Science & Technology

AI in India’s Healthcare System

Context: India has a doctor-patient ratio of 1:1,457 (below WHO’s norm of 1:1,000) and nearly 65% of the population in rural areas lack specialist access. In this scenario, Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the healthcare sector can emerge as a game-changer.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Use of AI in Healthcare and Associated Challenges.

From early disease detection to optimising health records, AI is rapidly transforming how India delivers healthcare.

Opportunities of AI in Healthcare:

Early Disease Detection and Diagnostics:
- AI applications are already being used in rural Odisha to detect TB through cough recordings and to identify breast cancer cases via smartphone-based mammogram apps.
- Google’s DeepMind has achieved 99% accuracy in detecting breast cancer surpassing even expert radiologists.
- AI is also being applied in detecting eye diseases, skin cancers, and neurological disorders like Alzheimer’s, enabling timely intervention and reducing the burden on doctors.
Personalised and Precision Medicine: AI models can predict how an individual patient will respond to drugs, reducing side effects and improving treatment outcomes. E.g.,
- In oncology, AI helps in identifying targeted therapies, thereby improving survival rates for cancer patients.
- AI-enabled wearables monitor blood sugar in real time, alerting doctors and preventing emergencies.
Drug Discovery and Vaccine Development: AI can reduce the decade-long process of drug discovery by predicting effective compounds quickly and at lower cost. Pharmaceutical companies are using AI to fast-track vaccine development. E.g., In 2020, AI identified a new antibiotic against drug-resistant bacteria, a discovery that would have taken years otherwise.
Efficiency in Healthcare Delivery: AI chatbots are handling routine patient queries, reducing paperwork and administrative bottlenecks, thereby reducing waiting times and freeing up doctors for complex cases.
Public Health and Early Warning Systems: AI is being used to track disease outbreaks, analyse wastewater, and model at-risk populations, enabling governments to deploy resources effectively and prevent crises from escalating. During Covid-19, AI models flagged the outbreak weeks before official alerts, proving their utility in crisis prediction.

Challenges and Ethical Concerns:

Data Localisation and Suitability: Most AI systems are trained on Western data, often mis-fitting Indian contexts. E.g., A skin cancer AI tuned on light skin tones may misdiagnose darker ones.
Accountability and Transparency: AI algorithms often work as “black boxes”, producing results without clear reasoning. Incorrect or biased diagnoses could harm patients if left unchecked.
Equity and Accessibility: While AI can democratise access to healthcare, it risks widening inequalities if available only to wealthy urban populations.
Balancing Innovation and Regulation: Excessive regulations, as seen in parts of Europe, may stifle innovation and delay adoption of AI in healthcare.

Way Forward

India must train AI models on diverse datasets that reflect India’s genetic, environmental, and socio-economic realities.
Regulations must enforce transparency in AI decision-making, independent audits, and strict ethical guidelines to ensure accountability.
The government must ensure AI-enabled tools and treatments reach rural populations and marginalised groups. Access should not be skewed by geography, income, or literacy.
India must strike a balance by fostering innovation while ensuring ethical safeguards and equitable access.

AI offers India an unprecedented opportunity to transform India’s healthcare system. However, challenges related to data localisation, accountability, ethical use, and equitable access must be addressed.

Scientists discover rare Quadruple Star System in Milky Way

Context: Scientists have discovered an extremely rare quadruple star system in the Milky Way. The system known as UPM J1040-3551 AabBab consists of a pair of cold brown dwarfs orbiting a pair of young red dwarf stars.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Dwarf stars.

What are Brown Dwarfs?

Brown dwarfs are substellar objects that have more mass than the biggest gas giant planets, but less than the least massive main-sequence stars.
They form like stars from collapsing clouds of gas and dust. Their atmospheres can consist of clouds and molecules like H2O. Their mass is approximately 13 to 80 times that of Jupiter.
They are not massive enough to sustain nuclear fusion of Hydrogen into Helium in their cores (unlike the main-sequence stars). So, they are often known as “failed stars”. However, they emit some light and heat from the fusion of deuterium (2H).

Why are Brown Dwarfs difficult to detect?

Brown dwarfs can be difficult to detect as they are cold and faint. As a result, astronomers typically search for brown dwarfs orbiting companion stars, which often burn brighter. Measuring the brighter stars can be useful for estimating the properties of the fainter brown dwarfs, like their age, temperature and composition.

Brown dwarfs are usually single, and hence the current findings are exciting because the chances of a low-mass brown dwarf having a companion are less than 5%.

Why do scientists study Brown Dwarfs?

Brown dwarfs can help astronomers better understand the conditions that are necessary for the formation of stars and planets.
Determining the abundance and distribution of brown dwarfs gives key information on the distribution of mass in the universe to astronomers (much of the universe’s mass has thus far been undetectable and is known as dark matter).

The findings would help in better understanding brown dwarfs which are difficult to detect and examine.

