Socio-Religious Reform Movements

Mahima Dharma of Odisha

Context: The President of India paid her tributes to Santha Kabi Bhima Bhoi, a saint reformer belonging to the Mahima Dharma. Bhima Bhoi's works emphasized upon social equality. The President also paid homage to Santha Kabi Bhima Bhoi at his birthplace, Rajrakhol, Odisha. 

Joranda Mahima Temple, Odisha
(Fig.1 : Joranda Mahima Temple, Odisha)

Emergence of reform movement

  • Late 18th century and the early years of the 19th century saw a wave of reform movements that swept through Hinduism.
  • Aim: To bring about significant changes within the religious and societal structures; to eradicate superstitious beliefs and distorted rituals.

Complex societal structure in 19th century Odisha: 

  • Society was entangled in numerous religious superstitions and social obstacles.
  • Hinduism was dominated by magic, animism, and superstition.
  • Lack of education and knowledge hindered human development.
  • Colonial rule focused primarily on revenue collection.
  • The temple of Jagannath, which used to be inclusive, closed its doors to the low-caste population, which further intensified the influence of caste rules in the region.
  • Mahima Dharma, emerged in the background of this socio-religious-cultural reality. 
  • Its significance extended to being seen as the precursor to a renaissance in Odisha, challenging prevalent practices such as idolatry, polytheism, the caste system, priestly dominance, religious superstitions, animism, and barbaric customs.

While other socio-religious movements of the late 19th century primarily influenced the educated class in urban centres, Mahima Dharma, with its simpler philosophy gained popularity among the common people in the villages of Odisha, thus, transforming into a mass movement. 

About Mahima Dharma: 

  • The movement was started by Mahima Swami or Mahima Gosain (Dhulia Baba/Nirahari Baba) who played a significant role in the religious landscape, particularly in the late 18th century and early 19th century Odisha. 
    • Mahami Swami was first mentioned in 1867 in the Orissan Newspaper ‘Utkala Deepika’.
    • He was a contemporary of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, and Swami Dayananda Saraswati.
  • As per the historical sources, Mahima Gosain meditated for 24 years in Kapilas hill in Dhenkanal, Odisha, wearing the bark of a Kumbhi tree. 
  • He established the ‘Dharma’, with the emphasis on ‘Advaitabada’ (belief in the oneness of God).
  • Mahima Gosain’s disciples came to be known as ‘Abadhutas’, the first 64 Siddhas of Mahima Dharma, a title given when they attained perfection.
  • ‘Mahima Gadi’ (religious seat of the dharma), is located in Joranda, Dhenkanal, where the prominent Magha Mela is held annually.

His preachings included: 

  • Preachings fused the elements of Hinduism and Buddhism, and positioned itself against established religious norms. 
  • Adhered to the principles of truth, non-violence, and belief in immortality and rebirth.
  • Core philosophy revolves around the idea of Absolute Monism, emphasising the worship of the one ultimate reality. 
  • He emphasised on asceticism and a casteless society.
  • He offered a unique perspective on the creation theory:
  • Asserted that the world was not formed by the mixing of atoms, Purusha, and Prakrit.
  • It was created by Alekha Prabhu, pure and without vice, the root of all creations.
  • The adherents of Mahima Gosain are ‘Dharmis’, and a true ‘Dharmi’ has to abstain from practices like idol worship, touching Prasad or Tulsi leaf, and consuming medicines. 

Extent:

  • Propagation extended across districts like Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, as well as areas in Dhenkanal, Athagarh, Hindol, Boudh, Sonepur, Sambalpur, and Angul.
  • The movement gained wider acceptance among tribal communities and those considered lower in the Brahmanical hierarchy.
Bhima bhoi

About Santha Kabi Bhima Bhoi

  • Bhima Bhoi, born in Rairakhol/Redhakhol (Odisha) in 1850, was a saint, poet and social reformer. 
  • He belonged to the less privileged Kondh tribe. 
  • Despite his challenging circumstances, he acquired knowledge by listening to religious texts. 
  • He was a devout follower of Mahima Gosain and played a significant role in challenging the prevailing caste hierarchy and advocating for social equality.
  • Bhima Bhoi, set up his ashram in Khaliapali. 
  • Core elements of his teachings:
    • ‘Ekaishwara Brahmavada’, emphasizing belief in an indescribable, formless, shapeless, and pure God residing in the void.
    • Promoted unity among followers from diverse backgrounds, thus breaking away from the social identities.
    • Centred around humanity and the liberation of the world. 
  • Bhima Bhoi used a language (characterized by mysticism and musicality), which departed from Sanskritized Odia. He adopted a vernacular approach with influences from the Sambalpuri dialect.
  • His verses were composed orally and later transcribed, which highlights the oral tradition of the movement.
  • His famous assertion: “mo jeevana pachhe narke padithau, jagata uddhara heu" (let my life rot in naraka if necessary, but let the world be redeemed)”, shows his dedication for the upliftment of the socially deprived. 
  • Important works are: Brahma Nirupana Gita, Stuti Chintamani, Astaka Bihari Gita, Chautisa Madhu Chakra, and Bhajanamala. Two collections, Atha Bhajan and Bangala Atha Bhajan, are written in Bengali.

