Science & Technology

Mars Rover Perseverance discovers Potential Biosignature in Mars

Context: NASA’s Mars rover Perseverance (exploring the Martian surface since 2021) has found the strongest signs yet that some form of life may have existed on Mars in the past.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: NASA’s Mars rover Perseverance findings; NASA’s Perseverance Mission.

Perseverance’s Finding:

NASA's Perseverance rover discovered leopard spots on a reddish rock nicknamed “Cheyava Falls” in Mars' Jezero Crater in 2024.
The rock was found to contain clay and silt, which are known on Earth to preserve microbial life effectively.
The analysis also revealed the presence of organic carbon, sulphur, oxidised iron (rust), and phosphorus.
These minerals could have formed through biological activity but may also have resulted from purely chemical, non-biological processes.
The rock sample has been described as containing a “potential biosignature”, but not yet confirmed as evidence of life.

What are Biosignatures?

Biosignatures are objects, structures, or chemical compositions that may have a biological origin. They indicate the possible presence or activity of living organisms, either in the past or present.
A biosignature is any substance such as an element, isotope, or molecule or phenomenon that provides scientific evidence of past or present life.

Significance of the Finding

This is the closest NASA has ever come to detecting signs of life on Mars.
The discovery has the potential to revolutionise our understanding of Mars’s history and its capacity to host life.
The clay-rich nature of the sample is particularly important, as clay is known to be an excellent preserver of microbial signatures on Earth.

However, the finding does not conclusively prove the existence of life on Mars. The structures and chemical compositions detected could also be explained by non-living (abiotic) processes.

NASA’s Perseverance Mission (Mars 2020 Mission)

Launched: 2020. Landed in Mars: Feb 2021
Rover: NASA’s 4th generation Mars Rover. It is the most advanced, most expensive & most sophisticated mobile laboratory sent to Mars till date. It is different from previous missions as it can drill & collect core samples of most promising rocks & soils. The rover landed at Jezero Crater - an ancient river delta that has rocks and minerals that could only form in water.
Ingenuity Helicopter: Autonomous helicopter that operated on Mars till January 2024. Travelled to Mars attached to the belly of the Perseverance rover and was deployed to the surface after landing in Jezero Crater. First aircraft to conduct a powered and controlled extra-terrestrial flight on a planet after Earth.
Objectives:
- To look for biosignatures in either the chemical measurements or morphological observations, in the dried-up lakebed at Jezero Crater.
- To demonstrate technology for future robotic and human exploration. Perseverance will produce oxygen on the Martian surface for the first time, using atmospheric CO2 from the Martian atmosphere.
Perseverance will drill and collect rock samples that will be returned to Earth by a subsequent European Space Agency/NASA mission in 2030s. Perseverance carries the Radar Imager for Mars’ Subsurface Experiment (RIMFAX). RIMFAX will provide high resolution mapping of the subsurface structure at the landing site.
Power source: It has a Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG) which converts heat from the natural radioactive decay of plutonium (Plutonium Dioxide) into electricity.

INS Androth: Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Watercraft

Context: The Indian Navy has received an indigenously-built anti-submarine warfare ship that is expected to boost its maritime prowess against the backdrop of China's growing forays into the Indian Ocean.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about INS Androth; Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Watercraft.

INS Androth: 2nd Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Watercraft

INS Androth is the second of the 8 anti-submarine warfare-shallow watercraft (ASW-SWC).
- INS Arnala (named after the historic Arnala coastal fort in Vasai, Maharashtra), the first ASW-SWC was commissioned in June 2025.
Built by: Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers (GRSE) Kolkata.
The name ‘Androth’ is derived from the Androth Island in the Lakshadweep archipelago.

Key Features of INS Androth:

Measuring 77 meters in length, Arnala-class ship is the largest Indian Naval warship powered by a Diesel Engine-Waterjet combination.
Advanced shallow water SONAR enables effective submarine detection and engagement in littoral zones.
Equipped with state-of-the-art lightweight torpedoes and indigenous anti-submarine warfare rockets (ASW rockets).

Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Watercraft:

The ASW SWCs are part of a Rs 12,500 crore programme to build 16 shallow water anti-submarine warfare vessels under two contracts awarded in 2019.
- GRSE is building 8 vessels, while Cochin Shipyard Limited (CSL) will build the other eight.
- The vessels from GRSE will form the Arnala-class. The CSL-built ships will be classified as Mahe-class.
The ASW-SWC ships are being inducted into the Navy to strengthen its anti-submarine and coastal surveillance capabilities.

Significance

Strengthen India’s maritime defence: The vessels are designed to safeguard India’s coastline and shallow waters against any threats. E.g., Guard against increasing presence of submarines in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), including regular deployments by Chinese and Pakistani naval assets.
Self-reliance in defence manufacturing: The ship has over 80% indigenous content and is a testament to growing domestic capabilities and reducing dependency on imports.

The naval ships mark a critical phase in India’s naval modernisation, bolstering Navy’s ability to counter existing and emerging underwater threats and strengthen its presence in strategically sensitive waters.

What do SC guidelines say on DNA?

Context: The Supreme Court has issued uniform guidelines to ensure the integrity of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) samples in criminal cases.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about SC guidelines say on DNA; Applications of DNA profiling.

Importance of DNA evidence in criminal cases:

DNA is a molecule that encodes the genetic information in all living organisms. It can be obtained from biological materials, such as bone, blood, semen, saliva, hair, or skin.
Generally, when the DNA profile of a sample found at a crime scene matches the DNA profile of a suspect, it can be concluded that both samples have the same biological origin. However, it is not substantive evidence in criminal cases.

What do SC guidelines say on DNA?

The SC in Kattavellai @ Devakar v. State of Tamil Nadu has issued four guidelines for cases where DNA evidence is involved.

Collection and documentation: DNA samples must be collected with due care, appropriately packed and labelled (FIR number and date, sections and statutes involved, details of the investigating officer, police station). The document must include the signatures and designations of the medical professional present, investigating officer, and independent witnesses.
Transportation: The investigating officer must ensure that the samples reach the concerned Forensic Science Lab within 48 hours of collection. The reasons for delay (if any) must be recorded, and samples should be preserved.
Storage: No package shall be opened, altered, or resealed without express authorisation from the trial court.
Chain of Custody Register (logbook that tracks DNA sample till the case ends) must be maintained. The investigating officer is responsible for explaining any lapses in compliance.

Need to issue the directions:

Though some guidelines have been issued by various bodies, there is neither uniformity nor a common procedure to be followed by all investigating authorities.
‘Police’ and ‘Public Order’ are subjects mentioned in the State List of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, but the SC deemed it necessary to issue these guidelines to have uniformity of procedure.
Past rulings show that lapses in handling have led to DNA reports being rejected, making both proper collection and quality control essential.
Unexplained delays in sending DNA samples to the Forensic Laboratory (FSL) can risk the possibility of sample contamination.

Associated Court rulings:

In Anil v. State of Maharashtra (2014): The SC observed that a DNA profile is valid and reliable, but this depends on quality control and procedure in the laboratory.
Manoj v. State of Madhya Pradesh (2022): The SC rejected a DNA report on the ground that recovery was made from an open area and the likelihood of its contamination cannot be ruled out. The blood stains found on the articles were disintegrated, and the quantity was insufficient to run any classification test.
Rahul v. State of Delhi (2022): The DNA evidence was rejected because it remained in the Police Malkhana for two months and during such time, the possibility of tampering could not be ruled out.
Kattavellai @ Devakar v. State of Tamil Nadu (2025): The SC stated that DNA evidence is in the nature of opinion evidence as envisaged under Section 45 of the Evidence Act. Like any other opinion evidence, its probative value varies from case to case. Therefore, DNA evidence must be proved scientifically and legally.

The investigating agency needs to ensure that samples are collected properly, without contamination, and sent to the FSL without delay.

