Science & Technology

Is Natural Hydrogen the fuel of the future?

Context: For India, an economy in growth mode with aspirations to reach net-zero emissions by 2070, the exploitation and use of Natural Hydrogen offers a potentially game-changing opportunity.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: Hydrogen as a fuel: advantages; resource distribution; technologies for extraction and harvesting Hydrogen.

Hydrogen Fuel

Hydrogen is the lightest and the most abundant element in the universe.
- On Earth, it is found in compounds like water or hydrocarbons. It must be created and stored before it tends to be utilised.
- Natural hydrogen also occurs as a free gas in geology, produced by processes such as serpentinisation (the interaction of water and iron-containing rocks), radiolysis of water by radioactive rocks, and from organic matter at depth.
Hydrogen Fuel: Presently, Hydrogen fuel is produced by splitting water (H₂O) into its components: hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂). The hydrogen gas can be used to power fuel cells, which generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, releasing only water vapour as a byproduct.
If harvested in a sustainable manner, natural Hydrogen may provide a clean and potentially low-cost fuel to satisfy the world’s increasing energy needs with a considerable reduction in carbon emissions as well.

How is Hydrogen Extracted?

Currently, the majority of hydrogen is manufactured from natural gas through an energy-intensive and polluting process.
Green hydrogen can be made using renewable electricity, however, is still prohibitively expensive and would require vast amounts of wind and solar power to work out at scale.

Hydrogen Reserves:

The presence of Hydrogen in coal mines points towards generation from underlying organic matter.
Active mountain ranges with tectonic activity, such as the Pyrenees, Alps, and Himalayas, are being considered as areas for geological hydrogen production.
The fact that Helium co-exists with Hydrogen in a few reserves points towards some geological processes, such as radiolysis, playing a role in its generation.

Hydrogen Reserves in the World:

Hundreds of hydrogen seeps have been catalogued globally in various countries, including Australia (Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo Island), the US (Kansas, Nebraska), Spain, France, Albania, Colombia, South Korea, and Canada.
An estimated tens of trillions metric tonnes of Hydrogen may be available in geologic stores. If even just 2% of these reserves are commercially exploitable, they would provide about twice as much energy as all the earth’s provable natural gas reserves —enough to meet projected hydrogen demand (500 million tonnes per year) for around two hundred years.

Hydrogen Reserves in India

India’s Hydrogen demand is projected to grow from six million tonnes per year (Mt/year) in 2020 to over 50 Mt/year by 2070 to support its net-zero target. The natural hydrogen reserves are likely present in favourable geological structures like:

Hard rock formations of diverse ultramafic/mafic and basaltic assemblages
Andaman and Himalayan ophiolite complexes
Greenstone volcanic-sedimentary sequences in cratons (Dharwar, Singhbhum)
Sedimentary basis (for example, in Vindhyan, Cuddapah, Gondwana and Chhattisgarh), basement rocks with fractures
Areas where active hydrothermal systems as represented by hot springs exist.

Challenges in Exploration and Excavation of Natural Hydrogen:

Natural Hydrogen exploitation and exploration is not easy. It has technical, logistical, economical, and safety-related challenges.

Accurately locating and quantifying underground hydrogen reserves is the primary challenge. Unlike oil and gas, for which well-established exploration techniques exist, natural hydrogen exploration is still evolving.
Development of efficient and cost-effective extraction technology for natural hydrogen. While modifying current gas industry practices associated with well drilling and extraction facilities, one must consider hydrogen’s specific properties, including its small molecular size and high diffusivity.
Hydrogen extraction also involves specific safety issues as opposed to hydrocarbons because of its high diffusivity and reactivity.

Approaches under-development for Hydrogen Excavation:

Production of hydrogen by drilling and flowing water into rock and then transporting the hydrogen to the surface for collection.
Injecting water with dissolved carbon dioxide into iron-containing rocks that could potentially lead to carbon sequestration as limestone, while simultaneously producing hydrogen.