Broader perspective on beliefs and practices in Mahima Dharma:

1. Idea of non-dualism:

  • God is singular and unparalleled, characterized by omniscience, omnipresence, and omnipotence.
  • The supreme soul (Parameswar) and the creator of the universe, the God is formless (Nirakar), inexpressible (Avyakta), without body (Adeha), without name (Anam), without any feeling (Nirvikara).
  • This god is present in every living being, from insects to humans.
  • The movement became a potent force for liberation by rejecting the caste system, emphasizing the worship of a single God named Alekha. 

2. Supreme role of a Guru:

  • Role of a teacher or Guru holds a pivotal position.
  • Guru is seen as essential for guiding disciples on the path to deliverance, making the practice of dharma meaningful.

3. Concept of ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’:

  • Entire universe is a single family.
  • Follows the motto: “Happiness, peace and welfare for all” .
  • One element of this concept is 'Satsanga Gosthi' or 'Common meal for all'.
    • Introduced by Mahima Gosain.
    • Emphasizes the equality of all souls, as they collectively worship the one Brahman.
    • Involves preparation of food by household devotees under the open sky, shared by all participants, regardless of caste or creed.

Practices:

  • Adherents are prohibited from engaging in adultery, consuming intoxicants, violence, or eating flesh. 
  • Perform the act of complete surrender, known as Sarana/Darsana, three times a day.
  • Engage in charity, providing food for those in need.
  • A monastic order bears resemblance to Buddhist monks, leading lives of poverty, celibacy, piety, and constant movement.
  • Rejects the worship of Lord Jagannath and emphasizes ascetic practices over idol worship.
    • In 1881, followers of Mahima Dharma, seized and reportedly set ablaze the murtis (idols) of Lord Jagannath in Jagannath Puri, opposing any form of idol worship.

Impact of Mahima Dharma on Hindu society in the 19th century:

  • Boldly rejected established norms, including the veneration of gods, philosophers, religions, temples, mosques, and churches.
  • Introduced a radical shift towards monotheism, emphasizing the worship of a singular, indescribable deity. This entity was not to be represented through man-made idols.
  • Renouncing worldly possessions became a central tenet of this religion.
  • Philosophy of Ahimsa, or non-violence:
    • Rejection of animal sacrifice in worship and conveyed a commitment to purity of heart, devoid of violence and selfishness.
    • Actively promoted peace and opposed war, practicing ‘Shanti Ahimsa’ in daily life.
  • Social mobilization: 
    • Ashrams for Sanyasis (ascetics), organized congregations where people from diverse backgrounds dined together.
    • Explicitly denounced caste-based discrimination and untouchability.
  • Influenced the consciousness of health and hygiene: 
    • Rejected traditional beliefs in the supernatural causes of illnesses.
    • Prohibiting the use of remedies from sorcerers and village physicians.
    • Attracted a large following, especially among rural and tribal communities, offering relief to those unable to afford the elaborate rituals associated with mainstream Hinduism.

Conclusion

The dharma represents a revival of Vedantic principles and serves as a reformist movement originating from the Odisha region. It simplifies profound Indian philosophy in a manner accessible to the common person. 

Shrine of Saint Sheikh Ahmed Karim

Saint Sheikh Ahmed Karim (Peer Ki Gali)

  • Located on the Mughal Road in the Poonch district of Jammu and Kashmir, this historic location holds significance in connection with a revered religious figure known as Alamdaar-e-Kashmir, Sheikh Noor-u-Din Noorani (RA) (1378 to 1441).
  • According to written accounts, the sacred site acquired its name due to the presence of Sheikh Ahmed Karim, a Hindu saint who converted to Islam. 
  • It is important to note that the site is not a Mazar or the grave of a saint, but rather a place where Sheikh Ahmed Karim used to meditate. His actual grave is situated north of the grave of Bahuddin Ganj Bakash in Kashmir.
Sufism

Historical reference

  • Francoise Barnier, in the year 1665, visited this location as part of the caravan accompanying the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. 
  • In his writings, Barnier states, "The saint had been residing here since the time of Mughal emperor Jahangir." Additionally, Barnier documented the 
  • visits of both Aurangzeb and Shahjahan to this place.
  • Aliabad Sarai is another historical site situated near the Shrine:
    • According to historical records, it is indicated that the Sarai at this location was initially constructed by the Mughal emperor Akbar.
    • He commissioned its construction to provide lodging and amenities for travellers journeying along this route. 
    • Later, the Sarai was restored by emperor Shahjahan, who named it after his loyal governor, Ali Mardan Khan. As a result, the Sarai became widely recognized as Aliabad Sarai.