Flesh-eating New World Screwworm

Context: Recently, the US reported its first human case of New World screwworm infestation, a flesh-eating parasite once eradicated in 1966 through the Sterile Insect Technique.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about New World Screwworm.

What is the New World Screwworm?

The New World screwworm is a type of blue-grey blowfly, scientifically called Cochliomyia hominivorax. The parasite’s Latin name (hominivorax) literally means man-eater, reflecting its destructive nature.
It is mainly found in South America and the Caribbean though outbreaks have occurred in other regions.
Female screwworms are attracted to open wounds or natural entry points like the nasal cavity of warm-blooded animals and rarely humans.
A single female can lay up to 300 eggs at once, and nearly 3000 eggs during her lifespan of 10-30 days. These eggs hatch into larvae (maggots) that burrow into living flesh in a screw-like manner, feeding on tissue.
After feeding, the larvae fall to the ground, burrow into the soil, and later emerge as adult flies.

Deadly threat of New World Screwworm Infestations:

New World screwworm infestations can be extremely painful, especially in humans, with a high mortality rate if left untreated.
Once an infestation starts, it often attracts more flies that lay more eggs and depending on where the wound is, the maggots can make their way into vulnerable tissue like the brain, or enlarge the wound to the point of causing severe infection and sepsis.

Symptoms of Infestation include:

Wounds or sores that do not heal
Bleeding from open sores
Feeling larvae movement within a skin wound or sore
A foul-smelling odour from the site of the infestation.

Reasons for the recent spread of New World screwworms:

The US eradicated screwworms in 1966 using the sterile insect technique, where billions of sterile males were released to prevent reproduction.
This method was later used to eliminate screwworms in Mexico (1970s), Central America (early 2000s), and to contain a Florida outbreak in 2017. Despite eradication efforts, new cases have recently been reported in Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Honduras.
Experts suggest movement of infested cattle across borders as possible reasons for the recent spread of New World screwworms.

ISRO holds Air Drop Test for Gaganyaan Mission

Context: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully carried out its first Integrated Air Drop Test (IADT-1) at Sriharikota, a critical milestone in preparations for Gaganyaan Mission- the country’s maiden human spaceflight programme.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Gaganyaan Mission.

Integrated Air Drop Test (IADT)

The first Integrated Air Drop Test was conducted for an end-to-end demonstration of the parachute-based deceleration system for the Gaganyaan Mission.
The IADT is a specialised trial to ensure the parachute system designed for the Gaganyaan crew module performs reliably in real-world conditions.
- During the test, a dummy crew capsule weighing around 5 tonnes was lifted up through the air by a Chinook helicopter, and then dropped.
- As it descended through a few kms, its main parachutes had to open in a specific sequence to decelerate the capsule to a safe splashdown speed.
During an actual flight with astronauts, the main parachutes will have to deploy after the capsule has re-entered the atmosphere and has been slowed first by the heat shields and drogue parachutes.

Significance:

The ascent, descent, and post-splashdown phases of the Gaganyaan mission are expected to be the most risky for the astronauts. The successful conduction of the first Integrated Air Drop Test (IADT-01) is vital to ensure the safety of astronauts in the upcoming Gaganyaan Mission.

Gaganyaan Mission

ISRO’s ambitious human spaceflight mission which will carry 3 astronauts (Vyomanauts) to Low Earth Orbit (400 kilometres) for a 3-days mission, and bring them back safely to Earth by landing in Indian sea-waters.
Expected launch: Crewed launch is scheduled for the first quarter of 2027.
Launch Vehicle: Human Rated LVM3.
Human Space Flight Centre will coordinate the programme, and will be responsible for the implementation of the project.
Once completed, India will become the world's fourth nation to conduct independent human spaceflight after Russia, United States and China.

Components of Gaganyaan Mission:

Crew Module: A crew module and service module. The crew members have been shortlisted by the IAF and ISRO. The crew will perform micro-gravity and other scientific experiments.
Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment (CARE):
- Gaganyaan would return back to Earth. While re-entering Earth’s atmosphere, the spacecraft needs to withstand very high temperatures created due to atmospheric friction.
- A prior critical experiment was carried out in 2014 along with LVM3, when the CARE capsule successfully demonstrated that it could survive atmospheric re-entry.
Crew Escape System- PAT: Crew Escape System is an emergency accident avoidance measure. In 2018, ISRO completed the first successful flight ‘pad abort test’ or Crew Escape System.
Environmental Control & Life Support System ECLSS: ECLSS will:
- Maintain steady cabin pressure and air composition
- Remove carbon dioxide and other harmful gases
- Control temperature and humidity
- Manage parameters like fire detection and suppression
Vyom Mitra: ISRO’s female humanoid robot that will test-flight Gaganyaan.

Preparatory work for Gaganyaan Mission:

The major preparatory work for Gaganyaan had already been completed.