Also Read: Hydrogen as an alternative fuel: Explained

A comprehensive geological study is essential in India, considering critical factors such as the quality, extent, thickness, accessibility, and hydrocarbon generation potential of the source rock; size and viability of hydrocarbon accumulations; potential losses during migration; and the accessibility of the area for exploration and development.

ISRO’s breakthrough in Semi-Cryogenic Engine development for LVM3

Context: Indian Space Research Organisation has successfully conducted the second short duration hot test of the Lox Kerosene 2,000 kiloNewton (kN) semi-cryogenic engine (SE2000). Earlier, the first major hot test of the engine was conducted in March 2025.

During the test, the engine was successfully ignited and operated up to 60% of its rated power level, demonstrating stable and controlled performance.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Facts about Semi-cryogenic Engine; Cryogenic Engine.

ISRO’s Semi-cryogenic Engine

The Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre of ISRO is developing the Semi cryogenic propulsion Engine and Stage (SC120).
The stage (SC120) is powered by the 2000 kN semi-cryogenic engine (SE2000). It uses a Liquid Oxygen and Kerosene-based propulsion system that offers an enhanced thrust of 2,000 kiloNewton.
It will replace the present core liquid stage (L110) (which uses Vikas engine) in Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3).

Evaluation Tests on Semi-cryogenic Engine:

Before the full integration of the SE2000 engine, ISRO conducted a series of performance evaluation tests on intermediate configurations.
- Pre-Burner Ignition Test Article (PITA): Tests the ignition process of the engine’s pre-burner. The successful test lasted 2.5 seconds, demonstrating the smooth ignition and operation of the engine.
- Power Head Test Article (PHTA): Validates the integrated performance of an engine's critical subsystems, including the gas generator, turbo pumps, pre-burner and control components. It involves performing a hot-firing of the engine for an extremely brief duration of not more than 4.5 seconds.
All critical parameters performed as expected, marking a major breakthrough in the semi-cryogenic engine development program.

Benefits of Semi-cryogenic Propulsion System:

Non-toxic and non hazardous propellants (Liquid Oxygen and Kerosene) are employed in Semi cryogenic propulsion. This will deliver higher performance compared to the existing L110 stage.
Induction of the Semi cryogenic propulsion system along with an uprated cryogenic stage in the LVM3 vehicle enhances its payload capability from 4 tonne to 5 tonne in GTO (Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit).

Advantages of Semi-cryogenic Engine over Cryogenic Engine:

Cryogenic engines use liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. Handling liquid hydrogen is challenging, as it needs to be stored at minus 253 degrees Celsius, and is highly inflammable.
A semi-cryogenic engine uses a liquid oxygen – kerosene combination, where kerosene is readily storable. This combination offers advantages like high-density impulse (with respect to cryogenic engines), less toxic (with respect to fuel storage) and is cost-effective.

Significance: The success of the test brings ISRO a step closer towards enhancing the payload capacity of India's LVM3 rocket and strengthening the country's capabilities in space launch vehicles.

Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre empowered under PMLA

Context: Government has authorised Indian Cybercrime Coordination Centre (I4C) to receive and share information from Enforcement Directorate and other law enforcement agencies to combat money laundering linked to cybercrime.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre.

Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre

I4C is a nodal agency established by the Ministry of Home Affairs to address cybercrime in a coordinated and comprehensive manner.
I4C works towards improving coordination among the Law Enforcement Agencies and the stakeholders and enhancing the nation’s collective capability to tackle cybercrimes.
I4C has partnered with Google and Facebook for sharing intelligence and signals for proactive identification and action on cyber criminals.
- Cyber fraudsters have been using digital platforms (like Google services platforms) for initiating organised investment crimes and the I4C has partnered with the Internet search giant to flag such content.
I4C has been added to the list of entities under the Section 66 of the Prevention of Money-Laundering Act (PMLA). The move is aimed at detecting money trails and combat money laundering linked to cybercrime.

