families. So, they wish to marry them at an early age.
Historical reasons: There was a belief that girls should get married before the onset of puberty.
Trafficking: Child marriage can intersect with human trafficking, where impoverished families may be coerced into selling their daughters into marriage or prostitution for financial gain, often to support their sons, thereby subjecting the girls to harm and exploitation.
Legal and policy related measures:
The current act does not annul such marriages. It only gives the power to the bride to call off the marriage once she is an adult.
Ineffective enforcement of legislation and laws
Absence of females from the process of law-making.
Awareness and Limitations of Social Protection Programs: Families at risk of child marriage often lack awareness of available social protection programs, which tend to focus on cash transfers without addressing the complex issues surrounding child marriage.
Impact of child Marriage
Low levels of educational attainment: Child brides in India face significant hurdles in continuing their education. Statistics show that fewer than 2 in 10 married girls remain in school, which highlights the disruption of education due to early marriage.
Violence, Exploitation, and Abuse: Child marriage violates children's rights and places them at high risk of various forms of violence, exploitation, and abuse. While it affects both girls and boys, girls are disproportionately impacted.
Economic Consequences: child marriage can initiate an intergenerational cycle of poverty, where those married as children are more likely to lack the skills and knowledge needed to secure employment that would enable them to lift their families out of poverty.
Early pregnancy results in adverse health outcomes for both mother and child: Incidence of early marriage and childbearing are important causes of undernutrition in India. Children born to teenage mothers are more likely to be undernourished than children of adult mothers. India is home to more stunted children than any other country and is one of the ten countries with the largest burden of teenage pregnancy. ((Example- Recently, 10 infants died at Murshidabad Medical College and Hospital in a span of 24 hours. The hospital authorities said the majority of the children were born with extremely low birth weight. Murshidabad, one of the economically poorer districts of the State, has one of the highest numbers of child marriages in West Bengal. The NFHS 5 points out that 55.4% of women aged 2024 years are married before the age of 18 years in the district.))
population growth: Child marriage often leads to earlier and more frequent childbearing, contributing to population growth due to limited access to education and family planning resources.
Restricted Mobility: Child marriage can restrict the mobility of young brides and reduce their access to mass media such as TV, newspapers, and the internet compared to their unmarried counterparts. This restriction can further limit their exposure to information, education, and opportunities for personal development.
Limited or even absent peer networks: as their social interactions are often restricted to their spouse's family and household. This can isolate them from their peers and limit their opportunities for social development and support.
Govt Measures:
The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929: known as the Sarda Act, was a law enacted to prohibit the solemnization of child marriages in India. It set the minimum age of marriage at 14 years for girls and 18 years for boys. It extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir and it applies also to all citizens of India within and beyond India.
Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006:
It was implemented in India to address the shortcomings of the Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929.
This updated law increased the legal age of marriage to 18 years for girls and 21 years for boys and established harsher punishments for those who perform, permit, or promote child marriages.
It envisages preventing child marriage with punishments of rigorous imprisonment for two years and/ or fine of Rs. 1 lakh.
The Act also provides for the appointment of Child Marriage Prohibition Officer whose duties are to prevent child marriages and spread awareness regarding the same.
In addition, several national flagship programmes, including the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) scheme, the Scheme for Adolescent Girls (SAG) (previously known as SABLA), the Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK) (adolescent health) programme, various national- and state level conditional cash transfer (CCT) programmes for girls have been implemented to prevent child marriage like- Kanyashree Prakalpa(West Bengal) is a conditional cash transfer scheme aimed at incentivising the schooling of all teenage girls between the ages of 13 and 18, and simultaneously discouraging child marriage.
Steps may eventually reduce the age of marriage
Plugging the legal loopholes & Progressively the minimum age for marriage for girl child should be increased from 18 to 21. (Government had introduced the Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021 in Parliament in December 2021 for raising the age of marriage of women to 21 years to bring it on par with the men and the Bill has been referred to a Parliamentary Standing Committee.)
Enforcement of Right to Education Act, provisions should be made for free education of girl child till the university level.
Conditional cash transfer schemes to improve attendance of girls in schools and skill training.
Ensuring a safe environment to women free from constant threat of rape and sexual assault which is why girls are married off early.
Creating awareness among females, families and communities at large about need to educate females and marriage at an appropriate age.
Focused attention at locations where there is more prevalence of child marriages.
Civil Society organisations and NGOs should be encouraged to tackle the issue.
