2024

Current Affairs

Importance, challenges and steps for Coastal ecosystems

Context: National Green Tribunal has asked the MoEFCC to ensure that all coastal states/UTs prepare the Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP) or Island Coastal Regulation Zone Plan (ICRZP) as per Coastal Regulation Zone notification, 2019.

India’s Coastline

India has a long coastline of over 7,500 km. The coastal area is a significant for India for the following reasons:

Importance of Coastal ecosystem

Conventional Energy Resources:

Shale deposits along coasts of Gujarat, TN and Andhra Pradesh
Rich Methane Hydrate deposits along the KG Basin. (Not yet harnessed).

Renewable Energy Potential:

Significant wind energy potential (665 GW) along with offshore wind.
Tropical coasts of India have vast solar energy potential.
Tidal energy and OTEC

Mineral Resources

Monazite sands and critical minerals important for India’s nuclear energy security.
Placer deposits rich in titanium and gold along coasts
Salt production and export principally in Gujarat.
Sand and construction material from coasts.

Food Resources

Rich in fisheries and aquaculture – Rich source of protein and exports.
Seaweeds for food and fertilisers.

Other important factors

Coastal cities and beautiful beaches are rich sources for tourism and water adventure sports.
Pearl fisheries and ornaments
Blue carbon: Coastal blue carbon focuses on rooted vegetation in coastal zone, such as tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses. These ecosystems have high carbon burial rates on a per unit area basis and accumulate carbon in their soils and sediments.

Challenges to Coastal Ecosystems

Natural challenges

Cyclones
Increased wave activity leading to erosion of the beaches.
Sea level rise: Sea level rise due to global warming is a key threat to coastal ecosystems and large populations living on the coasts.
Intrusion of seawater in the groundwater making normal groundwater saline. This happens due to excess withdrawal of groundwater.

Anthropogenic factors for coastal degradation

Sand mining and dredging
Construction of river dams upstream
Destruction of mangroves
Oil spills
Plastic waste disposal in coastal waters harming coastal biodiversity
Excessive fertilizer usage and spill-off leading to eutrophication.
Overdevelopment and population pressure in coastal areas

Steps taken to protect coastal ecosystem in India.

Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2018: MoEFCC has notified Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2018 under the Environmental Protection Act, 1986 to conserve and protect the unique environment of coastal and marine areas, protect livelihoods of fishermen and other coastal communities and promote sustainable Cdevelopment on scientific principles taking into account the dangers of natural hazards, sea level rise due to global warming.

Application of Coastal Regulation Zone:

Land area from High Tide Line to 500 metres on the landward side along the sea front.
The intertidal zone means land area between HTL and Low Tide Line.
Water and bed area between Low Tide Line to the territorial water limit in case of sea and water.

Classification of CRZs

CRZ-I: Areas environmentally most critical. It is further classified as:
- CRZ-I A: They constitute ecologically sensitive areas and geomorphological features which play a role in maintaining the integrity of the coast like: Mangroves, Corals and coral reefs, Sand dunes, Biologically active mudflats, protected areas (National Parks, WLS etc.), Salt marshes, Nesting grounds of turtles and birds, Horse shoe crab habitats, sea grass beds, heritage sites.
- CRZ-I B: Intertidal zone i.e., area between Low tide line and High Tide Line.
CRZ-II: Developed land areas up to or close to shoreline, within existing municipal limits or in other existing designated urban areas.
CRZ-III: Land areas that are relatively undisturbed (rural areas etc.) and those which do not fall under CRZ-II. It is further classified into:
- CRZ-III A: CRZ-III area with population density more than 2161 per sq. km. as per census 2011. In these areas, area up to 50 metres from the HTL on the landward side shall be earmarked as No development Zone.
- CRZ-III B: All other CRZ-III areas (population density less than 2161 per sq. km.). In these areas, area up to 200 metres from HTL on the landward side will be No Development Zone.
- CRZ-IV: CRZ constitutes the water area. It is further classified into:
  - CRZ-IV A: Water area and sea bed area between LTL up to 12 nautical miles on the seaward side.
  - CRZ-IV B: Includes water area and bed area between LTL and bank of the tidal influenced water body to the LTL on the opposite side of the bank, extending from the mouth of the waterbody at the sea up to the influence of tide.
- Coastal area accorded special consideration for protecting critical coastal environment:
  - Critically Vulnerable Coastal Area (CVCA): Following areas will be treated as CVCA and managed with involvement of coastal communities:
    - Sundarban region in West Bengal,
    - Gulf of Khambat and Gulf of Kutchh in Gujarat,
    - Malvan and Achra-Ratnagiri in Maharashtra,
    - Karwar and Coondapur in Karnataka, Vembanad in Kerala,
    - Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu,
    - Bhitarkanika in Odisha,
    - Coringa, East Godavari and Krishna in Andhra Pradesh
    - Inland Backwater islands and islands along mainland coast
    - Municipal limits of Greater Mumbai.

Activities prohibited with CRZ:

Setting up of new industries and expansion of existing industries, operations or processes.
Manufacture or handling of oil, storage or disposal of hazardous substances.
Land reclamation, bunding or disturbing the natural course of seawater except for activities permitted.
Discharge of untreated waste and effluents from industries, cities or towns and other human settlements.
Dumping of city or town wastes
Port and harbour projects in high eroding stretches of coast.
Mining of sand, rocks and other sub-strata materials.
Dressing or altering of active sand dunes.
Disposal of plastic into the coastal waters is prohibited
Drawal of ground water.