Objectives of I4C

Facilitate easy filing cybercrime related complaints and identifying cybercrime trends and patterns.
Act as an early warning system for Law Enforcement Agencies for proactive cybercrime prevention and detection.
Strengthen the fight against cybercrime committed against women and children.
Awareness creation among the public about preventing cybercrime.
Assist States/UTs in capacity building of Police Officers, Public Prosecutors and Judicial Officers in the area of cyber forensic, investigation, cyber hygiene, cyber-criminology, etc.

India’s Immunisation Journey

Context: Vaccines are one of the most effective tools in modern medicine and one of humanity’s greatest achievements. India has earned the title of 'pharmacy of the world', and is the backbone of a stable, resilient and equitable global healthcare system.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts related to various immunisation efforts.

Mains: India's role as a global vaccine hub, challenges and solutions.

India’s Immunisation Journey

1. Early beginning of Immunisation:

India’s first smallpox vaccine was administered in Bombay in 1802, laying the foundation for public preventive healthcare.
Tuberculosis campaign (1948): Preventive mass immunisation began with the adoption of the International Tuberculosis Campaign, targeting TB which claimed an estimated 500,000 lives per year in India in the 1940s.

2. Institutionalising Immunisation:

Expanded Programme on Immunisation (EPI): In 1978, EPI was launched which aimed at providing free vaccines, initially against six diseases.
Universal Immunisation Programme (1985): EPI was renamed as UIP. It provided free vaccines against 12 vaccine-preventable diseases including: TB, polio, measles, and hepatitis B. UIP is among the largest public health programs globally, reaching over 2.67 crore newborns and 2.9 crore pregnant women each year. Significant achievements: successful eradication of polio in 2014.
Mission Indradhanush (2014): Aim: To improve full immunisation coverage for children in India from 65% in 2014 to at least 90% earlier than 2020. MI focuses on vaccinating women and children against a host of diseases, including diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, polio, TB, meningitis and pneumonia. The initiative has completed twelve phases so far, covering 554 districts across the country.

In 2023-24, India reached full, national immunisation coverage — a milestone made possible through the consistent and extensive efforts of programmes like UIP and MI.

3. Technological Innovations:

eVIN: India has introduced technology-driven innovations such as the Electronic Vaccine Intelligence Network (eVIN) to strengthen vaccine logistics and transparency. It is an AI-integrated application that modernises healthcare delivery through real-time vaccine stock monitoring.

India’s role in Global Immunisation Efforts

Covering 60% of the global vaccine supply, India is remarkably one of the biggest suppliers of low-cost vaccines in the world.
Initiatives like Vaccine Maitri during the COVID-19 pandemic further underscored India's commitment to global health equity.
International collaborations with GAVI, COVAX, and WHO underlines India’s commitment to global health.

India’s immunisation journey illustrates an inspiring story of transformation- from early experiments with smallpox vaccines to achieving full national immunisation coverage and becoming the "pharmacy of the world."

Contributions of Dr Krishnaswamy Kasturirangan

Context: Dr. Krishnaswamy Kasturirangan, an eminent space scientist, educationist and the guiding force behind India’s space and education milestones passed away recently.

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Contributions of Dr. K Kasturirangan.

Dr. K Kasturirangan:

Dr. K Kasturirangan was born in 1940 in Ernakulam, Kerala.
He earned his physics degree from Bombay University and his PhD in experimental high-energy astronomy from the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad.
He has published more than 200 papers, both in international and national journals in the areas of astronomy, space science and space applications.
He has won several awards including:
- Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award in Engineering.
- Padma Shri, Padma Bhushan and Padma Vibhushan.