Child marriage is now firmly on the global development agenda, most prominently through its inclusion in Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) target 5.3, which aims to eliminate the practice by 2030.
Although indicator 5.3.1 measures child marriage among girls, the practice occurs among boys as well. Regardless of gender, marriage before adulthood is a breach of children’s rights.
Context: Structured negotiation is a collaborative and solution-driven dispute resolution technique which is increasingly being used as an alternative to litigation. It typically involves inviting the defaulting service provider to the negotiation table and impressing upon them the benefits of complying with social welfare legislations. While its utility pervades sectors, structured negotiation has been most effective in settling disability rights cases in the United States, a development that one of us, Ms. Feingold, has played no small part in ensuring.
First, what is a disability?
Right of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016
Defines "Person with disability" means a person with long term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which, in interaction with barriers, hinders his full and effective participation in society equally with others.
Let us look at the disabled population in our country
Disabled Population in India as per census 2011 (2016 updated) – In India out of the 121 Cr population, 2.68 Cr persons are disabled which is 2.21% of the total population.
Among the disabled population 56% (1.5 Cr) are males and 44% (1.18 Cr ) are females. In the total population, the male and female population are 51% and 49% respectively.
Majority (69%) of the disabled population resided in rural areas (1.86 Cr disabled persons in rural areas and 0.81 Cr in urban areas). In the case of total population also, 69% are from rural areas while the remaining 31% resided in urban areas.
Issues
Let us begin the discussion with a very good quote: which summarizes the overall issues faced by the disabled:
Unavailability of data and statistics:
And the reason for that is:
Difficult to define disability
Coverage: Different purposes require different disability data
Reluctance in reporting disability as disability is considered to be a stigma in many places/societies
Health
There is lack of affordable access to proper health care, aids and appliances
Healthcare facilities and poorly trained health-workers in rehabilitation centres is another concern
Education:
The education system is not inclusive.
Inclusion of children with mild to moderate disabilities in regular schools has remained a major challenge.
There are various issues such as availability special schools, access to schools, trained teachers, and availability of educational materials for the disabled.
Further, reservations for the disabled in higher educational institutions has not been fulfilled in many instances
Employment:
Even though many disabled adults are capable of productive work, disabled adults have far lower employment rates than the general population.
The situation is even worse in the private sector, where much less disabled are employed
Accessibility:
Physical accessibility in buildings, transportation, access to services etc still remain a major challenge.
Discrimination/Social Exclusion:
Negative attitudes held by the families of the disabled, and often the disabled themselves, hinder disabled persons from taking an active part in the family, community or workforce.
Differently-abled people face discrimination in everyday life. People suffering from mental illness or mental retardation face the worst stigma and are subject to severe social exclusion.
Hence these issues create a vicious cycle:
Right of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016
Defines "Person with disability" means a person with long term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which, in interaction with barriers, hinders his full and effective participation in society equally with others.
Accessible India Campaign : Creation of Accessible Environment for PwDs:
A nation-wide flagship campaign for achieving universal accessibility that will enable persons with disabilities to gain access for equal opportunity and live independently and participate fully in all aspects of life in an inclusive society.
DeenDayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme:
Under the scheme financial assistance is provided to NGOs for providing various services to Persons with Disabilities, like special schools, vocational training centres, community based rehabilitation, pre-school and early intervention etc
Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase / fitting of Aids and Appliances (ADIP):
The Scheme aims at helping the disabled persons by bringing suitable, durable, scientifically-manufactured, modern, standard aids and appliances within their reach.
But Poor implementation of policies and schemes hinders the inclusion of disabled persons. Though various acts and schemes have been laid down with an aim to empower the disabled, their enforcement face many challenges.
So in essence we can say that the disabled people have to go through everyday pain of being excluded from a whole host of normal life activities.
Not only that, they have to constantly find ways of living with equal productivity and dignity as others which the able-bodied often simply do not have to think about.
Because of which there exists a massive gap between what people with disabilities, when provided appropriate tools and resources, are capable of achieving and what they are allowed to achieve, on account of the multiple impediments placed in their path.
Way Forward
Prevention
A lot of disabilities are preventable: (Example wasting of muscles due to Polio)
large number of disabilities are preventable, including those arising from medical issues during birth, maternal conditions, malnutrition, as well as accidents and injuries.