Coastal Vulnerability Index (Index)
Blue Flag Certification of Beaches: Blue Flag Certification standards have been established in 1985 by Copenhagen-based Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE), a not-for-profit, non-governmental organisation. Ten Indian beaches have Blue Flag Certification:
1. Shivrajpur in Gujarat
2. Kovalam in Tamil Nadu
3. Ghoghla in Diu
4. Eden in Puducherry
5. Kasarkod, in Karnataka
6. Padubidri in Karnataka
7. Kappad in Kerala
8. Rushikonda in Andhra Pradesh
9. Golden in Odisha
10. Radhanagar in Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Regeneration of Mangroves in the coastal areas. Central Government has notified MISHTI scheme for regeneration of Mangroves in Coastal areas.
Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan: Focuses on prevention of soil erosion, shelterbelt plantation, mangrove plantation, strengthening requirements for ecosystem monitoring, biodiversity conservation and sustainable livelihood of coastal communities.

Way forward/Suggestions

Conducting a nationwide island and coastal areas vulnerability assessment for understanding vulnerability of coastal areas.
Installation of GPS/GNSS based station with respect to each tide gauge across islands to estimate vertical land motion which can accurately quantify the future sea-level rise over India’s coasts and islands.
Conducting field based topographic surveys to map the accurate inundation of islands and coasts under different climate change scenarios.
Nature-based growth and development of blue economy based on marine and coastal fronts.
Nature-based restoration of environment and ecology on India’s coasts and islands.
Mainstreaming Climate-resilient activities for livelihood.
Protection of coral reefs and mangroves and monitoring of coral bleaching and mangrove regeneration.
Monitoring shoreline change rate to identify hotspot zones.
Construction of coastal structures for protection of highly eroded shoreline zones.

Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMP)

Context: In a recently published paper by Raman Research Institute (RRI), an autonomous institute of the Department of science and Technology (DST), they confirmed the relevance of Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMP) by relaxing certain earlier assumptions and hence proved that theorizing dark matter from particle physics was possible.

Dark Matter

About 80% of the matter in the universe cannot be observed through telescopes due to instrument limitations. This is due to its weak interaction with the electromagnetic waves which are used by scientists to map the universe. Because of this particular reason this part of the universe is invisible to human eyes and termed as ‘Dark Matter’.

Despite being invisible, the presence of dark matter can be detected through its gravitational influence, evident in the orbital speed of stars around galaxies and the movements of clusters of galaxies. But this matter’s true nature and interaction with other matters remains undefined.

Cold Dark Matter (CDM)

Out of this dark matter, 25% is identified as cold dark matter.

This differentiation of dark matter is done on the basis of the mass of dark matter particles and they are categorised as "cold" or "hot."
According to the standard model for dark matter, Lower-mass particles are considered "warmer" and move faster and if particles are "cold," it means they move slowly compared to the speed of light and have higher mass.
To unravel this mystery, extensive research is ongoing. Many scientists believe that the discovery of new kinds of subatomic particles, fundamentally different from those composing ordinary matter, will lead to a resolution.

Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMP)

WIMPs represent one hypothesised class of particles to explain dark matter.

They neither absorb nor emit light and have weak interactions with other particles. However, when WIMPs encounter each other, they annihilate, producing gamma rays.
Such particles arises naturally in extensions of the standard model of particle physics and predict the correct energy density of the Cold Dark Matter for plausible range of interaction strength (WIMP miracle).
However, in spite of intensive searches and orders of magnitude improvement in the sensitivity of lab experiments (e.g. Xenon based experiments), WIMP has not yet been detected.

Slums in India

Context: The Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) is claiming that the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) is carrying out a deliberate dismantling of slum settlements, which could have far-reaching consequences for a significant number of Delhi's residents.

The issue of slum demolition and urban redevelopment is multifaceted, involving a delicate balance between urban planning, housing rights, and political motivations. It tends to be a contentious subject because, while some perceive it as necessary for urban progress and modernization, others view it as a process that displaces impoverished communities, often without providing satisfactory alternatives for their relocation or livelihoods.

What is Slum?

The definition of “Slum” varies from country to country. In India, the central government through the office of the Registrar General of India’s National Sample Survey office have their own definition in the same way as each state has its own definition of slum.

Definition of Slum as per census 2011

There are regional differences in the names by which slums are known in India. In Delhi, slums are commonly called ‘Jhuggi-Jhompdi’, whereas in Mumbai they are called Jhopadapatti or Chawls’. Other known names are- ‘Ahatas’ in Kanpur, ‘Bustees’ in Kolkata, ‘Cheris’ in Chennai and ‘Keirs’ in Bangalore.

But physical characteristics in most of these slums are essentially the same. They are usually a cluster of hutments with dilapidated and infirm structure shaving common or no toilet facilities, suffering from lack of basic amenities, inadequate arrangements for drainage and for disposal of solid and wastages and garbage.

These in adequacies make the living conditions in slums extremely suboptimal, unhygienic and results in usually higher incidence of air and water borne diseases for the dwellers.

Maharashtra had a population of 1.18 crore living in slums in 2011, followed by Andhra Pradesh at nearly 1.02 crore. At 2.20 crore, these two states accounted for more than one-third of India’s 6.55 crore slum population (2011 Census).

Key Factors Responsible for growth of Slums

1. Rapid Urbanization: The migration of people from rural areas to cities in search of better job opportunities and living conditions leads to rapid urbanization.

This often results in the development of slums as cities struggle to accommodate the influx of people.

According to the Union Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, about 34% of India's population lived in urban areas in 2019, and this is projected to reach 40% by 2030, contributing to the expansion of slums.

Roughly 1.37 crore households, or 17.4% of urban Indian households lived in a slum in 2011, data released by the registrar general and census commissioner.

2. Lack of Affordable Housing & Poverty: The deficit of affordable housing in urban areas leaves low-income groups with no choice but to reside in slums. Further High levels of poverty force people to seek affordable housing, which is often found in slum areas.