Also Read: DNA Profling

INS Aravali Naval Base

Context: The Indian Navy has commissioned its latest naval base- INS Aravali at Gurugram, Haryana designed to strengthen the Navy’s information and communication infrastructure.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Features of INS Aravali

Key Features of INS Aravali

INS Aravali is the Indian Navy’s new information and communication hub. It is designed to enhance Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) through global connectivity and AI driven threat detection.
The base is designed to link naval platforms and international partners “across oceans,” strengthening collaborative maritime operations.
A significant feature is its connectivity to a network of 43 multinational centers across 25 countries, including the U.S., France, and Japan, enabling live data sharing and collaboration with allies.
The base is named after the Aravali mountain range.

The motto of INS Aravali is “Maritime Security through Collaboration”, reflecting its role in integrating naval units, MDA centres, and allied stakeholders.

The base aligns with the Indian government's vision of MAHASAGAR (Mutual and Holistic Advancement for Security and Growth for All in the Region) and reinforces India's role as a trusted security partner in the Indian Ocean Region.

Aedes-borne Viral Diseases and their Control

Context: Aedes-borne Viral Diseases (ABVD) that include Dengue, Zika, and Chikungunya hurt India’s productivity. Aedes aegypti mosquitoes bite during the day time. Mosquito control methods like outdoor fumigation are not that effective, which necessitates revised strategies against Aedes Mosquitoes.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Aedes-borne Viral Diseases; Wolbachia Method.

Aedes-borne Viral Diseases

1. Dengue:

Viral illness caused by the dengue virus, an RNA virus.
Transmission:
- Bites of infected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.
- There is no evidence that dengue can be transmitted directly from person to person through casual contact, coughing/sneezing, or sexual contact.
- Rare cases of vertical transmission (from mother to child during pregnancy or childbirth) have been reported, but this is not a common mode of spread.
Symptoms: Flu-like symptoms, including high fever, severe headache, joint and muscle pain, and rash. In severe cases, it can lead to life-threatening dengue haemorrhagic fever.

2. Zika:

Caused by Zika virus, an RNA virus.
Transmission: Bites of infected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Can be transmitted from mother to foetus during pregnancy; through sexual contact, blood transfusion; organ transplantation.
Zika infection during pregnancy causes microcephaly (underdeveloped brain) and other congenital malformations.

3. Chikungunya:

Caused by the chikungunya virus (CHIKV), an RNA virus.
Transmission: Bites of infected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. An infected person cannot spread the infection directly to other persons (i.e. it is not a contagious disease).
Symptoms: Fever, chills, headache, nausea, vomiting, joint pain, and rash. Severe joint pain (arthritis) which is the most common feature of the disease.
Chikungunya is diagnosed by blood test (ELISA).

Wolbachia Method for Mosquito Control

Wolbachia is a form of biological control method to reduce mosquito population.
In this method, naturally occurring Wolbachia bacteria is introduced into male population by infecting insects in a laboratory, and then releasing them into the wild.
These Wolbachia-infected male mosquitoes mate with female mosquitoes (not infected with the same strain of Wolbachia).
These bacteria are passed on to their offspring through the normal reproductive process, and their offspring are less likely to survive or reproduce.
The method does not suppress mosquito populations or involve genetic modification, so it is safe for humans, animals and the environment.

Challenges in controlling Mosquito population:

Limitations of conventional methods: Aedes mosquito feeds indoors during the day, and at night under artificial light. Methods like outdoor fumigation, vaporisers, and bed nets are thus ineffective against it. Additionally, the mosquitoes have evolved to gain tolerance to these chemicals.
Lack of Vaccines: Dengue vaccine trials are underway, but these offer no protection against Zika or chikungunya.
Expensive: High costs and weak institutional support limit the adoption of advanced mosquito control methods like Wolbachia.
Increased plastic pollution: Plastic pollution is directly linked to the risk of ABVD transmission. Discarded plastics can collect water and act as mosquito breeding sites).