However, the health sector especially in rural India has failed to react proactively to disability
Preventive health programs need to be strengthened and all children need to be screened at a young age.
Case Study: Kerala has already started an early prevention programme. Comprehensive Newborn Screening (CNS) programme seeks early identification of deficits in infants and reduce the state's burden of disability.
Awareness:
People with disabilities need to be better integrated into society by overcoming stigma
There should be awareness campaigns to educate and aware people about different kinds of disability
Success stories of people with disabilities can be showcased to inculcate positive attitude among people
Employment:
Disabled adults need to be empowered with employable skills o The private sector needs to be encouraged to employ them.
Better measurement:
The scale of disability in India needs to be better understood by improving the measurement of disability.
Education:
State-wise strategies on education for children with special needs need to be devised.There should be proper teacher training to address the needs of differently abled children and facilitate their inclusion in regular schools.
Safety measures like road safety, safety in residential areas, public transport system etc, should be taken up Further, it should be made legally binding to make buildings disabled-friendly
Policy Interventions:
More budgetary allocation for welfare of the disabled. There should be a disability budgeting on line of gender budget.
Proper implementation of schemes should be ensured. There should be proper monitoring mechanisms and accountability of public funds.
Context: The recent floods in Telangana's Mulugu district have unveiled a significant discovery of Paleolithic quartzite tools, specifically hand axes. The find, dating back approximately 30 lakh years to the Lower Paleolithic period, challenges existing knowledge about human habitation in Telangana and central India.
Findings at Mulugu district of Telangana
The identified tools were characterized by their chipping style, material, and size, consistent with the methods of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers.
These stone tools belong to the Lower Palaeolithic period about 30 lakh years ago. The Lower Palaeolithic Age is also known as the Old Stone Age or Early Stone Age. The Lower Palaeolithic Age lasted about 10,000 years.
The tools have been identified with the Lower Palaeolithic Age based on their chipping style, material and size of tools. Palaeolithic hunter gatherers used heavy quartzite and large tools. These tools were used cutting wood and killing animals for food. These tools are similar to the tools discovered at other Lower Palaeolithic Period sites across the world.
The historical context includes the 1863 discovery by the East India Company's Geological Survey team at Attirampakkam near Madras (present-day Chennai), revealing bifacial hand-axes dating back 15 lakh years. This Paleolithic culture has been termed the Madras Hand-Axe Industry or Madrasian Culture, contributing to our understanding of early human activities.
Stone tools:
Stone tools serve as the primary archaeological evidence that allows us to gain insights into the lifeways of prehistoric peoples.
When a sizable rock is intentionally fractured into two or more pieces, the largest fragment is termed the core, and the resulting tool is referred to as a core tool.
The smaller fragments detached from the original rock are known as flakes, and tools crafted from these flakes are termed flake tools.
Prehistory:
In 1859, primitive stone implements were discovered alongside fossilized bones of extinct wild cattle and other large mammals in northern Europe.
This revelation indicated that humans had inhabited northern Europe long before its landscape assumed its current configuration, leading to an extended period preceding recorded human history.
Sir John Lubbock, in his 1865 book ‘Prehistoric Times,’ formally announced the birth of a new scientific discipline known as Prehistory. He categorized the Stone Age into the Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age).
By the late 19th century, an intermediate stage, Mesolithic, was introduced between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic.
Additionally, the cultural sequence derived from cave and open-air sites in France led to the recognition of three phases within the Palaeolithic phase: Lower, Middle, and Upper.
Geographical settings in Indian subcontinent:
The Indian landscape possessed all the essential conditions for a successful hunting-gathering lifestyle:
diverse landforms facilitating the movement of such groups,
Presence of various basic rocks and siliceous stones suitable for toolmaking,
Perennial water bodies in the form of streams and springs, and a rich variety of wild plant and animal foods.
Except for the Himalayan tract and the Indo-Gangetic alluvial tracts, Stone Age groups occupied the entire Indian landmass.
Paleolithic phase in India:
Indian Paleolithic is categorized into three distinct developmental stages:
Lower Paleolithic: 600,000 years BP to 150,000 years BP
Middle Paleolithic: 165,000 BP to 31,000 years BP
Upper Paleolithic: 40,000 years BP to 12,000 years BP
Lower Paleolithic practices involve the utilization of large pebbles or flakes for crafting tools such as choppers, chopping tools, hand-axes, cleavers, knives, and more.