In India, 21.9% of the population lives below the national poverty line in 2011.

3. Weak Urban Planning: Weak governance and corruption can lead to inadequate implementation of housing policies and urban development plans, contributing to the growth of slums. The absence of effective slum redevelopment policies has led to the proliferation of slums in major cities like Mumbai and Delhi.

4. Migration: Internal migration due to factors like natural disasters or conflicts leads to the formation of slums. Further Environmental issues like land erosion, floods, and droughts in rural areas push people towards cities, often resulting in slum living due to the lack of alternatives. States like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, which have high rates of out-migration, often see their residents ending up in slums of metropolitan cities.

5. Socio-Political Factors: Discrimination and social inequalities based on caste, religion, or ethnicity can marginalize certain groups, limiting their access to adequate housing and forcing them into slums.

For Eg-Marginalized communities like the Dalits often face housing discrimination, leading to higher slum populations among these groups.

According to 2011 census-Around 40% of slum population of Punjab is SC, Tamil Nadu has 32%, Chandigarh has 30% and Haryana has 30% SC slum population.

6. Economic Disparities: The widening gap between the rich and the poor in urban areas results in a lack of affordable options for the lower-income groups, pushing them towards slum areas.India's Gini coefficient, a measure of income inequality, has been rising, indicating growing economic disparities.

7. Lack of Legal Recognition: The lack of legal recognition of slum dwellers' rights often leads to a neglect of these areas in urban planning and development.

Many slum dwellers do not have formal property rights, affecting around 65 million people in India according to some estimates.

8. Globalization: It has led to uneven urban development, where certain areas become highly developed while others are neglected, leading to slum formation.

The rapid growth of Global IT hubs in cities like Hyderabad and Bengaluru has not been matched with proportional housing and infrastructure development in all areas.

Issues faced by Slum Dwellers:

1. Overcrowding and Poor Living Conditions: Slums are characterized by high population density, resulting in cramped and inadequate living spaces. This leads to a lack of privacy, increased stress, and difficulty in maintaining hygiene. The houses are often constructed from makeshift materials, lacking durability and safety.

For eg- Dharavi is Asia’s largest slum. It is spread over 2.5 square kilometres and has a population density of 227,136/square kilometre.

2. Lack of Basic Amenities: Many slums have limited access to essential services like clean drinking water, sanitation, and reliable electricity. This leads to health risks due to contaminated water and poor hygiene. The scarcity of toilets forces residents to use open spaces or overcrowded public facilities, exacerbating health and dignity concerns.

3. Health Issues: The conditions in slums, including poor sanitation, inadequate nutrition, and overcrowded living spaces, contribute to the spread of communicable diseases like tuberculosis and cholera. Limited access to healthcare exacerbates these issues.

4. Quality Education: Children in slums face challenges in accessing quality education. Schools in these areas are typically under-resourced, with high student-teacher ratios and inadequate infrastructure. This results in lower literacy rates and educational attainment, perpetuating the cycle of poverty.

5. Unemployment and Underemployment: A significant portion of slum residents are employed in the informal sector, which offers unstable and low-paying jobs. This lack of job security and benefits such as healthcare and pensions contributes to the economic vulnerability of these populations.

6. Environmental Degradation: The lack of proper waste management systems in slums leads to environmental issues like pollution of nearby water bodies and land. This not only harms the environment but also poses health risks to the residents and the broader community.

7. Social Stigma and Discrimination: Slum dwellers often face social stigma, which impacts their ability to access services, find quality employment, and integrate into wider society. This discrimination can lead to social exclusion and perpetuate the cycle of poverty.

8. Legal and Policy Challenges: Many slums are built on land without legal permission, making it difficult for the government to provide basic services or enforce regulations. This uncertain legal status also leaves residents vulnerable to evictions and displacement.

9. Impact on vulnerable section:

Women in slums face specific challenges, including limited access to healthcare, especially reproductive health services, and higher vulnerability to violence. Cultural and societal norms often restrict their mobility and access to education and employment opportunities.

Economic hardships often compel families to send their children to work, depriving them of education and exposing them to hazardous conditions. Child labor is prevalent in sectors like garment manufacturing, where children work long hours for minimal wages.

Govt Initiatives

Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Urban (PMAY-U) - It has In-Situ Slum Redevelopment (ISSR) as one of its four components under which slum rehabilitation can be taken up using land as a resource.
The Integrated Housing & Slum Development Programme (IHSDP) merged the National Slum Development Programme (NSDP) and Valmiki Ambedkar Malina Basti Awas Yojana (VAMBAY). It sought to offer adequate shelter and infrastructure to slum dwellers in urban areas.
The Interest Subsidy Scheme for Housing the Urban Poor (ISHUP) - The Scheme envisages the provision of interest subsidy to EWS and LIG segments to enable them to buy or construct houses. It will provide home loan with Central Government subsidy to EWS/LIG persons for acquisition of house as also for construction of house.

The problem of slums in developing nations is intricate and multi-dimensional, necessitating a comprehensive strategy to tackle the diverse difficulties encountered by residents of these areas. Initiatives aimed at bettering living standards, offering cost-effective housing, and boosting economic prospects are crucial in making significant progress in easing the struggles of slum inhabitants. Through focused and cooperative approaches, it's feasible to attain the objective of establishing sustainable and inclusive urban settings.

Bhogali Bihu: Magh Bihu 2024

Context: As part of Bhogali Bihu, a community fishing event was organised in the Bamuni Lake in Guwahati, Assam.