Concept of Peer and Murid in Sufism

  • Peer: A distinguished title bestowed upon a Sufi spiritual guide, also known as Sheikh. Within Sufism, the role of a Peer entails guiding and instructing disciples along the path of Sufism.
  • This guidance is often provided through general teachings, referred to as Suhbas, as well as individualized guidance. 
  • Murid: The journey of Sufism commences when a student takes a solemn oath of allegiance, known as Baiat or Bayaah, where they pledge their loyalty and repent for past transgressions before their Pir (spiritual guide). 

Sufism Movement and its features

  • During the medieval period, Sufism arose as a departure from the established and rigid religious doctrines of the time, emphasizing the importance of religious experiences and direct perception of God rather than strict adherence to formal practices alone. 
  • While Sufis acknowledged the significance of the Shariat (Islamic law), they placed great emphasis on cultivating personal religious experiences. 
  • Sufism has been influenced by a variety of sources including Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, as well as the Indian philosophical systems of Vedanta and Yoga.

Sufi path: 

  • The primary emphasis was on embarking upon the Sufi path as a means to establish direct communion with the divine reality.
  • The path could only be undertaken under the strict guidance of a spiritual mentor known as a ‘pir’.
  • The disciple, referred to as a ‘murid’, advanced through these stages and states by engaging in spiritual exercises such as self-discipline and the recollection of God's name.
  • Sama: One distinctive practice of the Sufis was the musical recital, which aimed to induce a mystical state of ecstasy. This practice faced opposition from the religious scholars (ulema). 

Silsilahs: 

  • The Sufis organized themselves into different orders known as Silsilahs. For example: Suhrawardi, Qadiri, and Chishti. 
  • The activities of a Sufi order revolved around a hospice or khanqah, where the pir provided spiritual training to the disciples.
  • These khanqahs were sustained through endowments and charitable contributions.

Advent of the Sufis to India

  • Before Delhi Sultanate: 
  • Even before the Delhi Sultanate was established, early Sufi saints had already arrived in India. The subsequent development of Sufism in India was primarily shaped by the Indian environment rather than non-Indian forms of Sufism. 
  • Among the notable early Sufi saints who settled in India was Al Hujwiri, also known as Data Ganj Baksh, who arrived in India around 1088 AD. He authored the renowned Sufi manual titled ‘Kashf-ul-Mahjub.’

During Delhi Sultanate: 

  • With the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, various Sufi orders found a new home in India, attracting Sufis who had fled from other parts of the Islamic world as refugees. 
  • By the mid-14th century, the influence of Sufi activities had spread throughout most parts of the Indian subcontinent.

Organisation of Sufis in India

The Sufis in India organized themselves into various orders. According to Abul Fazal, there were fourteen Sufi orders that arrived in India, but only two of them, namely the Chishti and Suhravardi silsilahs, established strong roots in the country. 

Chishti Silsilah

  • The Chishti silsilah originated in Ajmer and gradually spread to other regions such as Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, and the Deccan.
  • Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, introduced the Chishti order in India. He arrived in India during the Ghori conquest in 1190, and settled in Ajmer around 1206.
  • His simple, devout, and dedicated life had a profound impact on those who encountered him, earning respect from both Muslims and non-Muslims. 
  • He was known for his tolerant attitude towards non-Muslims and was not actively involved in conversion efforts. Following his passing, his tomb in Ajmer became a renowned pilgrimage site.
  • The early Chishtis incorporated certain ethical values from the nathpanthi yogis and their communal way of life.

Suhravardi Silsilah

  • Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya, introduced Suhravardi silsilah in India (1182-1262). He aligned himself with Iltutmish during the conquest of Multan against Qubacha and received state patronage from the Delhi Sultanate. 
  • ltutmish bestowed upon him the title of Shaikh-ul Islam (Leader of Islam) and granted him an endowment. 
  • The Suhravardi order-maintained connections with the ruling establishment and actively participated in political activities.
  • The Suhravardi silsilah was primarily concentrated in Sindh, Multan, Punjab and Bengal. 
  • Unlike the Chistis, the Suhravardis did not advocate a life of poverty, extreme austerity, and self-mortification. In fact, they actively engaged with the government and willingly accepted official positions. 
  • The Suhravardi silsilah was primarily associated with the upper echelons of Muslim society. Certain saints of the Suhravardi silsilah held rigid and uncompromising views on various religious and social matters.