Middle Paleolithic:the focus shifted to the use of a diverse range of flakes struck from cores to create tools like scrapers, points, borers, and others.
Upper Paleolithic stage introduced further advancements, with implement types like blunted and pen knife blades, blades featuring serrated edges, and arrow points crafted on long parallel-sided blades struck in a series from cylindrical cores using the punch technique.
Lower Paleolithic phase
Comprises two primary tool-making or cultural traditions
1. Soanian tradition:
Part of the East and Southeast Asian chopper-chopping tool tradition.
Through field studies, they identified a series of five terraces on the Soan River, part of the Indus drainage system.
Tools from this tradition include pebbles with working edges on their sides or ends, obtained by flaking from one or both surfaces, producing choppers or chopping tools.
Pebble tool assemblages were found on the Indian side of the border in Sirsa and Ghaggar valleys of Haryana, Beas and Banganga valleys of Himachal Pradesh, and the Hoshiarpur-Chandigarh sector of the Siwalik Frontal Range.
2.Acheulian Cultural tradition:
Hand-axes and cleavers, represented advanced and increasingly symmetrical shapes.
Quartzite was the preferred rock for tool-making, but in areas where it was not naturally available, Acheulian groups utilized other rocks such as limestone in the Bhima basin,dolerite and basalt in Maharashtra, and fossil wood in Bihar and Bengal.
Techniques like stone hammer, soft hammer, and prepared core methods were employed to detach flakes and shape them into implements.
Key Lower Paleolithic sites
Singi Talav in western Rajasthan
Rock shelter III F-23 at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, providing Acheulian, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic, and Mesolithic levels.
Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh
Paisra in Munger district, Bihar: The excavation exposed hut-like dwelling structures and a circular arrangement of stone blocks.
Chirki-Nevasa in Maharashtra, yielding dolerite artifacts along with fossil bones of wild cattle and other animals.
Morgaon, a site in the Deccan basalt landscape in the Bhima drainage basin
Hunsgi in north Karnataka.
Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu, an in situ Acheulian site recently dated to 1.5 million years BP by advanced scientific techniques.
Middle Paleolithic phase:
Middle Paleolithic culture encompasses a diverse array of tools crafted from flakes, produced through specialized techniques, earning it the designation of a flake tool industry.
In Africa, Europe, South-West Asia and Russia, this culture is associated with the extinct Homo neanderthalensis, commonly known as Neanderthal man, who lived during the Upper Pleistocene period.
Middle Paleolithic tools in India are fashioned from flakes and flake-blades.
Tool types include various scrapers, awls, borers, unilateral or bilateral points, miniature handaxes and cleavers, and utilized flakes.
Stone types employed: Fine grained rocks like chert, jasper, chalcedony, agate etc.
Technique of making stone tools: Levallois technique, retouching etc.
Manufacturing sites also reveal the presence of hammers.
Middle Paleolithic Culture in India was first recorded in Pravara at Nevasa (Maharashtra) and then later in Godavari Valley in Karnataka by H. D. Sankalia. Sankalia named this culture Nevasian.
Middle Paleolithic sites are distributed across the Indian subcontinent.
Notable sites include: Didwana in Rajasthan, Hiran valley in Gujarat, Potwar Plateau between the Indus and Jhelum rivers, Budha Pushkar in Rajasthan, Luni river system (indicating tool industries west of the Aravallis), Chirki Nevasa in Maharashtra, and Kalpi in Uttar Pradesh.
Upper Palaeolithic phase:
Upper Palaeolithic marks the final phase of Palaeolithic era and stands out as a period of significant human achievements.
Upper Palaeolithic cultures flourished in Europe, South-West Asia, Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia during the later stages of Upper Pleistocene, often referred to as Late Pleistocene falling between 40,000 to 10,000 years ago.
The Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens (AMHS), the only surviving human species, is associated with this cultural phase, encompassing our own species.
Technologically, the Upper Palaeolithic is characterized by advancements in stone tool manufacture, particularly the production of parallel-sided blades.
These blades, refined and elongated in shape with parallel sides, are created through the prismatic-core technique or fluted-core technique.
Blades are produced by striking along the circumference of the core, resulting in a series of blades removed by indirect percussion.
Subsequently, these blades are further worked and finished through a process known as backing, resulting in tools termed backed blade tools.
In the Indian context, Upper Palaeolithic cultural relics are primarily stone tools based on blade-tool technology.