Propulsion systems for the crew module and service module have been developed and tested.
Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) engineering model has been realised.
Crew Escape System (CES): five types of motors developed and static tested.
Infrastructure had been established for the orbital module preparation facility, Gaganyaan Control Centre, Gaganyaan control facility, crew training facility, and second launch pad modifications.
After successful execution of IADT-01, ISRO will conduct two critical trials before the actual Gaganyaan Mission carrying astronauts. It includes-
- Second Test Vehicle Mission (TV-D2): will put to test the crew escape system (CES) under critical conditions.
- Uncrewed Gaganyaan-1 (G1) flight: The unmanned spacecraft will be launched aboard a human-rated LVM3 rocket. The mission will also have on board Vyommitra, the humanoid robot developed by the ISRO.

Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) plays major role:

VSSC had a major role in IADT-01, being responsible for 90% of the activities alongside the Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) and SDSC-SHAR.

IADT-01 successfully demonstrated the parachute-based crew module deceleration system for Gaganyaan Mission.

Stealth Frigates Udaygiri and Himgiri Commissioned

Context: Indian Navy commissioned two Project 17-A stealth frigates, INS Udaygiri and INS Himgiri, in Visakhapatnam. This marks the Navy's first-ever simultaneous induction of two frontline warships.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Project 17-A; INS Udaygiri; INS Himgiri.

What are Stealth Frigates?

Frigate is a medium-sized warship used by the Navy for escorting larger vessels, patrolling, and combat operations.
Stealth frigate is designed with advanced stealth technology to minimise its radar cross-section and overall visibility to enemy detection systems making it harder to detect by radar, visual, sonar, and infrared methods.

Project 17-A Stealth Frigates:

Project 17-A class (Nilgiri-class frigate) is the successor of the currently-operational Project 17 or the Shivalik-class stealth frigates.
The stealth frigates have advanced weaponry, modern sensor systems designed to execute a full spectrum of maritime operations in blue-water conditions.
The project will have 7 frigates. INS Nilgiri is the lead ship of the Project 17A stealth frigate class. Other six ships of this class include- INS Udaygiri, Himgiri, Taragiri, Dunagiri, Vindhyagiriand Mahendragiri.
- INS Udaygiri (second ship of Project 17A) is built by Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Ltd. in Mumbai.
- INS Himgiri is constructed by Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE) in Kolkata.

INS Udaygiri & INS Himgiri

Enhanced capability: Both vessels are follow-on variants of the Shivalik-class frigates. They feature enhanced stealth capabilities, advanced weaponry, and modern sensor systems.
Propulsion: Both frigates are powered with combined diesel or gas (CODOG) propulsion using diesel engines and gas turbines that drive controllable-pitch propellers, and are managed through an integrated platform management system.
The frigates are capable of dealing with both conventional and non-conventional threats. The frigates are fitted with:
- Supersonic Surface-to-Surface Missile system
- Medium Range Surface-to-Air Missiles (MRSAM) system
- 76 millimetre (mm) upgraded gun
- Combination of 30 mm and 12.7 mm rapid-fire close-in weapon systems
- Anti-submarine underwater weapon systems.
Sensors suite include MF-STAR AESA radar, BEL’s HUMSA-NG sonar, the Ajanta electronic warfare system and the CMS-17A combat management system.
Protective systems include the Kavach anti-missile decoy and the Maareech torpedo decoy.
Enhanced stealth features: Radar cross-section is reduced through angled surfaces and flush-mounted weapons. Heat emissions are cut using infrared suppression systems. Noise is lowered with improved acoustic dampening. Use of composite materials contributes to making these ships less visible and less audible at sea.
Each ship can support aircraft such as the MH-60 Romeo, ALH Dhruv Mk-III or Sea King.

Significance:

Force-multiplier: With their versatile weapons and capabilities, these ships can play a crucial role in anti-surface, anti-air, and anti-submarine warfare. With their range and helicopter integration, they can patrol waters stretching from the Strait of Malacca to Africa, keeping sea trade routes secure.
Indigenous development: With nearly 75% indigenous content, supported by several MSMEs, the frigates advance the government’s Aatmanirbhar Bharat vision in defence manufacturing.
Employment generation: The project reflects the scale of India’s defence industrial ecosystem, involving over 200 MSMEs and generating nearly 14,000 direct and indirect jobs.

The ships will be deployed with the Eastern Fleet, significantly boosting the Navy’s combat readiness and reinforcing India’s ability to protect its strategic and economic interests in the Indian Ocean Region.

AI in Judiciary: Promise and Challenges

Context: In July 2025, the Kerala High Court issued India’s first policy on the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the district judiciary, highlighting both its potential to tackle the backlog of over 5 crore cases and the risks of errors, bias, and accountability gaps.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Use of AI in Judiciary: Promises and Challenges.

AI in Judiciary

The judiciary faces longstanding challenges such as case backlogs, language barriers, and the need for digital modernisation.

AI in Judiciary including Machine Learning (ML), Natural Language Processing (NLP), Optical Character Recognition (OCR), and Predictive Analytics are being leveraged to automate administrative tasks, improve case tracking, and enhance crime prevention.
Initiatives like e-Courts Project Phase III, AI-assisted legal translation, predictive policing, and AI-driven legal chatbots are reshaping the legal landscape, making processes faster, smarter, and more transparent.
The Kerala High Court’s July 2025 guidelines on AI use in district judiciary marked the first official policy in India addressing AI adoption in courts.