Way Forward

Application of safe non-insecticides (topical repellents) on the skin. By releasing volatile compounds, these repellants impair the mosquito’s sense of smell, thus making human hosts essentially invisible to them.
- E.g., Para-menthane-diol (PMD), derived from the essential oil of the lemon eucalyptus plant; Picaridin (derived from pepper plant)
Using materials coated with delayed-release transfluthrin. These spatial emanators, like jute sheets, provide 15-days of continued protection in living spaces.
Local community actions to remove larval breeding sites of Aedes mosquitoes. Regular trash collection/flood management protects against ABVD.

Public Health Campaign in Delhi: 10 Weeks, 10 AM, 10 Minutes

Called the rule of 10, “10 Weeks, 10 AM, 10 Minutes,” it reinforces larval source reduction as the primary strategy.
It encourages every residential welfare association to mobilise each household to set aside 10 minutes at 10 AM every Sunday for 10 weeks from September to November.
The goal is to find and eliminate sources of stagnant water during this high-risk season.

Also Read: Malaria Elimination: Efforts & Challenges

AdFalciVax: Recombinant Multistage Malaria Vaccine

Context: The Union government has granted licence to five firms for manufacturing and commercialisation of AdFalciVax, India’s first indigenous recombinant multistage malaria vaccine, developed by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and its partners.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Malaria & Malaria vaccines.

Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by plasmodium parasites transmitted through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.

AdFalciVax: Indigenous Malaria Vaccine

India’s first indigenous recombinant multistage malaria vaccine.
Developed by: Regional Medical Research Centre (RMRC), Bhubaneswar under the ICMR.
The vaccine is designed to prevent Plasmodium falciparum infection in humans and also reduce community transmission of the parasite.
- Plasmodium falciparum is the deadliest malaria parasite (responsible for the most lethal form of malaria) and difficult to control.

AdFalciVax: Recombinant Multistage Malaria Vaccine

1. Recombinant Malaria Vaccine:

AdFalciVax is a recombinant malaria vaccine (made using genetic engineering). The vaccine uses Lactococcus lactis (a genetically engineered food-grade bacterial host).
- Pieces of DNA from the malaria parasite (Plasmodium) are inserted into Lactococcus lactis (a safe bacterium often used in dairy fermentation).
- This genetically engineered bacterium acts as a bio-factory to produce the malaria antigens.

2. Multistage Malaria Vaccine:

Existing Malaria vaccines like RTS, S/AS01 and R21/Matrix-M are single-stage vaccines i.e., they target the pre-erythrocytic/sporozoite stage.
- Sporozoite stage is the stage when an infected female mosquito injects sporozoites (infectious cells of Plasmodium parasites) in the skin of a mammalian host.
AdFalciVax is amultistage vaccine i.e., it targets the two key stages of the Pasmodium parasite’s life cycle:
- pre-erythrocytic/sporozoite stage
- erythrocytic / blood stage: when the parasite infects red blood cells. (Only a few sporozoites leave the skin and travel through the bloodstream to reach the liver).

AdFalciVax targets the parasite before it enters the bloodstream, thus stopping the infection at the transmission stage. Hence, AdFalciVax vaccine not only protects the vaccinated human from developing Malaria but also reduces community transmission.

Advantages of AdFalciVax

Preclinical data suggest that AdFalciVax have advantages over existing single-stage vaccines.

Broader protection by targeting two vulnerable parasite stages.
Affordable, stable, and scalable solution.
Thermal stability: Vaccine remains effective for over 9 months at room temperature.
Lower risk of immune evasion and potential for better long-term immunity.

Pre-clinical validation of the vaccine

The pre-clinical validation of the vaccine has been conducted in collaboration with ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research and National Institute of Immunology (NII).

Need for the Vaccine

Reduce Malaria burden: Malaria remains one of the major public health problems in India. India carries 1.4% of the global malaria case burden, and accounted for 66% of cases in the Southeast Asia region.
Meet India’s target under National Health Mission: Annual Malaria Incidence to be less than 1 in 1000 individuals.

The government aims to facilitate the commercialisation of the vaccine to prevent and minimise malaria transmission.