As most of these sites are open-air occupations, tools made of organic materials like bone are scarce due to disintegration in open-air conditions.
Bone tools, however, were discovered in the Kurnool caves (Andhra Pradesh), where favourable preservation conditions existed.
Bone tool industries of the Upper Palaeolithic phase:
These are known from the Kurnool cave sites in Andhra Pradesh, revealing a variety of tools such as awls, barbed and un-barbed arrowheads, daggers, scraper-knives, scrapers, chisels, gouges, wedges, axe heads, and sockets
These bone tools exhibit crude technology, reflecting the short-term nature of cave occupations.
Subsequent excavations in the Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi cave have revealed blade tools and bone tools, showcasing the technological diversity of this cultural phase.
Prominent Upper Palaeolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent include Chopani Mando in Belan valley, Baghor in Madhya Pradesh, Paisra in Munger district of Bihar, Haora and Khowai river valleys in western Tripura, Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh, Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi in Andhra Pradesh, and Renugunta in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh.
Context: India’s imports of palm oil rose in December because of competitive prices of palm oil.
About Palm Oil
Edible vegetable oil that comes from the fruit of oil palm trees. Native to West Africa and grows best in Tropical climate with abundant water. It has highest vegetable oil yielding capability per ha. Two types of oil can be produced; crude palm oil comes from squeezing the fleshy fruit, and palm kernel oil which comes from crushing the kernel, or the stone in the middle of the fruit.
PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL
Semi-solid at room temperature.
Resistant to oxidation and hence can provide longer shelf life to products
Stable at high temperature and hence can provide crispy and crunchy texture to fried products
Odourless and colourless and hence does not affect the colour or smell of food products.
Uses of Palm Oil:
Vegetable oil in food; Processed foods such as doughnuts, chocolate, pizza etc.; Consumer goods such as Deodorants, shampoos, toothpaste, lipstick etc.; animal feed and biofuel in some countries.
Global Production: Around 85% of Palm oil production comes from Indonesia and Malaysia followed by Thailand, Columbia and Nigeria.
Domestic Production:
Total cultivation- 3 Lakh hectares (2019); Production- 3 lakh tonnes;
Largest producers: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Kerala are major oil growing states accounting for 98% of production.
Demand-Supply Mismatch of Palm oil: Palm oil accounts for 60% of the imported edible oils. Almost 99% of Palm oil requirements are imported.
Context: The Delhi High Court permitted a depressed widow to terminate her 29-week pregnancy, citing the risk of mental harm. Despite the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment)Act's 24-week limit, special considerations apply to specific groups, including survivors of rape and vulnerable individuals.
About Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment)Act, 2021:
The Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act, 2021 alters the MTPA 1971.
The amendments increase the ambit and access of women to safe abortion services and will ensure dignity, autonomy, confidentiality and justice for women who need to terminate pregnancy.
Features of the amendment act:
The Amendment raises the upper gestation limit from 20 to 24 weeks for particular groups of women, include rape survivors, incest victims, and other vulnerable women (such as differently-abled women, minors), among others.
It replaces the terms “married woman and her husband” with the terms “woman and her partner”. As a result, an unmarried woman can also terminate pregnancies within the time limit prescribed under the Act.
Upper gestation limit not to apply in cases of substantial foetal abnormalities diagnosed by Medical Board.
The ground of failure of contraceptive has been extended to women and her partner up to 20 weeks
For safeguarding the privacy and confidentiality of women, section 5A of the Act penalise medical practitioners who fail to protect the privacy and confidentiality of women who desire to terminate their pregnancy.
Limitations of the Amendment Act:
Time frame for Medical Board’s decision not specified: The amended Act does not stipulate the time limit within which the medical board must make its decision, result in further complications for pregnant women.
Since the amended Act exclusively allows for the termination of pregnancies in the case of women, it is unclear if transgenders will be included under the amended Act.
Unavailability of qualified medical professionals to terminate pregnancies:The All-India Rural Health Statistics (2018-19) reveal a severe shortage of gynecologists in rural India. With only 1,351 serving at community health clinics, there's a substantial 75% shortfall (4,002 doctors), posing a significant obstacle to ensuring safe abortions.
Judicial inconsistency: Lower courts sometimes making flawed decisions that higher courts later correct on appeal. However, pregnant women experiencing physical hardships may not have sufficient financial resources for filing an appeal against an unjustifiable judgement resultantly becoming a victim of the tedious judicial system.