Promise of AI in Judiciary:

Speed and Efficiency:
- Translation of documents into regional languages can help judges and litigants overcome language barriers.
- Automated transcription of oral arguments and witness depositions saves manual effort.
- Defect identification in filings ensures faster case listing and reduces delays.
Enhanced Legal Research: AI enables quick scanning of vast legal databases, saving time and supporting more focused, substantive legal analysis.
Improved Accessibility: AI-based tools can simplify judgments into easy-to-read summaries for litigants. Translation features enhance access to justice in regional languages.
Administrative Support: AI can assist registries in case classification, docket management, and scheduling, helps reduce the burden on court staff and ensures smoother case flow.
Potential Cost Reduction: By saving time and resources in transcription, research, and filing checks, AI can lower litigation costs, making justice more affordable.

Problems with AI in Judiciary

While AI promises efficiency and accessibility, its deployment in the judiciary raises serious legal, ethical, and technical concerns.

Translation and Transcription Errors: E.g., “Leave granted” translated as “holiday approved” in Hindi. In Noel Anthony Clarke vs Guardian News & Media Ltd. (2025), the claimant’s name “Noel” was repeatedly transcribed as “no.” Such errors, though small, can distort meaning and impact case outcomes.
AI Hallucinations: A study published in theJournal of Empirical Legal Studies found that legal Large Language Models (LLM) can make up case laws and cite incorrect sources to substantiate claims. E.g., OpenAI’s Whisper has been reported to “hallucinate” entire phrases or sentences, especially when speakers pause during speech.
Search Engine Bias: AI-powered legal research may reflect user behaviour patterns, not objective comprehensiveness. Risk of “invisibilising” important precedents, skewing legal arguments and judgments.
Loss of Human Nuance: Judicial decision-making requires context, empathy, and balancing of equities. Over-reliance on AI risks reducing adjudication to mechanical rule-based inferences.
Data Privacy and Security: Use of sensitive, non-public, or personal data in AI systems lacks a clear framework. Risk of data leaks, misuse, or surveillance by private vendors supplying AI tools.
Infrastructure Deficits: Many courts in India still rely heavily on paper-based processes. Weak internet connectivity, lack of digitisation, and poor hardware are major obstacles to AI deployment.

Courts are not just service providers; they are custodians of justice. Over-reliance on AI risks undermining fairness, transparency, and human judgment. Hence, AI must be adopted with caution, transparency and safeguards.

Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS)

Context: DRDO has conducted the maiden flight test of the Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS) off the coast of Odisha.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Features of Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS).

Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS)

IADWS is a multi-layered air defence system comprising:

Indigenous Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missiles (QRSAM)
Advanced Very Short Range Air Defence System (VSHORADS) missiles
A high-power laser-based Directed Energy Weapon (DEW)

Three components of IADWS

Indigenous Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missiles (QRSAM):

QRSAM is a short-range Surface to Air Missile (SAM) system. It is primarily designed to provide a protective shield to moving armoured columns of the Army from enemy aerial attacks.
The entire weapon system is configured on highly mobile platforms. It has search and track capability and can fire on short halts. The system has an operation range of 3 to 30 kilometers.
The QRSAM weapon ensemble consists of a fully automated command and control system, two radars (Active Array Battery Surveillance Radar and Active Array Battery Multifunction Radar) and one launcher. Both the radars have a 360-degree coverage with ‘search on move’ and ‘track on move’ capabilities.

Advanced Very Short Range Air Defence System (VSHORADS) Missiles:

VSHORADS is a fourth-generation, technically advanced miniaturised Man Portable Air Defence System (MANPAD).

The weapon system can neutralise targets between the range of 300 meters and six kilometers, including drones and other classes of aerial threats.
Effective against drones, UAVs, and low-flying aircraft. Designed for all three services: Army, Navy, Air Force.

Directed Energy Weapon (DEW):

High-power laser-based weapon (range < 3 km).
Neutralises UAVs, swarm drones by structural damage & disabling sensors.
Places India in the exclusive group of nations with operational DEWs.

While QRSAM has been designed and developed by the DRDO, VSHORADS and DEW have been developed by Research Centre Imarat (RCI) and Centre for High Energy Systems and Sciences (CHESS) respectively, both Hyderabad-based facilities of the DRDO.

Centralised Command and Control Centre:

The integrated operation of all these weapon system components is controlled by a Centralised Command and Control Centre, developed by the Defence Research and Development Laboratory, Hyderabad.