About Bhogali Bihu:

Magh Bihu, also known as Bhogali Bihu or Maghar Domahi, is a significant harvest festival celebrated in the northeastern region of India, particularly in Assam.
This festive occasion, occurring in the month of Magh (January–February), serves as the culmination of the harvesting season.
The festivities are marked by a combination of feasts and bonfires. Young individuals engage in the construction of makeshift huts known as Meji and Bhelaghar, fashioned from bamboo, leaves, and thatch.
Traditional Assamese games, including tekeli bhonga (pot-breaking) and buffalo fighting, add a cultural flair to the celebrations.
In contemporary times, Magh Bihu is observed on a single day, whereas historically, the festival extended throughout the entire month of Magh, thus giving it the name Magh Bihu.
The eve before the festival, known as ‘Uruka’, involves people gathering around bonfires, preparing meals, and enjoying merrymaking.
In addition to the main Magh Bihu festivities, related celebrations such as Sangken can be observed in Assam and Arunachal.
The Kacharis, an indigenous Assamese community, partake in similar customs.
The Khamti people observe a Bonfire tradition related to Buddha. This unique ritual, distinct from other Tai groups, suggests that the Khamtis likely adopted the practice from locals in the 18th century, evolving it into a Buddhist rite.

About Bamuni hills:

Location: Right bank of the Brahmaputra River.
These hills are a tourist attraction for sculptural ruins and stone carvings.
As per the Archaeological Survey of India, under whose control this area currently is, has fixed the date of these ruins at 10th to 12th century A.D.
The ruins as per the popular belief might have belonged to a temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu.
Although it is not clear as to who had this temple constructed, it is generally believed that it was built during the rule of early Pala rulers. The findings suggest that the temple was a north Indian Nagara style.
The remains of the subsidiary shrines at the four corners of the main center make it a Panchayatana temple complex.
The Kolia bhomora setu (Bridge) is also situated nearby to the Bamuni hills.

About Chandubi lake:

Recently, the Chandubi festival was celebrated in Assam.
The main attractions of the Chandubi festival are local folk culture, ethnic cuisine, local handloom and dresses, boating, etc.
The festival is mainly to promote eco-tourism.
The lake is situated at the foot of the Garo hills, in Kamrup district, Assam. It is a biodiversity hotspot with a surrounding forest area and the Kulsi River flowing in close vicinity.
The area was formerly filled with five mountains. However, during the massive earthquake in 1897, the five mountains had sunken into the ground and hence, the lake was formed.
The chief feature is the natural lagoon that has been formed in the lake.
The name Chandubi is derived from two words where Chand means five and Dubi means sinking in Khasi language.
Chandubi is also a bird sanctuary, as it attracts a large number of migratory birds during the winter season.

Wetland City Accreditation (WCA) under Ramsar Convention

Context: MoEF&CC has submitted three nominations from India for Wetland City Accreditation (WCA) of Indore (Madhya Pradesh), Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) & Udaipur (Rajasthan) under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.

Wetland City Accreditation under Ramsar Convention

It is a voluntary accreditation system established under Ramsar Convention during Conference of Parties -12 (COP-12) held in 2015.
It recognizes cities which have taken exceptional steps to safeguard their urban wetlands.
It aims to further promote the conservation and wise use of urban and peri-urban wetlands, as well as sustainable socio-economic benefits for local populations.
It seeks to encourage cities that are close to and dependent on wetlands, primarily Wetlands of International Importance, but also wetlands with other conservation category status, to develop and strengthen a positive relationship with these valuable ecosystems.
This voluntary scheme provides an opportunity for cities that value their natural or human-made wetlands to gain international recognition and positive branding opportunities for their efforts in demonstrating strong positive relationships with wetlands.
To be formally accredited, a candidate for the Wetland City Accreditation should satisfy the standards used to implement each of the six international criteria mentioned Operational Guidance for WCA of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
Criteria for a city or a human settlement to be accredited as Wetland City Accrediation:
- Criterion 1: It has one or more Ramsar Sites, or other wetland conservation sites fully or partly situated within its jurisdiction, which provide(s) a range of ecosystem services to the city;
- Criterion 2: It has adopted measures for conservation of wetlands and their ecosystem services;
- Criterion 3: It has implemented wetland restoration and/or management measures;
- Criterion 4: It considers the challenges and opportunities of integrated spatial/land-use planning for wetlands under its jurisdiction;
- Criterion 5: It has raised public awareness about the values of wetlands by delivering locally adapted information, and enabled participation of local stakeholders in decision making processes;
- Criterion 6: It has established a local committee with appropriate knowledge and experience on wetlands and representation of and engagement with stakeholders to support the preparation work to apply for the Wetland City Accreditation of the Ramsar Convention and the implementation of proper measures to maintain the city’s qualifications for the accreditation.

Cities accredited as Wetland Cities Accreditation under Ramsar Conventions

Nominated Sites by India

These are the first three Indian cities for which nominations have been submitted for Wetland City Accreditation (WCA). These three cities have been selected by MoEFCC based on proposals submitted by State Wetlands Authorities in collaboration with Municipal Corporations.
Indore: Founded by Holkars, Indore is the cleanest city in India and the recipient of India’s Smart City Award 2023 for its best sanitation, water, and urban environment.
- Sirpur Lake, a Ramsar Site in the city, has been recognised as an important site for water bird congregation and is being developed as a Bird Sanctuary.
- Yashwant Sagar is a Ramsar site located close to Indore.
- A strong network of more than 200 wetland mitras is engaged in bird conservation and sensitising local community to protect Sarus Crane.

Bhopal:Bhoj Wetland, Ramsar Site is the city’s lifeline, equipped with the world-class wetland’s interpretation centre, Jal Tarang.
- Additionally, the Bhopal Municipal Corporation has a dedicated Lake Conservation Cell.
- A network of more than 300 wetland mitras is engaged in wetland management and conservation of Sarus Crane.