Notable Contributions of Dr. K Kasturirangan:

1. Space Scientist:

He was director at ISRO Satellite Centre and was responsible for overseeing development of next-generation satellites including INSAT-2 and IRS-1A & 1B.
He was the project director for BHASKARA-I and II, India’s first experimental Earth observation satellites. He laid the groundwork for the nation’s remote sensing capabilities.
He was the chairman of ISRO from 1994-2003. He witnessed several major milestones including:
- operationalisation of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
- successful flight-test of Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).
Under his stewardship, ISRO pursued technological self-reliance and began planning ambitious missions such as Chandrayaan, despite facing international sanctions following India’s 1998 nuclear tests.
His research interests included high-energy X-ray and gamma ray astronomy. He made significant contributions to studies on cosmic X-ray sources, celestial gamma rays, and their effects on Earth’s atmosphere.
He played a key role in conceptualising India’s first space-based high-energy astronomy observatory.

2. Kasturirangan Committee on Western Ghats:

He was the Chairman of the high level working group on the protection of Western Ghats, popularly known as Kasturirangan committee. His report on the ecology of the Western Ghats, is the basis on which human activities in specific areas of the Western Ghats are sought to be regulated.

3. Chief architect of National Education Policy 2020:

He was the chief architect of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 that envisages a new education structure and 100% gross enrolment by 2030. Later, he spearheaded the development of the National Curriculum Framework.

Dr K Kasturirangan is a towering figure in India's scientific and educational journey. His visionary leadership and selfless contribution to the nation will continue to inspire the future generations.

India may allow 49% foreign ownership in Nuclear Power Plants

Context: India is considering allowing foreign firms to hold up to 49% ownership in its Nuclear Power Plants, aiming to boost its nuclear sector and reduce carbon emissions.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about India’s Nuclear Energy Sector; Atomic Energy Act, 1962.

India’s Nuclear Energy Sector

As of 2024, the total Indian nuclear generation is just over 8 GW, which is just 2% of the country’s installed electricity capacity.
India aims to expand nuclear power capacity by 12 times to 100 gigawatts by 2047.
The government is considering changing its nuclear foreign investment framework. It would increase India’s nuclear capacity and replace carbon-intensive coal with cleaner energy.
Necessary legal changes are required in the Atomic Energy Act, 1962. The amendments to the Act would allow the government to issue licences to private companies to build, own and operate a plant and mine and manufacture atomic fuel.

Atomic Energy Act, 1962

The Act provides for the development, control and use of atomic energy for the welfare of the people of India and for other peaceful purposes.
The central government through NPCIL (Nuclear Power Corporation of India) holds the authority for activities related to nuclear energy, including its production, development, use, and disposal.
The Act restricts private companies from owning and operating nuclear power plants in India.
The 2015 amendment to the Atomic Energy Act, allows NPCIL to form joint ventures with other public sector units (PSUs) to secure funding for new projects. However, this does not extend to private or foreign companies.
Currently, private companies can participate in specific areas like supplying components and reactors, but not owning or operating plants. Discussions are ongoing about allowing Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs). This would require amendment to the Act.

Also Read: Nuclear Energy Sector in Union Budget 2025-26

However, the foreign nuclear investments would still require prior government approval rather than be allowed automatically.

The Global Pandemic Treaty

Context: The world’s first Pandemic Agreement was formally adopted by member states of the World Health Assembly (WHA) in Geneva. The landmark decision by the 78th WHA (WHO’s top decision-making body) comes after more than three years of negotiations. It is designed to better prevent and respond to global health crises.

The WHO Pandemic Agreement is the second international legal agreement negotiated under Article 19 of the WHO Constitution. The first is the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, which was adopted in 2003 and entered into force in 2005.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key facts related to Global pandemic treaty.

Draft Global Pandemic Treaty

Rationale: The treaty is designed to improve the international community's preparedness and response to future pandemics by ensuring more equitable access to vaccines, treatments, and resources.
Need: COVID-19 pandemic revealed the glaring gaps in global health systems and highlighted the lack of effective international cooperation in responding to health emergencies. A 2022 study revealed that more than one million lives could have been saved if COVID-19 vaccines had been shared more equitably with lower-income countries.