Strategic Significance of IADWS

Enhanced Air Defence: Provides a multi-layered shield against UAVs, drones, and short-range missiles up to 30 km, strengthening national security.
Indigenous Capability: Showcases India’s self-reliance in defence technology, reducing dependence on foreign imports.
Network-Centric Warfare: Will integrate with IAF’s Integrated Air Command and Control System (IACCS) and Army’s Akashteer, improving jointness and real-time coordination.
Counter to Modern Threats: Combines missiles with Directed Energy Weapons, enabling defence against drone swarms and asymmetric aerial attacks.
Strategic Deterrence: Enhances India’s credibility to deter Pakistan’s drone incursions and China’s UAV warfare capabilities.
Mission Sudarshan Chakra: Marks an important step towards developing a indigenous nationwide security shield from multi-dominary enemy attacks under Mission Sudarshan Chakra by 2035.

Role of Decoys in Contemporary Warfare

Context: In contemporary warfare, as jets, tanks, and warships have become more sophisticated; the methods used to shield them from detection and attack have greatly evolved. Decoys have emerged as vital tools to protect assets through deception.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: Decoys - working, applications, examples; Role of Decoys in Contemporary warfare.

What are Decoys ?

A decoy in warfare is a deliberately created false target (physical or electronic) that imitates real military assets with the objective of misleading enemy sensors and weapons, thereby protecting actual platforms, wasting adversary munitions, and buying time for counteraction.

Types of Decoys in Modern Warfare

Airborne Decoys:
- Fibre-Optic Towed Decoys (FOTD): E.g., Rafael’s X-Guard, Raytheon’s AN/ALE-50/55.
- Expendable Active Decoys (EAD): E.g., Leonardo’s BriteCloud, that imitate aircraft signatures.
- Stand-in Decoys: E.g., US MALD series, acting as mini-jammers or fake aircraft.
Land-Based Decoys: Inflatable tanks, artillery, or missile batteries with radar/thermal emissions. E.g., Russia’s Inflatech, Ukraine’s wooden/3D-printed systems, US Army’s fake vehicles.
Naval Decoys: Chaff, acoustic emitters, and self-propelled active decoys. E.g.,
- Nulka (Australia-US), mimicking large vessels to mislead anti-ship missiles.
- India: Kavach (chaff decoy) & Maareech (anti-torpedo system).

India’s Deployment of Decoys

X-Guard Fibre-Optic Towed Decoy (FOTD):
- During Operation Sindoor, the Indian Air Force reportedly deployed the X-Guard Fibre-Optic Towed Decoy (FOTD) on its Rafale jets.
- These decoys are believed to have misled Pakistan’s J-10C fighters and their PL-15E beyond-visual-range missiles, resulting in false kill claims by the adversary.
- Integrated with the SPECTRA Electronic Warfare (EW) suite, the X-Guard provided an additional protective layer, enhancing the survivability of Rafales.
- Following the operation, the Ministry of Defence began fast-tracking the emergency procurement of additional X-Guard units to strengthen the Air Force’s defensive capabilities.
T-90 Tank Decoys: In 2025, the Indian Army issued a Request for Information (RFI) to domestic vendors for the development of T-90 tank decoys. These decoys are required to replicate not only the physical dimensions but also the thermal and acoustic signatures of real tanks.
Kavach Decoy System: Indian Navy has inducted the Kavach decoy system, designed to protect warships by diverting radar-guided anti-ship missiles.
Maareech Advanced Torpedo Defence System (ATDS): Indian Navy has also operationalised the Maareech Advanced Torpedo Defence System (ATDS), jointly developed by DRDO and BEL, which detects incoming torpedoes and deploys decoys to neutralise them effectively.

Role of Decoys in Contemporary Warfare:

Protection of High-Value Assets: Decoys act as the first line of defence for expensive platforms like fighter jets, tanks, and warships. E.g., Indian Air Force reportedly used X-Guard Fibre-Optic Towed Decoys on Rafales during Operation Sindoor to protect jets from Pakistan’s J-10C fighters and PL-15E missiles.
Confusing and Misleading Enemy Sensors: They replicate radar, thermal, and acoustic signatures to misguide surveillance and targeting systems. E.g., X-Guard mimics a Rafale’s radar cross-section and Doppler velocity, making it hard for missiles to distinguish between real and fake targets.
Wastage of Enemy Munitions: By drawing enemy fire onto false targets, decoys force adversaries to expend costly missiles and bombs. E.g., Ukraine has used wooden and 3D-printed decoys of artillery and missile systems to make Russia waste drones and precision strikes.
Buying Time for Counteraction: Decoys delay enemy decision-making and create windows for evasion or retaliation. E.g., In naval warfare, Australia-US Nulka active decoy draws incoming missiles away from warships, giving them time to maneuver or launch countermeasures.
Force Multiplication in Ground Warfare: Ground decoys simulate massed formations, creating the illusion of greater strength. E.g., Russia’s Inflatech decoys can quickly create fake tank or artillery formations; Indian Army in 2025 issued an RFI for T-90 tank decoys with thermal and acoustic signatures to deceive drones.
Multi-Layered Defence Systems: Decoys work in tandem with Electronic Warfare (EW) suites to form a layered shield. E.g.,
- On Rafales, SPECTRA EW suite + X-Guard FOTD together provide both onboard jamming and an external trailing shield.
- Indian Navy’s Kavach chaff system and Maareech ATDS provide similar protection against radar-guided missiles and torpedoes.
Psychological and Strategic Impact: Decoys undermine the enemy’s confidence in their own sensors and kill claims, adding to the fog of war.