Udaipur: Located in Rajasthan, the city is surrounded by five major wetlands, namely, Pichola, Fateh Sagar, Rang Sagar, Swaroop Sagar, and Doodh Talai.
- These wetlands are an integral part of the city’s culture and identity, help maintain the city’s microclimate, and provide a buffer from extreme events.

PRITHvi VIgyan (PRITHVI)

Context: The Union Cabinet has approved the overarching scheme Promoting Research in Earth Systems Science, Technology, & Human Resource Development “PRITHvi VIgyan (PRITHVI)”.

About PRITHVI Scheme:

Launched in: 2021
Till: 2026
Type of scheme: Central Sector Scheme
Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Earth Sciences
Outlay: Rs. 4,797 crore.
Aim: To enhance the understanding of the Earth and its vital signs.

Scheme subsumed:

Atmosphere & Climate Research-Modelling Observing Systems & Services (ACROSS): It addresses different aspects of weather and climate services, which includes warnings for cyclone, storm surges, heat waves, thunderstorms etc.
Ocean Services, Modelling Application, Resources and Technology (O-SMART): For promoting ocean research and setting up early warning weather systems.
Polar Science and Cryosphere Research (PACER): To improve the understanding of Polar Science and cryosphere systems.
Seismology and Geosciences (SAGE): To strengthen earthquake monitoring and research on the Earth’s solid components
Research, Education, Training and Outreach (REACHOUT): To fosters talent development and ensures effective translation of research into services directly benefiting society

Objective of PRITHVI Scheme

Augmentation and sustenance of long-term observations of the atmosphere, ocean, geosphere, cryosphere, and solid earth to record the vital signs of the Earth System and change.
It is also intended for the development of modelling systems for understanding and predicting weather, ocean, and climate hazards and understanding the science of climate change.
Exploration of polar and high seas regions of the Earth towards discovery of new phenomena and resources.
Development of technology for exploration and sustainable harnessing of oceanic resources for societal applications.
Translation of knowledge and insights from Earth systems science into services for societal, environmental and economic benefit.

Significance:

The scheme emphasises a holistic and integrated approach to Earth system science.
It allows for collaborative research across disciplines, tackling complex challenges in areas like extreme weather, oceanic resources, and cryosphere changes.
The scheme paves the way for innovative programs and solutions that address pressing environmental and societal concerns.
It will nurture a skilled workforce of Earth system scientists for the future.
The scheme marks a significant leap forward in India’s commitment to understanding and managing the complex dynamics of the Earth.

International Labour Organisation warns about rising global unemployment

Context: ILO in its ‘World Employment and Social Outlook’ report highlighted that the global unemployment rate is set to increase in 2024.

About International Labour Organisation (ILO)

It is the only tripartite U.N. agency which brings together governments, employers and workers, (Tripartite) to set labor standards, develop policies and devise programmes promoting decent work for all women and men.
It was created in 1919, under the League of Nations, as part of the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I, to reflect the belief that universal and lasting peace can be accomplished only if it is based on social justice.
In 1946, the ILO became a specialized agency of the newly formed United Nations.
It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.
In 1969, the ILO received the Nobel Peace Prize for improving fraternity and peace among nations, pursuing decent work and justice for workers, and providing technical assistance to other developing nations.
The Governing Body is the executive body of the International Labour Organization. It meets three times a year, in March, June and November.
The ILO constitution permits any member of the United Nations to become a member of the ILO.
ILO is also a member of the United Nations Development Group (UNDG).
The International Labour Conference, held in June 2019, adopted a landmark ILO Centenary Declaration (focuses on the major challenges and opportunities for the future of work, ranging from technology to climate change, from demographic shifts to the need for new skills).

Eleven Fundamental Instruments of the International Labour Organisation:

ILO Governing Body has identified 11 fundamental conventions covering subjects which are considered to be fundamental principles and rights at work. Their Conventions (or Protocols) are legally binding international treaties that may be ratified by member states.

ILO Convention 87: Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organize Convention, 1948.
ILO Convention 98: Right to Organize and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949
ILO Convention 29 and its 2014 Protocol: Forced Labour Convention, 1930. (India has ratified)
ILO Convention 105: Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (India has ratified)
ILO Convention 138: Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (India has ratified and enacted the Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation)
ILO Convention 182: Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (India has ratified)
ILO Convention 100: Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (India has ratified)
ILO Convention 111: Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (India has ratified)
ILO Convention 155: Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981
ILO Convention 187: Promotional Framework for Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 2006

India has ratified 6 fundamental conventions out of the 11 fundamental conventions. ILO Conventions ratified by India are: ILO Convention 29 (Forced Labour Convention), ILO Convention 105 (Abolition of Forced Labour Convention), ILO Convention 138 (Minimum Age Convention), ILO Convention 182 (Worst Forms of Child Labour), ILO Convention 100 (Equal Remuneration Convention) & ILO Convention 111 (Discrimination (Employment & Occupation) Convention).

Governance Conventions:

ILO Governing Body has designated four Conventions as governance (priority) instruments, thereby encouraging member states to ratify them because of their importance for the functioning of the international labor standards system. The four governance conventions are:

Labour Inspection Convention, 1947 (India has ratified)
Employment Policy Convention, 1964 (India has ratified)
Labour Inspection (Agriculture) Convention, 1969
Tripartite Consultation (International Labour Standard) Convention, 1976 (India has ratified).

Reports released by ILO:
- World Employment and Social Outlook
- World Social Protection Report
- Global Estimates of Modern Slavery
- Global Wage Report
- Global Employment Trends for Youth

Atal Setu

Context: PM inaugurated the country’s longest bridge over the sea, the 22km Mumbai Trans Harbour link, officially the Atal Setu Nhava Sheva Sea Link.