Key Elements of the Treaty

Pathogen access and benefit sharing system:
- Countries would share scientific data such as pathogen samples and genomic sequences with pharmaceutical companies.
- In return, participating manufacturers would use this shared data to create vaccines or treatments. They will have to allocate 10% of vaccines, diagnostics, and therapeutics to WHO, and another 10% at affordable prices. This aims to ensure that scientific cooperation leads to fair access for all.

Technology sharing: Member states should promote and otherwise facilitate or incentivise the exchange of technology and know-how to help manufacturers in developing nations make their own drugs and vaccines.
National policies on Publicly funded research: When governments fund research (to universities or companies) to develop medicines or vaccines, they must include clauses or agreements that require timely and equitable access to resulting drugs or diagnostics during pandemics.

Ratification Process of WHO Pandemic Agreement:

The Agreement outlines steps to prepare for its implementation. This includes launching a process to draft and negotiate a Pathogen Access and Benefit Sharing system (PABS) through an Intergovernmental Working Group. The result of this process will be considered at the 2026 World Health Assembly (WHA).
Once the WHA adopts the PABS annex, the WHO Pandemic Agreement will then be open for signature and ratification, including by national legislative bodies. After 60 ratifications, the Agreement will enter into force.

Limitations

Although the agreement on the draft treaty has been hailed as groundbreaking and historic, several experts have said that it has a limited scope.

No Enforcement Power: The treaty relies on voluntary cooperation and has no enforcement mechanism. WHO would have no way to ensure countries adhere to the terms to which they had agreed. WHO does not have the power to mandate or impose any requirements such as ban or accept travellers, impose vaccination mandates, or implement lockdown.
Absence of clear IP Protection: Without strong IP protection (like patents), pharmaceutical companies may be reluctant to invest in pandemic-related products, fearing compulsory licensing, technology transfer mandates, or loss of market exclusivity.
Unclear Implementation: The pathogen-sharing system still lacks operational clarity raising concerns about how it will work in a real emergency.
Absence of the United States: The US, a major pharma and vaccine hub, withdrew from negotiations. Experts say its absence will weaken the agreement.

The global pandemic treaty marks a milestone in international health diplomacy. But without enforcement powers, universal participation, or clarity on execution, it may fall short when the next pandemic strikes.

DRDO conducts Scramjet Engine Ground Test

Context: The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has successfully conducted a long-duration ground test of an Active Cooled Scramjet Subscale Combustor for over 1000 seconds. Earlier, DRDO had successfully conducted the ground test of the scramjet engine for 120 seconds. This marks a significant milestone in development of scramjet-powered hypersonic technology.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Hypersonic Missiles; Scramjet Engine.

What are Hypersonic Missiles?

Hypersonic Missiles are a class of advanced weaponry that travel at speeds greater than Mach 5.
Key Features:
- Speed: Over Mach 5 (five times speed of sound or more than 5,400 km/hr)
- Manoeuvrability: Hypersonic missiles can change course mid-air, making it very difficult for an interceptor to intercept it.
- Altitude: Travels at relatively lower altitudes than a conventional missile, thereby, evading detection by radar.
- Thus, they have the potential to bypass existing Air Defence Systems and deliver rapid and high-impact strikes.
Engine: The key to hypersonic vehicles is Scramjets engines which are capable of sustaining combustion at supersonic speeds.
Several nations including the USA, Russia, India and China are actively pursuing Hypersonic technology.

What is a Scramjet Engine?

Scramjets are air-breathing engines capable of sustaining combustion at supersonic speeds without the need for any moving parts (functions without turbines or compressors).
The Scramjet engine designed by ISRO uses Hydrogen as fuel and the Oxygen from the atmospheric air as the oxidiser.
Working:
- A scramjet engine collects oxygen from the atmosphere (rather than carrying an oxidiser) as it is travelling, and mixes the oxygen with its hydrogen fuel.
- Combustion occurs at supersonic speed (exceeding Mach 1), needed for hypersonic travel of the missile.