Decoys, across air, land, and sea, have become indispensable to modern war fighting. For a relatively low investment, they deliver high-impact protection.

Agni 5: Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile

Context: Recently, India successfully test-fired its nuclear-capable intermediate range ballistic missile (IRBM) Agni 5 from the integrated test range (ITR) at Chandipur in Odisha.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Agni 5 missile; Agni Missile series.

About Agni 5 missile

Developed by: Defence Research and Development Organisation.
Agni-5 is among India’s most advanced long-range ballistic missiles. Equipped with modern navigation, guidance, warhead and propulsion technologies, it strengthens India’s nuclear deterrence.

Key features of Agni 5 missile:

Nuclear-capable ICBM: Agni 5 is a land-based Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) with Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle (MIRV) capability.
Extended range: Designed for nuclear use, Agni 5 has a range of over 5000 kilometres.
Propelled by a solid rocket propellant system. Agni 5 is powered by a three-stage solid-rocket-powered missile system capable of delivering a 1.5-tonne nuclear warhead.
MIRVed test launch: In 2024, India conducted the first MIRVed test launch of Agni 5 from validating its ability to carry and release multiple warheads.
Warhead capacity: Capable of carrying and firing up to 3 nuclear warheads simultaneously.
Future enhancements: New variants under development aim to integrate bunker-buster bomb technology, expanding the missile’s strike capability against fortified targets.

Key Facts:

India’s missile development accelerated after it joined the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) in 2016 gaining access to advanced systems.
India has a no-first use policy for nuclear weapons, hence, the missile can offer incredible deterrence to prevent a nuclear attack.

The successful test reaffirms India’s commitment to maintaining a credible minimum deterrence posture.

Also Read: Mission Divyastra: Agni-V with Multiple Warhead Technology

India needs a National Space Law

Context: India’s space programme has achieved remarkable milestones from the cost-effective success of Mangalyaan (2014) to the historic soft landing of Chandrayaan-3 (2023) and the upcoming Gaganyaan mission. These achievements have positioned India among the top spacefaring nations.

However, India lacks a comprehensive National Space Law which is essential to regulate private participation, ensure accountability, and align with international obligations.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: India's and Global Space Legislation.Mains: Why India Need for National Space Legislation?

Global Space Legislation

The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 is the foundational legal framework for outer space.

Outer Space Treaty of 1967:

It declares space to be the province of all mankind
Prohibits any national appropriation of celestial bodies, and
Makes states responsible for all space activities conducted under their jurisdiction, including those by private actors.
Its companion agreements create binding frameworks of rights, responsibilities, and liability rules.

Companion Agreements of OST 1967:

Liability Convention 1972: Establishes state responsibility for damages caused by space objects.
Registration Convention 1976: Mandates registration of space objects.
Moon Agreement 1979: Treats space resources as “common heritage of mankind” (India is not a party).

Limitations:

These treaties are not self-executing. They need to be translated into national laws for effective enforcement.

India’s Current Legal & Policy Framework

India has ratified the key UN space treaties but it is still in the process of enacting comprehensive national space legislation. Current regulatory measures include :

Indian Space Policy, 2023: outlines roles of government and private entities.
IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre): Regulator for non-governmental space activities.
Catalogue of Indian Standards for Space Industry: Provides technical safety guidelines.
Norms, Guidelines and Procedures (NPG), 2023: Framework for authorisation of space activities.

Need for National Space Legislation:

International Obligations: Under Article VI of the OST, India is internationally liable for activities of private companies. Without national law, India risks treaty violations or arbitrary regulation.
Predictability & Legal Clarity: National space legislation offers predictability, legal clarity, and a stable regulatory environment for both government and private actors, critical for attracting private investments.
Industry Concerns:
- IN-SPACe lacks statutory authority; its decisions are vulnerable to procedural challenges.
- Companies face delays due to the dual-use nature of space technology (defence and civilian), requiring multiple ministry clearances.
- Unclear FDI rules and lack of affordable third-party insurance hinder startups.
- Weak IPR protection risks migration of talent to IP-friendly jurisdictions.
Strategic Importance: Space technologies are dual-use and critical for national security, absence of legal clarity can weaken strategic autonomy in space.

At present, more than 20 countries including the U.S., Luxembourg, and Japan already have national space legislation. To compete in this rapidly expanding market which is projected to reach $1 trillion globally by 2040, India cannot afford regulatory ambiguity.

In the words of UNOOSA, “policy signals intent, but law creates enforceable structure.” For India to lead the new space age, enacting this law is no longer optional but an imperative.