Also Read: Malaria Elimination: Efforts & Challenges

Emerging Science, Technology and Innovation Conclave

Context: The Department of Science and Technology (DST) is set to organise the first-ever Emerging Science, Technology and Innovation Conclave (ESTIC) in November 2025. ESTIC may ‘replace’ the Indian Science Congress (the oldest congregation of scientists in India).

Emerging Science, Technology and Innovation Conclave

Emerging Science, Technology, and Innovation Conclave (ESTIC) is India's premier STI platform bringing together ministries, innovators, and global visionaries.
Inaugural ESTIC will be held at the Bharat Mandapam, New Delhi in November.
ESTIC will showcase cutting-edge research, deep-tech breakthroughs, and thought-provoking discussions. There will be 11 thematic technical sessions and 75 exhibition stalls by ‘deep tech’ startups at the event.
It would involve all the science-related Ministries and Departments (including that of Atomic energy, Space, Biotechnology, Earth Sciences and Information Technology etc.)
It is expected to host various dignitaries like Nobel Laureate Andre Geim (2010, Physics), Jean-Yves Le Gall (former President of the French Space Agency) etc.

Indian Science Congress

ISC is the oldest congregation of scientists in India. It is organised annually in the first week of January. The 108th (the last edition of ISC) was held in 2023.
Organised by: Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA), Kolkata
Funded by: Department of Science and Technology

What is spyware Graphite?

Context: The US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) agency has signed a contract with an Israeli spyware company to access a powerful hacking software known as Graphite.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Spyware Graphite.

Spyware Graphite

Graphite is a powerful hacking software which can hack mobile phones and encrypted messaging applications.

The spyware is designed to gain remote access to a mobile phone and essentially take control of it.
The user of the spyware can not only access the mobile user’s photos, read their messages, and track their whereabouts, but also monitor encrypted messages sent on platforms such as WhatsApp and Signal.
The spyware also enables the phone to be used as a listening device by manipulating its recorder.

Utility:

Can be used to crackdown on undocumented immigrants.

Concerns:

Can be used to facilitate the surveillance of activists and journalists. Can pose a profound threat to free speech and privacy.
Can be used to violate people’s due process rights.

However, the firm claims that it sells its products to only governments and law enforcement agencies for the purposes of fighting serious crime. It has a zero-tolerance policy for governments that use the technology to target members of civil society.

CEREBO: Portable Device for Brain Injury Detection

Context: Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and partner institutes have developed CEREBO, a hand-held, non-invasive indigenous diagnostic device for rapid detection of Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBIs).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About CEREBO.

Key Features of CEREBO

CEREBO is a novel hand-held, portable, non-invasive diagnostic device designed for the detection of Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBIs).
It utilises advanced near-infrared spectroscopy combined with machine learning to detect intracranial bleeding and brain swelling within one minute.

Benefits of CEREBO:

Can be used by paramedic staff as well as unskilled personnel.
Provides colour-coded, radiation-free results, making it safe for infants and pregnant women.
Cost-effective (reduces imaging costs) as compared to conventional imaging tools.
Offers an emergency diagnostic option when advanced tools like CT or MRI scans are inaccessible or delayed. Can be deployed in ambulances, rural clinics, military healthcare systems and disaster response units.
Enhances early detection of TBI and improves patient outcomes.
Reduces dependence on expensive, imported diagnostic tools.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

TBI is a condition caused by sudden trauma or injury to the head, which disrupts normal brain function. The injury may range from mild (concussion) to severe, often leading to long-term physical, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural impairments.
Nearly 1.5-2 million persons are injured every year and one million die annually in India due to TBIs. Road traffic injuries (60%) are the leading cause, followed by falls and violence.

Sickle Cell Anaemia and the battle for Disability Justice

Context: In 2024, the Indian government issued revised guidelines under the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPWD) Act, 2016. These guidelines provide a framework for assessing the extent of disability of people with two copies of the sickle cell gene, or with both sickle cell and beta thalassaemia, or Hb D.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Sickle Cell Anaemia; Rights to Persons with Disabilities Act 2016.

Mains: Issues in the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPWD) Act, 2016.

