Science & Technology

GS1 to roll out next-generation Barcodes by 2027

Context: Global Standards 1 (GS1) is preparing to replace the current barcodes with next-generation formats such as QR Codes powered by GS1 and GS1 DataMatrix. The global rollout is expected by 2027, and aims to improve product traceability and supply chain transparency.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about bar code; next-generation Barcodes.

What is Barcode?

Barcode is the small image of lines (bars) and spaces of varying widths that is used to identify a particular product number, person or location.
The bars are used to represent the binary digits 0 and 1, sequences of which in turn can represent numbers from 0 to 9 and be processed by a digital computer.
This encoded information can be interpreted by a barcode scanner. The scanner shines a laser or LED light on the barcode, and detects the reflected light. The reflected light is converted into a digital signal, and interpreted.

What is QR Code?

QR Code (quick-response code) is a two-dimensional bar code. It consists of a printed square pattern of small black and white squares that encode data which can be scanned into a computer system.
The black and white squares can represent numbers from 0 to 9, letters from A to Z, or characters.
QR codes can encode URLs, text, payment information, geo-location etc.
Applications: Digital payments, inventory management, government IDs, medical certificates, boarding passes etc.

Next-generation Barcodes:

The upgraded barcodes will be structured to:
- enhance supply chain traceability, information-sharing and support recall tracking.
- support integration with technologies such as artificial intelligence and blockchain, especially for applications requiring secure and multi-party data sharing.
The barcodes would be compatible with smartphone cameras, allowing broader accessibility without the need for proprietary scanners.

Applications:

The upgraded barcode -

Would enable businesses, consumers and regulators to access product-specific information- including expiry dates, sourcing data and recall notices through a single scan.
Would help track the movement of medicines, medical devices and agricultural goods through standardised labelling.
Tool to verify product authenticity in sectors such as pharmaceuticals. Integrated into Ayushman Bharat for inventory management and cost tracking.

Global Standards 1 (GS1)

GS1 is a not-for-profit entity that develops and maintains open standards used across retail, logistics, healthcare, agriculture and other sectors.
In India, GS1 standards are already used in national programmes such as FASTag, Ayushman Bharat and ROHINI (a hospital registry).

Indigenous vaccine developed for Lumpy Skin Disease

Context: Biovet, a subsidiary of Bharat Biotech has indigenously developed the world’s first lumpy skin disease (LSD) vaccine- Biolumpivaxin.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Lumpy Skin Disease.

Lumpy Skin Disease

Highly contagious viral disease that primarily affects cattle. It is caused by the lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), which belongs to the Capripoxvirus genus.
Transmission- Can spread through:
- vectors (like mosquitoes, some biting flies, and ticks)
- direct contact to skin lesions, saliva, nasal discharge, milk, or semen of infected animals.
- contaminated fodder and water through oral and nasal secretions of infected animals
- during artificial insemination using contaminated semen.
It is not a zoonotic virus i.e., the disease cannot spread to humans. It is safe to consume milk from the infected cattle, as it is a non-zoonotic disease.
The morbidity of the disease varies between two to 45% and mortality or rate of death is less than 10%.

Symptoms

LSD affects the lymph nodes of the infected animal, causing the nodes to enlarge and appear like lumps on the skin, which is where it derives its name from.

The cutaneous nodules (2-5 cm in diameter) appear on the infected cattle’s head, neck, limbs, udder, genitalia, and perineum. The nodules may later turn into ulcers and eventually develop scabs over the skin.
Other symptoms include- high fever, sharp drop in milk yield, discharge from the eyes and nose, salivation, loss of appetite, depression, damaged hides, emaciation (thinness or weakness) of animals, infertility and abortions.

Spread & Implications:

LSD is currently endemic in several countries across Africa, parts of West Asia (Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab Republic), and Turkey. The disease reached India in August 2019, with initial cases detected in Odisha and West Bengal.
Implications:
- Reduced milk production as the animal becomes weak, and loses appetite due to mouth ulceration.
- Leads to abortion in pregnant bovines and sterility in bulls.
- Threatens the livelihoods of smaller farmers significantly which incur losses due to cattle deaths.