India sets eyes on 10% of global Green Hydrogen demand

Context: India aims to capture 10% of the global green hydrogen demand by 2030, with significant progress made through the National Green Hydrogen Mission. The global green hydrogen demand is expected to exceed 100 million metric tonnes (MMT) by 2030.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Types of Hydrogen, National Hydrogen Mission

Mains: Benefits and Challenges in production of Green Hydrogen as a fuel.

Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel

Hydrogen is the lightest and the most abundant element in the universe. On Earth, it is found in compounds like water or hydrocarbons. However, Hydrogen is not present in the free state. Therefore, it must be created and stored before it tends to be utilised.
Hydrogen Fuel: Hydrogen fuel is produced by splitting water (H₂O) into its components: hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂). The hydrogen gas can be used to power fuel cells, which generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, releasing only water vapour as a byproduct.

Green Hydrogen:

Green hydrogen is hydrogen produced using electricity from clean energy sources, such as wind and solar energy, which do not release greenhouse gases when generating electricity.
Green hydrogen is made when water (H2O) is split into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) via a process known as electrolysis.

Other Types of Hydrogen:

Depending on the type of production used, different colour names are assigned to the hydrogen.

1. Grey Hydrogen:

Grey hydrogen is produced using fossil fuels such as natural gas or coal. Grey hydrogen accounts for roughly 95% of the hydrogen produced in the world today.
The two main production methods are steam methane reforming and coal gasification. Both of these processes release carbon dioxide (CO2).
If the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, then the hydrogen produced is referred to as grey hydrogen.

2. Blue Hydrogen:

Blue hydrogen is similar to grey hydrogen, except that most of the CO2 emissions are sequestered (stored in the ground) using carbon capture and storage (CCS).
Capturing and storing the carbon dioxide instead of releasing it into the atmosphere allows blue hydrogen to be a low-carbon fuel.
Blue hydrogen is a cleaner alternative to grey hydrogen, but is expensive since carbon capture technology is used.

3. Pink Hydrogen:

Pink hydrogen is produced through electrolysis of water but using energy from nuclear power, which does not produce any carbon dioxide emissions.
Pink hydrogen facilities can achieve a high capacity factor due to the steady base-load profile of nuclear power (involving both stability and density), as compared to the intermittent supply from renewable sources (solar, wind).

4. Turquoise Hydrogen: Turquoise hydrogen is made using a process called methane pyrolysis. In this process methane is split into hydrogen and solid carbon with heating in reactors or blast furnaces.

National Green Hydrogen Mission:

National Green Hydrogen Mission was launched in 2023 with an outlay of Rs. 19,744 crores from FY 2024 to FY 2030.
Aim: To develop India into a global hub for production, usage and export of Green hydrogen and its derivatives.
The scheme has set out a goal of at least 5 million metric tonnes (MMT) of annual green hydrogen production capacity by 2030.
Initiative of: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).

As part of the mission, the government has awarded 3,000 megawatts of electrolyser manufacturing capacity to 15 companies, signaling a major industrial push.

Recently, the government has announced that India aims to secure 10% of global green hydrogen demand, or 10 million metric tonnes (MMT) by 2030, which is an aspirational target than that set in the National Green Hydrogen Mission.

Challenges associated with production of Green Hydrogen:

Renewable energy supply crunch: Achieving the target under the National Green Hydrogen Mission requires the installation of 125 GW of dedicated renewable energy and 250,000 gigawatt-hr. units of power (250 TWh), equivalent to about 13% of India’s present electricity generation.
Relying on conventional energy sources: The main concern is that if electrolysers (which split water to produce hydrogen and oxygen) were to run 24x7, they would have to operate even at night when no solar power is available. This would then mean tapping into conventional coal-fired electricity (about 70% of the electricity on the grid is coal-generated).
Burning Biomass: India’s standards allow the use of biomass to produce green hydrogen, which results in carbon emissions when burnt.
Technological constraints: The challenge is to compress or liquify Hydrogen. It needs to be kept at a stable minus 253°C (far below the temperature of (-) 163°C at which Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) is stored; making its ‘prior to use cost’ extremely high.
Prohibitive Costs: The production cost of green hydrogen has been a prime obstacle. Research conducted by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) indicates that the cost of its production is about $1.5 per kg by 2030 (for countries with eternal sunshine and huge unoccupied areas) if several conservative measures are implemented.
Lack of Manufacturing and deployment of electrolysers: India’s current electrolysers manufacturing capacity is around 0.4 GW, which needs to be scaled to ~200 GW by 2050.
High cost of storage system: Fuel cells which convert hydrogen fuel to usable energy for cars, are still expensive.

Way Forward

Development of technology to produce green hydrogen is expensive. However, falling prices for renewable energy and fuel cells and stringent climate change regulations have spurred investment in the sector.

Investing in R&D and promoting private sector participation in the hydrogen economy.
Developing standardised procedures, rules and standards for hydrogen economy which will standardise and scale up production.
Mandating large users of hydrogen to shift to green hydrogen such as refineries, iron, and steel plants etc. For example, a minimum green hydrogen mandate can be introduced in such industries.
Green hydrogen facilities can be created at sites where the cost of producing renewable energy is lowest. E.g., in the Thar desert region in Rajasthan and Ladakh etc.
Facilitating international trade in clean & green hydrogen.