Atal Setu (Atal Setu Nhava Sheva Sea Link)

It is the longest sea bridge in India.
It is a 22km long twin carriage way six lane bridge over the Thane Creek in the Arabian Sea.
It is a 16.5-km-long sea bridge, and a 5.5-km-long elevated road on land.
It will connect Sewri in the island city of Mumbai to Chirle in Raigad district on the mainland.
The project is collaboration between MMRDA (Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), which agreed to fund 80 per cent of the project cost, with the rest being borne by the state and central governments.

Significance of Atal Setu

Bring down the average travel time between Sewri and Chirle from 61 minutes currently to less than 16 minutes.
Facilitate greater economic integration of Navi Mumbai with Mumbai with benefits extended to adjoining areas and also address the limits of growth of the Greater Mumbai Area.
Significantly improve connectivity between South Mumbai and the under-construction Navi Mumbai International Airport, the Mumbai Pune Expressway, the Mumbai-Goa Highway, and the main hinterland in general.
Provide improved access to Jawaharlal Nehru Port.
A consistent increase in business opportunities and economic growth will be one of the positive outcomes of the Atal Setu.

Concern with Atul Setu Project

Traditional fishing communities will have to pay a heavy price for all the development projects being carried out in fishing zones without their consent.
The deposition of sediments in these zones has wreaked havoc on the ecology of these areas, leading to hundreds of hectares of rich fishing zones being transformed into thick mangrove cover, which impacts biodiversity as well as the thousands of traditional fishers.

Way Ahead

Government agencies should consult the fishing community before announcing such projects that have an impact on their livelihood.

Tribes and Displacement

Context: Many villages were displaced during the construction of Hirakud Dam in Odisha. Many villagers still await proper rehabilitation and ownership documents over the land over which they were resettled. To address their issues, Odisha government has recently launched an initiative to regularise land ownership of such tribals.

About displacement of tribals:

It refers to the forced relocation or movement of indigenous or tribal communities from their traditional lands or habitats.
There are two types of displacement:
- Displacement affected by natural disasters in the form of draughts, floods, earthquakes and cyclone;
- Displacement due to developmental projects like dams, mines, thermal power plants, industries, railways, roads, ports and others.

Reason for displacements of tribals:

According to the Lok Sabha: Till 2019

Development Displacement Population is the single largest category among all Internally Displaced Populations (IDPs).
In India around 50 million people have been displaced due to development projects in over 50 years.
Around 21.3 million developments induced IDPs include those displaced by dams (16.4 million), mines (2.55 million), industrial development (1.25 million) and wildlife sanctuaries and national parks (0.6 million).

Positive impacts of displacement:

A few persons may experience improvement in their status by way of increase in the size of landholdings.
A rise in income may occur in certain cases by the employment opportunities created by the Project.
A break in some oppressive social hierarchies may also result.

Negative impact of displacement on tribes:

Land is the center of tribal life. The effects of the displacement spill over generations. There are following impact of displacement on tribals:

1. Social-Cultural Problems:

Cultural disintegration: It can lead to the erosion of traditional customs, languages, and practices as tribes are separated from their cultural heritage, weaken the transmission of cultural knowledge from one generation to the next. E.g.: The Dongria Kondh tribe in Odisha faced cultural disintegration due to mining projects threatening their sacred Niyamgiri Hills.
Decline in Joint Family System: In Odisha the predisplacement level of 40 nuclear and 60 joint families was changed into 74 and 26 respectively with both tribal and non-tribal families showing the same trend of breaking down of joint family to nuclear families.
Social cohesion and identity: It can fragment tribal communities, leading to the breakdown of social networks and the loss of a collective identity, result in social conflicts and challenges in rebuilding a sense of community and solidarity.
Loss of status of women: Adverse conditions compel women and young girls to seek employment outside their homes, rendering them highly vulnerable to physical and economic exploitation. Moreover, gender discrimination is evident in the resettlement process, where unmarried daughters and widows often face challenges in obtaining land titles.

2. Economic challenges:

Economic hardship: The loss of access to natural resources and traditional means of subsistence can lead to economic hardships and increased dependence on external assistance and increase indebtedness.
Loss of land: Tribes often have a deep connection to their ancestral lands, which provide not just a physical space but also a spiritual and cultural foundation. E.g: Sardar Sarovar Dam has led to the displacement of numerous tribal communities. The loss of their ancestral land affects their traditional livelihoods, which are often dependent on agriculture and forest resources.
Disruption of livelihoods: It often results in the disruption of traditional livelihoods, such as agriculture, fishing, or craft-making, leading to a decline in income-generating activities.

3. Health issues:

Forced relocation may expose tribes to new diseases such as influenza, measles and chicken pox, inadequate healthcare, and poor living conditions, leading to a decline in overall health.

4. Education disruption:

Tribal children often face disruptions in their education when displaced. Loss of access to schools, cultural disconnect in mainstream educational systems, and challenges in adapting to new environments can hinder educational opportunities for tribal youth.

5. Psychological impact:

Tribes can find themselves marginalized in new environments, facing discrimination and challenges in integrating into mainstream societies, can lead to psychological trauma, stress, and a sense of loss among tribal individuals.

Step towards rehabilitation and resettlement of internally displaced persons (IDPs):

1. Constitutional Provision:

Art. 164: Appoint a special minister for tribal welfare in the states of MP, Bihar, and Orrisa.
Art. 275: Allows special grant in aids to states for tribal welfare
Art.16: Reservation in public employment in the ratio of their population
Art. 15: Reservation in public educational institutes in their population ratio.
Art. 243D: Provides reservation of seats for SC and STs in panchayats.
Art. 233T: Provides reservation of seats for SCs and STs in municipalities.
Art. 330: Provides reservation of seats for STs in Lok Sabha.
Art. 334: Provides reservation of seats for STs in State legislatures.
Article 338A: Special officer post for protection of interests of STs
Article 339: Control the union over the welfare of the scheduled tribe.
Article 342: Empower the president to declare a community as ST.