Recent successful ground test by DRDO

The ground test of the scramjet combustor showcased several notable achievements like successful ignition and stable combustion.

Stable combustion:
- Ignition in a scramjet engine is like ‘keeping a candle lit in a hurricane.’
- Scramjet combustor incorporates an innovative flame stabilisation technique that holds continuous flame inside the combustor with airspeed of over 1.5 km per second.
Scramjet fuel: Endothermic scramjet fuel (central to this breakthrough) was developed for the first time in India jointly by Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL), and industry.
- The fuel offers dual benefits of significant cooling improvement and ease of ignition.
Advanced Computational Fluid Dynamics simulation tools were used for their evaluation and performance prediction.
Thermal Barrier Coating: Thermal Barrier Coating was designed to withstand extreme temperatures encountered during hypersonic flight. The coating is applied inside the Scramjet engine using special deposition methods that enhance their performance and longevity.

Significance: The achievement is a crucial milestone in the development of next-generation hypersonic missions.

What is Human papillomavirus (HPV)?

Context: The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has announced the successful scientific review and validation of India’s first indigenously developed Human Papillomavirus (HPV) test kits for cervical cancer screening.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Human papillomavirus (HPV); HPV Shot in India.

Human papillomavirus (HPV)

Human papillomavirus is a small, double-stranded DNA virus from the papillomavirus family.
Threat:
- The virus is capable of infecting both women and men.
- HPV can cause genital warts and cancer in the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, anus, and throat.
- HPV infection is responsible for about 5% of all cancers worldwide.
Primary mode of transmission:
- Any intimate skin-to-skin contact and sexually transmitted via vaginal, anal, or oral sex.
- The immune system usually clears the virus, but high-risk strains can lead to cancer.
Treatment:
- There is no treatment for HPV, but in most cases it goes away without treatment.
- HPV vaccines do not cure cancer, they are highly effective in preventing certain associated cancers. HPV vaccine stimulates the immune system to recognise the virus and produce antibodies that neutralise the virus, before it can cause cancer.

HPV Shot in India

The Indian government plans to vaccinate girls aged 9-14 against HPV to reduce the risk of cervical cancer.
- Cervical cancer develops in the cervix or the wall of the cervix.
- HPV is responsible for 99.7% of cervical cancers worldwide.
- Cervical cancer is the second most common cancer among Indian women. India has 20% of the global burden of cervical cancer.
Cervavac is India's first Quadrivalent Human Papillomavirus Vaccine (qHPV) developed by the Serum Institute of India. It prevents the entry of four of the most common types of HPV 16, 18, 6 and 11.
Challenges: Uptake of HPV vaccine is low in India, due to:
- High cost of HPV vaccine.
- Lack of awareness and cultural perceptions around reproductive health.
Way Forward:
- National Technical Advisory Group for Immunisation (NTAGI) has recommended the inclusion of the HPV vaccine in the national immunisation programme.
- Rolling out a nationwide human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination campaign.
- Regular cervical cancer screening (Pap smear and HPV test) is recommended for women to detect precancerous changes in the cervix caused by HPV.

Mission Mausam: Utilising AI in Weather Forecasting

Context: As weather patterns grow more unpredictable due to the climate crisis, India has launched Mission Mausam to improve weather understanding and forecasting through expanded observation networks, better modelling and advanced tools like AI and machine learning.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Mission Mausam.

Mains: Applications of AI: Weather Forecasting.

Mission Mausam

Launched in 2024 with a budget of Rs 2000 crores over two years.
Aim: To improve weather and climate services, and forecast information for multiple sectors, including agriculture, disaster management, and rural development. The long-term goal is to make India weather-ready and climate-smart.
Initiative by: Ministry of Earth Sciences

Objectives of Mission Mausam:

Strengthening observations (in-situ & remote sensing) networks with advanced radars, satellites, and automated weather stations.
Improve Model/ Data Assimilation/ HPC for giving accurate information to the Public and stakeholders (Numerical + Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning).
Enhance India's capability in weather forecasting across various scales — short-term, medium-term, extended-range, and seasonal.
Provide actionable advisories for agriculture, water resources, energy, health, and disaster management sectors.