There is no provision for ensuring the accountability when death of the mother is caused due to the denial to abort.
Section 3 of the MTP Act, which rests the decision of undergoing a medical termination solely on the doctor’s opinion, also points to lack of autonomy for women.
Frontline healthcare workers (around 95%), the first points of contact for women—are also unfamiliar with the amendment to the MTP Act, 1971.
Suggested measures:
Need law on comprehensive abortion care is essential to ensure access to safe services, health and safety standards, financial accessibility, and protection from harassment (Shantilal Shah committee).
Social media emerged as one of the key sources of information for women. This should be used by the respective state health authorities to share messages on different clauses/sub-clauses of the MTP (Amendment) Act, 2021 in simple languages among women.
Provide a reasonable time frame within which the medical board must make its decision.
Advocate for the establishment of a fast-track appeal process, particularly in cases involving maternal health risks or physical hardships.
Propose the inclusion of provisions that hold healthcare providers accountable for maternal deaths resulting from the denial of abortion when it is legally permissible. This can act as a deterrent and ensure that medical decisions prioritize maternal health.
Need a mechanism for regular review and updates of the MTP Act to address emerging issues and ensure that the legislation remains relevant and effective.
Context: According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey, the unemployment rate among graduates is higher than in many other developing countries due to higher education out of touch with the skill requirements in the job market.
Unemployment rate in India:
According to PLFS:
It has reduced to 3.2% in 2022-23, from 6.1% in 2017-18.
Graduate degree unemployment rates has reduced to 13% in 2022-23 from 17% in 2017-18.
Unemployment rate for young workers aged 18 to 29 with graduate degrees, has reduced to 27% in 2022-23 from 36% in 2017-18.
The share of graduates in the labour force has risen to around 15% by 2022-23 from 5% in 1993-94.
Reason for mismatch between higher education and skill requirements in the job market:
Slow curriculum updates:Higher education institutions (HEIs) often have slow processes for updating curricula. This results in a lag between the emergence of new skills in the job market and their incorporation into academic programs.
Governance issues: As HEIs are affiliated with UGC or AICTE etc. they face challenges of over-centralisation, lack of autonomy and transparency.
Limited industry collaboration: Some higher education institutions may lack effective collaboration with industries. This can lead to a disconnect between academic content and the practical skills required in the workplace.
The degree-oriented education system: Focus on rote memorization and exams, which may not foster critical thinking, creativity, and skills.
Faculty skill gap: Faculty members may themselves lack up-to-date knowledge and skills relevant to rapidly changing industries, result in the transmission of outdated information and a lack of emphasis on cutting-edge technologies and practices.
Inadequate focus on research and innovation: Due to scarcity of funds, ill-equipped labs and weak linkage of Research, higher education and Industry. India’s research and development (R&D) expenditure as a proportion of GDP is only 0.7% and in Korea is 4%.
Government Initiative to address mismatch between higher education and skill requirements in the job market:
Scheme for Promotion of Academic and Research Collaboration (SPARC), 2018: For improving the research ecosystem of India’s Higher Educational Institutions.
Education Quality Upgradation and Inclusion Program (EQUIP) : To enhance access, inclusion, quality, excellence, and employability.
Technical Education Quality Improvement Programme of Government of India (TEQIP): To upscale and support ongoing efforts in improving the quality of technical education.
Institute of Eminence (IoE): To empower Higher Educational Institutions and to help them become world-class teaching and research institutions.
National Education Alliance for Technology (NEAT): To provide technology solutions using Artificial Intelligence for customized learning or e-content in niche areas having highly employable skills.
Measures to address mismatch between higher education and skill requirements in the job market:
Establish mechanisms to ensure that university curricula are regularly updated to reflect industry trends and emerging technologies.
Establish advisory boards with industry representation, promote joint research projects, and encourage industry professionals to participate in curriculum development to strengthen industry-academia linkage.
Incorporate modern technologies and tools into teaching methods to enhances the learning experience and also ensures that students are familiar with the technologies used in their future workplaces.
Establish channels for continuous feedback from employers about the performance of graduates in the workplace. Use this feedback to make necessary adjustments to educational programs.
Emphasize the development of soft skills, including communication, teamwork, problem-solving, and critical thinking, to enhance graduates' overall employability.
Context: Six states have tapped the market for borrowing Rs. 16,000 crore through issuance of state development loans (SDL).