The RPWD Act 2016 marked a step towards protecting the rights of persons with disabilities, and promoting their full inclusion in society. The law aligns with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and promises dignity, equality, and non-discrimination.

About Rights to Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016

The Act defines persons with disabilities as a person with physical, intellectual, or sensory impairment which, in interaction with barriers, hinders his full and effective participation in society equally with others.
Types of disabilities covered under the Act are increased from 7 to 21. It includes various physical and mental disabilities like acid attack victims, dwarfism and Autism Spectrum Disorder.
Persons with benchmark disabilities are entitled to free school education up to 18 years of age, reservations in higher educational institutions, development assistance programmes, and government employment.
Reservation: It mandates a 4% reservation in public employment and 5% reservation in educational institutions for PwD.
The Act mandates both public and private institutions to make infrastructure accessible and provide ICT consumer products for PwD.

Sickle Cell Anaemia

It is an inherited or genetic blood disorder that affects haemoglobin, the protein in Red Blood Cells (RBCs) that carries oxygen to all parts of the body.
Healthy RBCs are soft and round. In SCD, the haemoglobin is abnormal, which causes the RBCs to become hard and sticky and look like a sickle.
These rigid, sticky cells die early and often get stuck in blood vessels, clogging the flow of blood. As a result, different parts of the body do not get the oxygen they need. This can cause pain and other serious health problems such as infection, acute chest syndrome and stroke.

Treatment:

It is a lifelong illness. The only cure comes in the form of gene therapy and stem cell transplants, however, both are costly and still in developmental stages.
Sickle Cell Anaemia Elimination Mission (2023) aims to eliminate sickle cell disease as a public health problem by 2047.

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a painful, progressive, and disabling blood disorder, disproportionately affecting marginalised communities like Tribals.

Narrow lens of disability in Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016

Not-inclusive: The Act extends reservations in public sector employment under the 4% quota for persons with vision and hearing loss, locomotor disabilities, and intellectual disabilities. However, individuals with SCD and other blood disorders are not included in the quota.
Subjectivity in benchmark disability: The benchmark disability under the Act must meet a certain threshold of impairment, specifically 40% or more. However, different hospitals, medical boards, and doctors can assign different disability percentages to the same person, depending on their personal judgment.
Certification bottlenecks: A medical authority, including chief medical officer, evaluates and certifies disability. Diagnosis reports of confirmatory tests must be from a government or standard lab. The certification process can be largely inaccessible for Adivasi and Dalit patients in rural or remote areas.

Way Forward

Extending job reservations to individuals with SCD and related blood disorders would acknowledge their condition as a significant, lifelong disability.
Reforming the certification process to account for fluctuating and invisible disabilities would reflect a rights-based lens rather than a purely biomedical one.
Improve Accessibility: Mobile medical units in tribal and rural areas for on-site certification and treatment.

Disability is not only shaped by physical health, but also by social exclusion, structural barriers, and policy gaps. The continual reliance on biomedical scoring and exclusion of people with SCD from full protections undermines the very purpose of recognising the condition under the Act.

Unless India’s recognition of SCD brings real rights and protections, it risks becoming exclusion disguised as inclusion.

Also Read: The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 remains only a legal document without intense sensitisation of government functionaries and citizens regarding disability. Comment.

Seas rising faster around Lakshadweep and Maldives

Context: Recent scientific research using coral microatolls has revealed that sea-level rise (SLR) in the central Indian Ocean, particularly around the Maldives, Lakshadweep, and Chagos Archipelago is accelerating. Earlier studies suggested that significant acceleration started only in the 1990s, but new evidence shows that seas in this region have been rising since the late 1950s.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Implications of Climate Change.

Rising Sea Levels in Indian Ocean

Rising sea levels are among the most visible and threatening consequences of global warming. The Indian Ocean, which is the third largest ocean basin in the world, has been experiencing sea-level rise at an accelerated pace.
The Indian Ocean’s levels have been rising at around 3.3 millimetres per year, which is higher than the global average, which in turn amplifies changes in ocean dynamics and atmospheric circulation.
These shifts have a direct impact on coral reefs, fisheries, and low-lying island nations such as the Maldives, Lakshadweep, and the Chagos Archipelago.