2. Legislative measures:

National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy, 2007: To minimize displacement and promote, as far as possible, non- displacing or least displacing alternatives also ensure adequate rehabilitation package and expeditious implementation of the rehabilitation process with the active participation of those affected.

The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 (RFCTLARR Act, 2013) : Regulates land acquisition and lays down the procedure and rules for granting compensation, rehabilitation and resettlement to the affected persons in India.
- It is progressive in that it is the first to legally mandate comprehensive Resettlement and Rehabilitation of Project.
- Affected Persons; but the definition of ‘public purpose’ remains too wide and will not help in minimizing displacement.
- Provisions for ST in LARR: As far as possible, no acquisition of land shall be made in the Scheduled Areas. In case of acquisition or alienation of any land in the Scheduled Areas, the prior consent of the concerned Gram Sabha or the Panchayats or the autonomous District Councils shall be obtained

Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act (PESA Act), 1996: Powers granted to Gram Sabha under PESA like consultation before the land acquisition, prevent land alienation, power to enforce prohibition, prior approval of all developmental projects, selection of beneficiaries of poverty alleviation and other schemes of individual benefits, control over money lending activities etc.

Measures to secure rights of displaced people:

Recommendation given by Xaxa Committee (2014) :
- In pursuance of the PESA, 1996, Land Transfer Regulations/Tenancy laws of all Schedule V Areas should be suitably amended to ensure Gram Sabha’s participation in the identification, investigation and restoration of lands to tribal people.
- Legal loopholes and ambiguities should be removed in all Scheduled Area Land Regulations and Tenancy laws. For example, such removal must ensure that tribal land is not transferred for purposes such as the settlement of refugees, housing, etc.
- Unutilized land must be given back to tribes for their resettlement.
- Provision of free legal services for affected tribal people by NALSA and related organisations.
- There should be a formation of an appellate authority involving members from the judiciary revenue department and Scheduled Tribes department. The formation of such an appellate authority would help in improving the procedure of restoration cases, which usually takes a long time.
- Monitoring cells also be recommended to set up at district as well as state level so that the rehabilitation of land becomes faster and easier.

Sisal: A Sustainable Alternative to Sanitary Napkin

Context: A team from Stanford University and a Nepal Based NGO is attempting to develop a low-cost decentralised and environmentally sustainable method of producing sanitary napkins from Sisal leaves. The objective is to meet the growing demand for low-cost and environmentally friendly menstrual hygiene products.

About Sisal

Sisal is a xerophytic succulent plant, known for its ability to store water and thrive in drought-prone areas.
Sisal has thick sword-like leaves that grow up to 2 m long which are covered with a waxy layer.
The lifespan of a sisal plant is about 7-10 years, during which it produces 200-250 usable leaves.
Each leaf has about a thousand fibres that can be used to make ropes, paper, cloth, and highly absorbent material.
Sisal plant is a native of Mexico.
Sisal is well adapted to arid and semi-arid regions of India. It grows mainly in Odisha, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Western West Bengal and some parts of Bihar and many southern states where annual rainfall varies between 60-125 cm and temperature 40-45 degree celsius.
Global production: Brazil is world’s largest producer of sisal fibre followed by Tanzania, Kenya, Madagascar, China, Mexico and Haiti.
Current uses of Sisal:
- Sisal leaves have been used for making paper, twine, cloth and carpet.
- Mezcal: Sisal plant is used to make Mezcal which is a distilled alcoholic beverage.
- Researchers have reported that sisal leaves are highly absorbent and retentive. Absorption capacity of sisal leaves is higher than those found in commercially available menstrual pads.

Benefits of Sisal in Making Sanitary Napkins

Water Efficiency: Sisal cultivation requires less water compared to cotton industries, contributing to water conservation.
Environmental Impact: Sisal is less environmentally damaging than cotton, making it a more sustainable choice for sanitary napkin production.
Substitute for Cotton-CMP: Replacing cotton-CMP (Chemical Pulp) with sisal fluff pulp could enhance the environmental sustainability of sanitary napkin production in the long term.
Timber Alternative: While timber could be an alternative to cotton, it is viable only in regions with an "endless supply of sustainably harvested forests."
Distributed Manufacturing: The concept of "distributed manufacturing" supports the environmentally sustainable production of sanitary napkins, allowing for a more widespread and eco-friendly manufacturing process.
Addressing Access Issues: Utilising sisal in sanitary napkin production contributes to addressing the lack of access to menstrual products, fostering an "open-source framework" for menstrual hygiene solutions.

Process of Making Sustainable Absorbent Material from Sisal

The process begins by feeding sisal leaves into a decorticator, a machine that mechanically separates the fibres.
In the next step, a process known as delignification dissolves lignin, a water-repelling polymer in plant cell walls, leaving behind highly absorbent cellulose fibres, substituting the traditional wood-to-wood pulp process known as the Kraft process.
While effective, the Kraft process generates volatile and toxic by-products, causing air and water pollution.
In the environment, researchers identified two organisms proficient in converting wood to wood pulp: termites and wood-rot fungi.
The termite guts house an incredible consortium of organisms, including microbes of various shapes and sizes, which delignify wood through a process not completely understood by scientists.
Peroxyformic acid, an important compound in this process, selectively removes lignin while preserving the structure of cellulose microfibers.
Treatment with peroxyformic acid allows for the compound's reuse over several cycles, and it decomposes into water and carbon dioxide at the end of the process, requiring no neutralising chemicals and minimising environmental damage.
The amount of CO2 released during the breakdown of peroxyformic acid is minuscule compared to the total CO2 in the overall analysis.
After treating the sisal fibres with peroxyformic acid, the process proceeds by washing them first with a solution of dilute sodium hydroxide and then water.
The result is a wet pulp that is then dried and mechanically blended to obtain a dry mass called fluff pup. This fluff can be used in place of cotton in sanitary napkins.