Lumpy Skin Disease Vaccine:

Biolumpivaxin is the world's first and an indigenously developed LSD Vaccine.
Developed by: Biovet, a subsidiary of Bharat Biotech.
It is a live-attenuated DIVA (Differentiating Infected from Vaccinated Animals) marker vaccine developed using the LSD virus.
This is a single vaccination regimen given once in a year to cattle and buffaloes of all ages.
It is approved by the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO).

Key Facts:

India is the world’s largest milk producer at about 210 million tonnes annually. India also has the largest headcount of cattle and buffalo worldwide.
According to government data, there have been two major outbreaks of LSD in India, the first in 2019 and the second in 2022. During these outbreaks approximately 200,000 cattle have died, and millions more cattle have lost their milk production capabilities.

How is Cyberbullying tackled under the Law in India?

Context: India does not have a dedicated law to tackle cyber crimes at present. Instead, the provisions under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita 2023, and the Information Technology Act 2000 are used to deal with such cases.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Definitions of different types of cybercrimes.

Mains: Cybersecurity landscape in India.

What are Cybercrimes?

Cybercrimes referto a range of criminal activities carried out using computers and the internet. Common cybercrimes include-
- Hacking
- data theft and financial fraud
- phishing and impersonation
- malware attacks and ransomware
- cyberbullying and digital arrest
- stalking and doxxing (unauthorised release of private information).
Cybercrimes in India have increased 60.9% from 2022 to 2023, resulting in the loss of over Rs. 10,000 crores over the past three years. Cybercrimes disproportionately affect women and minorities.

What is Cyberbullying?

Cyberbullying is the use of technology to intentionally and repeatedly harass, threaten, embarrass, or target another person viz. offensive messages, hate speech, derogatory content, doctored images, doxxing and threats of physical or sexual violence.

Existing laws to tackle Cyberbullying in India:

India lacks a dedicated law to address online hate speech and trolling.

Provisions under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) 2023, and the Information Technology (IT) Act 2000 cover certain aspects of cyberbullying.
BNS includes provisions such as Section 74 (assault or criminal force against a woman with intent to outrage her modesty), Section 75 (sexual harassment), Section 351 (criminal intimidation), Section 356 (defamation), and Section 196 (promoting enmity between groups).
The IT Act includes provisions like Section 66C (identity theft), Section 66D (impersonation fraud), and Section 67 (publishing or transmitting obscene material electronically).

Limitations of Existing Frameworks

1. Absence of dedicated law on Cyberbullying:

The existing regulatory framework is functional but incomplete. Sustained online abuse that does not qualify as obscene, threatening, or fraudulent often falls outside the purview of criminal law.
Offences like criminal intimidation or defamation often require proof of threat or reputational harm, and are not-suited to counter the rapid, anonymous abuse unleashed by online mobs.

2. Legal ambiguity around Doxxing and Public data:

The Delhi High Court in a case involving doxxing (2024) ruled that while doxxing raised privacy concerns, the concerned incident did not constitute doxxing as the information was already publicly available.
The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, exempts from regulation personal data that is made publicly available, either by the individual concerned or by an entity under a legal obligation. However, it does not define what qualifies as publicly available data.
This lack of clarity on what qualifies as public information may inadvertently enable cybercrimes such as doxxing, given the ease with which fragmented data from multiple platforms can be easily aggregated and used for harassment or intimidation.

3. Concerns over Censorship:

Section 69A of the IT Act empowers the government to issue blocking orders on grounds aligned with constitutionally permissible speech restrictions, such as sovereignty, friendly relations with foreign States, and public order.
Platforms failing to comply risk losing safe harbour protection under Section 79, which shields intermediaries from liability for user-generated content.
However, these provisions are increasingly being used for censorship with content taken down without r notification, thus, violating the Supreme Court’s 2015 ruling in Shreya Singhal versus Union of India. E.g., After the Pahalgam attack, X disclosed that it had been directed to block 8,000 accounts in India.