Key Findings of the Study:

A team of researchers from the National University of Singapore studied coral microatolls in the Maldives. The study reconstructed sea-level history from 1930 to 2019, extending the existing records by nearly 90 years. The findings showed that :

Sea levels rose by around 0.3 metres over the 90-year period.
The rate of rise has accelerated over time: it was between 1 and 1.84 mm/year from 1930 to 1959, and between 3.91 and 4.87 mm/year from 1990 to 2019. This indicates that sea-level rise in the Indian Ocean began accelerating in the late 1950s.
The periods of coral growth interruption coincided with El Niño events, negative Indian Ocean Dipole events, and the 18.6-year lunar nodal cycle, all of which influence sea levels and stress corals.

Implications of Rising Sea Levels:

Ecological: Coral reefs face bleaching due to reduced sunlight, warmer waters, and acidification, threatening biodiversity and marine productivity.
Human & Economic: Low-lying islands risk inundation; livelihoods from fisheries and tourism are endangered; flooding, erosion, and storm surges increase vulnerability.
Geopolitical & Security: Strategic islands like Maldives and Lakshadweep face displacement, migration, and sovereignty challenges, impacting maritime trade and security.

Way Forward

Strengthening Scientific Monitoring: Expanding tide gauge networks, improving satellite observations, and using natural recorders such as coral microatolls can help fill critical gaps in sea-level data, and thus improve the accuracy of climate models and projections.
Ecosystem-Based Adaptation: Restore mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs as natural buffers.
Policy & Governance: Integrate sea-level rise into planning and disaster frameworks; secure climate finance and technology for island nations.
Resilient Infrastructure: Build climate-proof housing, elevate infrastructure, and strengthen flood protection.
Regional & Global Cooperation: Use IORA, UNFCCC, and regional platforms for joint monitoring, data sharing, and coordinated adaptation.

APK Scam: How Fake Apps are used for Financial Fraud

Context: APK scam is one of the fastest-growing cybercrime threats in India. The sophisticated social engineering scam is driven by malicious Android Package Kit (APK) files that stay undetected and exploit public trust in digital systems.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Android Package Kit (APK) Scam. Mains: Cybercrimes: Types, Challenges and Regulations.

What is Android Package Kit (APK) Scam?

APK scams involve malicious files which are used to install apps on Android devices outside of the official App store. The App often has hidden malware that can steal personal data, passwords, banking information, or install spyware.
Rising cases: There has been a 900% jump in cyber crimes between 2021 and 2025. The National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal has logged over 12 lakh different types of APK Scams in India since the beginning of 2025 (till date).

How does the APK Scam work?

APK files on Android devices are much like .exe files on Windows computers; both are used to install Apps. These files can be exploited by fraudsters to spread malware.
Fraudsters build or source these Apps to mimic the appearance and language of official portals (E.g., government subsidy schemes like PM-Kisan, tax refund platforms, electricity boards, or banks asking for KYC updates).
These fake Apps are often circulated through social media platforms and accompany convincing messages that urge users to act immediately. Once downloaded, the App seeks multiple permissions including access to contacts, messages, call logs, location, microphone, and notifications.
The App harvests data in real-time, and transmits it in encrypted bits to external servers operated by fraudsters. These bits are decoded to extract valuable information, including banking credentials, OTPs, contacts, and location coordinates etc.

Challenges:

Google or any other intermediary does not scrutinise every application that is being hosted on their server. Fraudsters use mule accounts and shell identities to pay for hosting and publishing on search engines.
Strong encryption techniques hide malicious code from detection tools. By remaining dormant during installation certain APKs can bypass antivirus softwares.
Even after earlier versions are blacklisted, the same APK file is reused with minor modifications in the interface (name, logo and URL or web address of the file) thus, allowing it to bypass detection.

Also Read: How is Cyberbullying tackled under the Law in India?