Government Securities
A Government Security (G-Sec) is a tradable instrument issued by Central or State governments. It acknowledges the Government's debt obligation.
RBI as a Debt Manager
RBI Act mandates RBI to undertake receipts and payments of Central Government and carry out banking and management of public debt of the Union.
State Government transactions are carried out by RBI in terms of an agreement entered by RBI and State Governments under RBI Act. As of now, such agreements exist between RBI and all State Governments except Sikkim.
Thus, RBI is the banker and debt manager of the government.
RBI issues both, treasury bills and bonds or dated securities on behalf of Central Government while the State Governments issue only bonds or dated securities, which are called the State Development Loans (SDLs).
Types of Government Securities
Short Term Government Securities (maturity less than 1 year)
Treasury Bills:Money market instruments issued by GoI. Presently, issued in three tenors of 91 days, 182 days and 364 days.
Cash Management Bills: Issued by GoI to meet temporary mismatches in cash flow of GoI. They are like T-bills but are issued for maturities less than 91 days.
Long Term Government Securities (Maturity more than 1 year):
Dated G-Secs: They are securities which carry a fixed or floating coupon (interest rate) which is paid on face value, on a half-yearly basis. Tenor ranges between 5 to 40 years.
Fixed Rate Bonds: These are bonds on which the coupon rate is fixed for the entire life (i.e., till maturity) of the bond. Most Government bonds in India are issued as fixed rate bonds.
Floating Rate Bonds: FRBs are securities which do not have a fixed coupon rate. Instead, it has a variable coupon rate which is re-set at pre-announced intervals (say, every six months or one year).
Members of e-KUBER: Commercial Banks, Scheduled Urban Cooperative Banks, Primary Dealers, Insurance Companies and Provident Funds, who maintain funds account (Current Account) and securities account (Subsidiary General Ledger account) with RBI.
All members of E-Kuber can place their bids in the auction through this electronic platform.
Open Market Operations (OMO)
OMOs are a key monetary policy tool used by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to regulate liquidity in the banking system by buying or selling government securities (G-Secs) in the open market.
When RBI purchases government securities, it injects liquidity into the system. This encourages banks to lend more which can boost economic activity.
When RBI sells government securities, it absorbs excess liquidity and helps to control inflation by reducing the money supply.
OMOs are crucial for maintaining stable interest rates, ensuring adequate credit availability, and managing overall financial stability in the economy.
Context: Writ petition was filed in SC because of concerns raised over the decline in investor wealth and volatility in share market due to fall in share prices of Adani group.
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Background: The situation was caused by a report published by Hindenburg research about the financial transactions of the group.
The report alleged that the Adani group manipulated its share prices and failed to disclose transactions with related parties and other relevant information in violation of the regulations framed by SEBI and provisions of securities’ legislation.
Subsequently, Hindenburg Research took a short position in the Adani group through US-traded bonds and non- Indian traded derivative instruments.
Outcome of judgement:
SC has said that the Investigation conducted by the SEBI into the Adani Group “inspires confidence” and was prima facie comprehensive. The market regulator had already completed 22 out of the 24 investigations into the group.
The court has further ordered the SEBI to expeditiously complete the pending investigations, within three months, and said the regulator could not leave the probe “open-ended and indeterminate in time”.
The judgment refused the allegation that SEBI’s amendments in the Foreign Portfolio Investors Regulations and Listing Obligations and Disclosure Requirements (LODR) Regulations had been conducted as an exercise in “first opening a loophole and then plugging the loophole with deferred effect” and has now hindered the regulator’s investigation.
About Securities and Exchange Board of India:
The Securities and Exchange Board of India was constituted as a non-statutory body on April 12, 1988 through a resolution of the Government of India.
The Securities and Exchange Board of India was established as a statutory body in the year 1992 and the provisions of the Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992.
Objectives of SEBI
SEBI is entrusted with regulating the functioning of the Indian capital market. The objectives of SEBI as a regulatory body are to monitor and regulate India's securities market to safeguard investors' interests.
It aims to inculcate a safe investment environment by implementing several rules and regulations and formulating investment-related guidelines.
One of the main objectives is to avoid malpractices in the Indian stock market.
Context: Hundreds of people marched to Islamabad protesting against the atrocities committed against Balochistan people.
Baloch Issue
Since Pakistan's inception in 1947 following the Indian subcontinent's independence, Baloch separatism has persisted as a critical issue. This problem dates back to the period when around 500 princely states had to choose between India and Pakistan.