Mission Mausam Implementation Strategy

Mission Mausam adopts a multi-pronged approach to achieve its objectives:

Infrastructure Development: Installation of Doppler Weather Radars, Automatic Weather Stations, and rain gauges across the country.
Supercomputing Power: Leveraging high-performance computing systems like Pratyush and Mihir for advanced climate modelling.
Collaborative Research: Partnerships with global organisations like the World Meteorological Organisation to enhance forecasting techniques.
Public Outreach: Dissemination of user-friendly advisories through mobile apps (E.g., Mausam App), SMS services, and Media channels.

Implementation Phases:

The five-year mission would be implemented in two phases.
- First phase (until March 2026): Focus on expanding the observation network. This includes adding around 70 Doppler radars, high-performance computers and setting up 10 wind profilers and 10 radiometers.
- Second phase: Focus on adding satellites and aircraft to further enhance observational capabilities.

Cloud Chamber:

Under the mission, a cloud chamber will be established at the Indian Institute of Meteorology (IITM) in Pune, within the next one and a half years.
Aim: To study the processes occurring within clouds in the context of rising temperatures.

Working:

Artificial clouds will be created inside a laboratory at the IITM and conduct experiments. This will help the scientists better understand:
- which types of clouds can be seeded (a process where substances are added to clouds to make them produce rain)
- what materials should be used for seeding
- how much seeding is needed to either increase rain or even prevent rain.
Rising temperatures lead to clouds becoming taller and more electrically active, while their horizontal spread may shrink. This can result in stronger thunderstorms and more frequent lightning events and impact rainfall dynamics. The insights gained from the cloud chamber will help improve the parameterisation of weather models and help to artificially enhance or suppress rain and hail within the next five years.

Mission Mausam envisages augmenting the entire observational network (surface as well as upper-air), numerical modelling framework, incorporating AI/ML techniques, enhancing the computing power to mitigate the impact of climate change-induced extreme weather events. "Mausam GPT" is being designed to provide quick and reliable weather-related information in both text and audio forms.

Traditional vs AI-based Weather Forecasting

Traditional Weather Forecasting: These models simulate atmospheric processes using equations and data from weather stations and satellites (E.g., temperature, wind). These models are computationally intensive, time-consuming, and sometimes limited in capturing localised phenomena due to the chaotic and non-linear nature of weather systems.
AI-Based Forecasting: Unlike traditional models, AI/ML techniques adopt a data-first approach. They learn from historical and real-time data, identifying correlations between input variables (E.g., wind, humidity, ocean temperature) and outcomes (E.g., rainfall, cyclones). AI can uncover hidden patterns and non-linear relationships not captured by physics-based models.

Challenges in AI-based Weather Forecasting:

Data Quality and Availability: AI models need large, consistent, and high-quality datasets. Issues like sensor errors, inconsistent formats, and lack of real-time or historical data complicate training. While data availability has improved tenfold but gaps remain in sensor networks, especially in remote areas.
Human Resource Gap: A critical shortage of experts skilled in both climate science and AI/ML.
Interpretability and Trust: AI models are like black boxes - it is hard to explain why they make a certain prediction. This makes it difficult for non-experts to trust or verify the results.
Infrastructure and Computation: AI models, especially for high-resolution forecasting, require GPU-based computing and significant infrastructure investment.

To bridge the gaps, scientists are increasingly turning towards hybrid models that combine the interpretability of physics-based models and adaptability of AI/ML.

Quantum Gravity Gradiometer

Context: NASA scientists have proposed that an advanced quantum gravity gradiometer (QGG) could be placed onboard a satellite and launched into low-earth orbit. The instrument could study small changes in the earth’s distribution of water, ice, and rocks to inform studies of climate change.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: key facts about Quantum Gravity Gradiometer and its Application.