Also Read: Hydrogen as an alternative fuel: Explained

Animal-Free Protein using Recombinant DNA Technology

Context: The global market base for alternative proteins is on the rise. Animal-Free Proteins produced using Recombinant DNA Technology are one such viable option to produce alternative proteins.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims & Mains: Recombinant DNA Technology: About, Applications & Benefits; BioE3 Policy.

Animal-Free Protein using Recombinant DNA Technology:

Animal-free protein refers to proteins (dairy, egg, meat proteins, other biological products) produced without using animals. The proteins are produced by relying on microbes (bacteria, fungi, yeast) engineered through Recombinant DNA Technology (rDNA). E.g.,
- Casein (milk protein) produced in labs without cows.
- Insulin (earlier extracted from a pig’s pancreas) is now developed by bacteria.
- Collagen (earlier extracted from animal bones) is now produced in labs.
This is also called precision fermentation or microbial fermentation.

Key steps involved:

Identification of the gene responsible for making a specific animal protein (E.g. Insulin)
Gene Insertion: The gene is inserted into the DNA of a vector (bacteria, fungi, yeast) using Recombinant DNA Technology.
Protein Expression: The vector is now genetically engineered and acts like a mini factory (bio factory) and produces the desired protein.

Benefits of Animal-Free Protein using Recombinant DNA Technology

Efficient: Requires less resources (land, water, feed) compared to traditional animal husbandry.
Sustainable: Reduces dependence on livestock farming (which contributes to over 14% of global greenhouse gas emissions).
Safer: Eliminates the risks of zoonotic pathogens (E.g., prions in mad cow disease, viruses in poultry). Reduced risk of xenobiotic rejection or allergic reactions.
Animal Welfare: No ethical and moral issues.
Desired traits: Proteins can be modified for enhanced nutrition (E.g., more digestible Casein; allergen free proteins)

What is Recombinant DNA Technology?

Recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering involves manipulation of the genetic code or DNA of a living organism by combining genetic material from different sources.
Basic principle: Isolating a specific gene or DNA sequence of interest from one organism and inserting it into the genome of another organism, via an appropriate vector. The inserted gene can be from the same species or from a different species.
Use case: It is used to obtain desired characteristics (traits) in living organisms or to produce useful biological products.

Key steps involved in R-DNA technology:

Isolation of the gene or DNA sequence of interest from the source organism.
Fragmenting this DNA using ‘molecular scissors’ (Restriction endonuclease Enzymes).
Screening the fragments for a ‘desired gene’.
Inserting the fragments with the desired gene into a ‘vector’ (plasmids, bacteriophage, cosmid) to develop a recombinant DNA (done using an enzyme called DNA ligase which acts like molecular glue).
Introducing the recombinant vector into the target organism or host cell. The vector integrates into the host's genome and the gene of interest is expressed.
Expression: The target organism produces the protein encoded by the inserted gene.

Applications of R-DNA Technology:

Creation of Genetically modified (GM) crops with desirable traits (resistance to pests, diseases, or herbicides).
Production of therapeutic proteins such as insulin, interferon and human growth hormone (Human insulin was the 1st therapeutic protein to be genetically cloned in E.coli using R-DNA technology).
Creation of Mono-clonal antibodies.
Production of vaccines. E.g., Hepatitis-B vaccine
Backbone of diagnostic tests for diseases like HIV and Hepatitis.
Produce clotting factors for treating Haemophilia.
Development of synthetic anti-venom, free from animal-derived proteins.
Create genetically engineered microorganisms for bioremediation and cleaning up environmental pollutants.

BIOE3 Policy:

BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment) policy was launched in 2024 by the Department of Biotechnology.
Aim: Fostering high-performance biomanufacturing which involves the production of bio-based products across various sectors.
India's bio economy has skyrocketed from $10 billion in 2014 to over $130 billion in 2024, with projections to reach $300 billion by 2030.
BioE3 Policy would focus on the following strategic and thematic sectors:
- Smart proteins and functional foods
- High value bio-based chemicals, biopolymers, and enzymes
- Precision biotherapeutics
- Climate resilient agriculture
- Carbon capture & its utilisation
- Marine and space research

Implementation Strategies:

Support innovation-driven research and development (R&D) and entrepreneurship.
Establish biomanufacturing hubs, Bio-AI centers, and biofoundries.
Expand India's skilled biotechnology workforce, especially in tier-II and tier-III cities.
Align with initiatives like 'Net Zero' carbon economy and 'Lifestyle for Environment' (LiFE) to promote a circular bioeconomy.

With the launch of the BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, and Employment) policy, the government is focusing more on the manufacture of smart proteins, which entail reduced land, water, and energy requirements, while addressing nutritional needs and widespread protein deficiencies.