The integration of Balochistan into Pakistan posed significant challenges. There were rumours suggesting that the Khan of Kalat, central to modern-day Balochistan, desired to align with India, although substantial evidence supporting this claim is lacking. Nonetheless, Balochistan remained an independent entity under the Khan of Kalat until March 1948, when political pressures coerced the ruler into signing the instrument of accession.
Modern-day Balochistan stands as the largest among Pakistan's four provinces, strategically positioned in the southwestern part of the country, boasting abundant natural resources such as gas, oil, copper, and gold.
Balochistan historically comprised numerous tribes whose leaders maintained treaty relationships with the British. The Khan of Kalat held a pivotal position among these leaders, with his territories divided among several semi-autonomous feudatories. Makran, Las Bela, and Kharan emerged as separate political entities alongside Kalat, forming the Balochistan States Union.
Following the British withdrawal from India after World War II, the Khan of Kalat adamantly insisted on Kalat's sovereignty. Hoping to secure a friendship treaty instead of accession, based on his close ties with Jinnah, he initially succeeded in signing a treaty on August 11, 1947, acknowledging Kalat as an independent state.
However, complications arose when Kharan, Las Bela, and Makran, the three feudatories of Kalat, expressed a desire to accede to Pakistan. Jinnah, changing his stance on Kalat's independence, demanded the Khan to sign the instrument of accession as other states joining Pakistan had done. When the Khan persistently refused, Jinnah transferred negotiations to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
In 1948, the Pakistani government accepted the accession of the three feudatory states, leaving Kalat landlocked and with less than half of its original landmass. Additional pressure mounted when false news aired on All India Radio, alleging that Kalat intended to join India. With no viable option, the Khan eventually signed the instrument of accession.
Reasons for Baloch Issue
Marginalization stands as the primary issue stemming from Baluchistan’s forceful integration into Pakistan. Despite being the country's largest province, Balochistan possesses minimal influence in Islamabad's military and political spheres.
Economic and social underdevelopment forms another critical concern. Balochistan holds immense economic importance for Pakistan due to its significant oil and gas revenues. However, the state's investment in essential sectors like healthcare and education is disproportionately low compared to the generated resources. Consequently, Balochistan exhibits the poorest life expectancy, adult literacy rates, and primary school enrolment across Pakistan.
The Pakistani military's violent counterinsurgency measures constitute the third challenge. Since Baluchistan’s incorporation into Pakistan, the Pakistani Army has maintained a substantial presence in the region. This presence has led to the suppression of local resistance groups through coercive means, resulting in widespread violence, human rights abuses, internal displacement, and casualties among civilians and armed forces.
Furthermore, mega projects initiated by China as part of an agreement with Pakistan have exacerbated tensions. These projects have raised concerns among the Baloch population, perceiving them as a threat to their economy, environment, demography, and ethnic identity. The resentment towards these investments has led to violent acts by Baloch separatists, creating a precarious security environment for China's extensive infrastructure endeavours in the region.
India’s changed Policy
Initially, this policy shift signifies an escalation aimed at dissuading Pakistan's backing of terrorism against India. The Prime Minister's speech served as the preliminary step in this progression. Should Pakistan disregard this warning, subsequent actions might follow, potentially escalating further over time.
Secondly, the Prime Minister seeks to indicate a clear alteration in Indian policy. Given the failure of diplomatic isolation on a global scale and the unavailability of conventional warfare as an alternative, India contemplates bolstering existing rebellions by extending material support to Baloch insurgents.
Counterinsurgency demands extensive troop engagement, likely drawing Pakistan's infantry into conflict, despite Pakistan's use of airpower in Balochistan. This approach aims to inflict consequences on the Pakistan Army, seeking retribution for their use of terrorism against India. Moreover, it might prompt the Pakistan Army to consider negotiations to curb cross-border terrorism.
Notably, the Balochistan strategy grants India the opportunity to respond forcefully to Pakistan's use of terrorist tactics against India without fearing nuclear escalation.
An insurgency in Balochistan could potentially disrupt at least a segment of China's efforts, particularly related to the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), in its attempt to encircle India.
For years, Indian strategists have lamented India's insufficient intelligence and covert action capabilities within Pakistan. Supporting the Baloch rebellion could serve as a means for India to expand its intelligence-gathering and covert operation abilities in Pakistan.