Variation of Gravitational Force:

Gravitational force on the Earth’s surface is non-uniform. The amount of gravitational force one experiences on the earth’s surface depends on the amount of mass nearby.
The force is directly proportional to the mass. Force equals to Mass multiplied by its Acceleration (F = m · a).
This difference in force between two places is too small and requires the most sensitive instruments for its detection. One such instrument is the gravity gradiometer.

Quantum Gravity Gradiometer

Quantum Gravity Gradiometer is a highly-sensitive instrument that can detect minute variations in Earth's gravitational field by harnessing the principles of quantum mechanics.

Working of QGG

QGG uses ulta-cooled rubidium atoms (cooled to near absolute zero) in vacuum. These ultra-cooled atoms behave like waves, and are manipulated by lasers.
The atoms experience a phase shift that is directly proportional to the strength of the gravitational force acting on them. The shift is extremely sensitive.
By using a pair of such setups (say 1 meter apart), a QGG can detect a difference in acceleration as low as 10⁻¹⁵ m/s² across a distance of 1 m on the Earth’s surface.

Potential Applications of Quantum Gravity Gradiometer

Oil and gas exploration: Locating Hydrocarbon deposits and accessing their distribution underground (gravity gradiometer can be used to understand the density of the ground at various depths).
Aquifer mapping: Detect seasonal changes in water levels in aquifers, track depletion of water tables.
Climate studies: Detect small changes in the earth’s distribution of water, ice, and rocks to conduct informed studies of climate change, and enhance disaster resilience.
National security: Detects underground construction of bunkers, tunnels etc. by detecting the density anomaly.

Quantum sensors promise enhanced sensitivity 10 times more than classical sensors for measuring gravity.

Does the planet K2-18b show signs of life?

Context: Recently, an international research paper reported that the distant exoplanet K2-18b may be habitable. Potential biomarkers were identified based on the observations from James Webb Space Telescope, backed by computer-based spectral analysis.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about K2-18b.

What is K2-18b?

K2-18b is an exoplanet — a planet outside the solar system. It is located 124 light years away from the earth in the constellation Leo, orbiting the star K2-18.
It is over 5 times wider and roughly 9 times more massive than the Earth.
The amount of stellar radiation it receives from its star is comparable to what the Earth receives from the Sun. It likely possesses a hydrogen-rich atmosphere.
It was discovered by the Kepler telescope in 2015.

Earlier estimations of planetary conditions in K2-18b:

In 2019, the Hubble Space Telescope found that its atmosphere contains signs of water vapour. Later, the James Webb Space Telescope detected signs of carbon dioxide and methane.
Studies suggest, K2-18b might be a Hycean world: covered with an ocean overlaid by a hydrogen-rich atmosphere.

Researchers suggest its surface conditions may be close to the runaway greenhouse threshold — when the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere prevents any heat from escaping the surface.
Computer models suggest it may also have a stratosphere and some carbon oxides and cyanide in the middle atmosphere.

Recent findings that suggest K2-18b might be habitable:

The latest research reported the presence of at least one of two molecules that are associated with life: dimethyl sulphide (DMS) and dimethyl disulphide (DMDS) in K2-18b’s atmosphere.
DMS could be a biomarker (a sign of life) on exoplanets. On Earth, these gases are produced by marine phytoplankton and bacteria.
- Phytoplankton produce a molecule called dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP). When they die, enzymatic breakdown of DMSP molecules releases DMS.
- DMS is also emitted when bacteria break up plant matter. In 2015, researchers reported that 76% of soil bacteria contain a gene that allows them to produce DMS.
- Volcanic eruptions also release trace amounts of DMS.

However, attempts to look for conditions suitable for life and the presence of specific molecules from a distance can only be suggestive of habitable conditions, not confirmatory. The only way to find extraterrestrial life is to directly detect it.

NASA has launched its Clipper Mission in 2024 to study Jupiter’s moon Europa, which among other objectives aims to track signs of life in its vapour plumes.