Increasing Demand and Lack of Access of Sanitary Pads

Increasing Use: There has been a significant rise in the number of people using hygienic methods, such as sanitary napkins, tampons, and menstrual cups, to manage menstruation in India.
Limited Access: Despite promising growth, access to menstrual hygiene products remains limited for around 500 million people worldwide. For example, in rural India, only 42% of adolescent women exclusively use hygienic methods to manage their periods.
Rising Cost: A key barrier to making menstrual hygiene products, like sanitary napkins, accessible is the rising cost of raw materials and distribution.

Problem of Safe Disposal and Unsustainable Use of Sanitary Pads

Increasing Waste: According to a United Nations Population Fund report from 2022, Patna alone discards 9.8 billion sanitary napkins every year. Another estimate from a 2022 study placed the monthly quantity of discarded sanitary napkins in Chennai at 27 million.
Problem of Dioxin: Single-use sanitary napkins contain dioxin, a persistent environmental pollutant and a carcinogen, putting users at risk of cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies dioxin as a “known human carcinogen.”

About Dioxins

Belong to the so-called “dirty dozen” - a group of dangerous chemicals known as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), covered by the Stockholm Convention.
Found throughout the world in the environment, they accumulate in the food chain, mainly in the fatty tissue of animals (Bioaccumulate).
Mainly by-products of combustion and industrial processes but can also result from natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires.
These are unwanted by-products of a wide range of manufacturing processes including smelting, chlorine bleaching of paper pulp and the manufacturing of some herbicides and pesticides.
More than 90% of human exposure is through food, mainly meat and dairy products, fish and shellfish.
Has been associated with a range of toxic effects, including chloracne; reproductive, developmental and neurodevelopmental effects; immunotoxicity; and effects on thyroid hormones, liver and tooth development. They are also carcinogenic.

Potential Alternatives

The absorbent material in sanitary napkins currently comprises a combination of wood pulp and synthetic superabsorbent polymers (SAPs). To address environmental and health concerns, efforts are underway to reduce the use of SAPs and substitute them with cellulose-based nanofibers.
Additionally, plant fibres, such as those derived from banana plants, have been employed to synthesise absorbent materials. However, banana plants are highly sensitive to drought, making them less sustainable for producing sanitary napkins in arid or semi-arid and drought-prone regions. Access to hygienic menstruation is particularly critical in countries located in the tropics, which often face drought-related challenges.

Restructuring of Coal Controller Organisation

Context: In order to align the organization with the current scenario in the coal sector, the Ministry of Coal formed a Committee to review the functions of the Coal Controller’s Office.

About Coal Controller Organisation:

The Coal Controller’s Organization is a subordinate Office of the Ministry of Coal.
It collects and maintains coal production data of all private and public sector coal mines in the country. The information is collected on a monthly basis.

Functions of Coal Controller Organisation

Inspection of collieries so as to ensure the correctness of the class, grade or size of coal.
To issue directives for the purpose of declaration and maintenance of grades of coal of a seam mined in a colliery.
To act as the appellate authority in case of dispute between consumers and owner arising out of declaration of grade and size of coal.
To regulate disposal of stock of coal or the expected output of coal in the colliery.
Quality surveillance with respect to maintenance of grade, loading of coal in wagons/ trucks according to laid down procedures regarding grades and sizes.
To grant opening / reopening permission of coal mine, seam or a section of seam or to subdivide a mine.
Assessment and collection of excise duty levied on all raw coal raised and dispatched.

Thirty Metre Telescope

Context: An Indian delegation led by the Secretary of the Department of Science and Technology (DST) visited Mauna Kea, Hawaii, USA and discussed challenges in the progress of the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) project and ways to overcome them.

About Thirty Metre Telescope:

TMT is an international project which aims at building a 30-metre diameter telescope at Mauna Kea, Hawaii, USA.
- At the heart of the telescope is the segmented mirror, made up of 492 individual segments, which makes it three times as wide as the world’s largest existing visible-light telescope.
- Precisely aligned, these segments will work as a single reflective surface of 30 m diameter.
  - The larger the mirror, the more light a telescope can collect, which means that it can see farther, fainter objects.
Upon construction, TMT would be one of the world’s most advanced and capable ground-based optical and infrared observatory.
- Wavelength: Optical, near-infrared, and mid-infrared.
Estimated cost: 1.47 billion USD (Base year 2012 USD).
It is a joint effort of an international consortium of scientific organisations and institutions in Canada, China, India, Japan and USA.

Significance:

The telescope would help in the:

Study of exoplanets and whether their atmospheres contain water vapour or methane — the signatures of possible life, and detection of extraterrestrial life.
Study of black holes, evolution of galaxies, dark matter and dark energy.

Why Mauna Kea?

Mauna Kea is a dormant volcano located on Hawaii’s Big Island, USA.
Astronomers favour Mauna Kea because the clean air and limited light pollution at its summit 4,205 metres above sea level make it one of the world’s best locations for studying the skies.
The area was selected in July of 2009 by the board of the Thirty Meter Telescope after a five-year-long campaign.
The project was started in 2014, but was soon halted due to opposition by native Hawaiins who consider Mauna Kea as sacred, and also concerns regarding environmental damage.
- The indigenous people on the island argue that because of the massive size of the facility, the project would further desecrate the summit.
- The mountain has religious significance for native Hawaiians and already houses 12 observatories on the summit.