Government Initiatives to enhance Cybersecurity in India:

IT Act 2000: Provides a legal framework for dealing with cyber crimes.
CERT-In: Nodal agency to deal with cyber-security threats like hacking or phishing.
National Cyber-Security Policy 2013 to provide an overarching framework to deal with cybersecurity.
Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C): enhances the coordinated response of law enforcement agencies to cybercrimes.
National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre - nodal agency to protect India’s Critical Information Infrastructure.
National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal to report cyber crimes.
Defence Cyber Agency to protect military systems and conduct offensive cyber-operations.
Enactment of Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023 for regulation and protection of personal data.

Also Read: National Cyber Security Strategy

PSLV-C61: ISRO’s 101st satellite launch mission failed

Context: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) could not complete its 101st satellite launch mission, PSLV-C61/EOS-09, due to a technical glitch.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about PSLV-C61 Mission; PSLV.

ISRO’s 101st satellite launch mission

PSLV-C61 rocket was carrying the Earth Observation Satellite (EOS-09). However, a few minutes after the liftoff, the rocket suffered an issue in its third stage and the PSLV-C61 mission ended in a failure. (The chamber pressure in the casing that contained the third-stage motor fell during the flight)
The 1,700-kg Earth observation satellite was intended to be placed at an altitude of about 597 km in a sun-synchronous polar orbit (the satellite was to pass over a given place at the same time every day).
The EOS-09 satellite carried a Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) payload, capable of providing images of the Earth in all weather conditions. It was designed to produce high-quality radar images for civilian applications (such as land-use mapping and hydrology studies) and also for defence surveillance.

ISRO will assess the reasons for the loss of pressure and subsequently reattempt the mission EOS-09.

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)

PSLV is an expendable launch vehicle developed and operated by ISRO since its first successful launch in 1994.
Workhorse of ISRO known for its reliability, versatility, and cost-effectiveness since 1994.
Stages: Four-stages launch vehicle
- First stage is powered by a solid rocket motor (burns hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene-bound (HTPB) propellant)
- Second stage uses a liquid propulsion system (Vikas Engine which uses unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine as fuel and nitrogen tetroxide as oxidiser)
- Third stage is a solid rocket motor that provides the upper stages high thrust after the atmospheric phase of the launch (burns HTPB propellant)
- Fourth stage is a liquid-fueled engine (burns a combination of monomethylhydrazine and mixed oxides of nitrogen in two engines.
PSLV can deliver payloads of up to:
- 3250 kg to Low Earth Orbit
- 1600 kg to Sun Synchronous Orbit
- 1400 kg to Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit
Successful launches: Chandrayaan-1 Mission (2008), Mars Orbiter Mission/Mangalyaan (2013), 104 satellites at one go (2017).
It has been used for launching a wide range of payloads, including Earth Observation satellites, Navigation satellites, Communication satellites, and scientific payloads for various domestic and international customers.
Success rate: Since their introduction in the 1990s, the PSLV rockets have only failed thrice- the first during the inaugural flight in 1993, once in 2017 and the latest in 2025.

Also Read: ISRO’s Satellite Launch Vehicles

What is Hypertension?

Context: Hypertension, often termed the "silent killer", is a growing public health concern in India. Once considered a disease of old age, recent data indicate that children and adolescents are increasingly affected, highlighting an urgent need for preventive strategies at the population level.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key facts related to Hypertension.

About Hypertension

High blood pressure, also called hypertension, is blood pressure that is higher than normal. It is a condition in which the force of the blood against the artery walls is too high.
High blood pressure is consistently at 140/90 mm Hg or higher. It is common but can be serious if not treated.
Hypertension typically progresses without symptoms, gradually damaging the heart, brain, and kidneys.

Risk factors for Hypertension:

Unhealthy Diet: High intake of salt, processed, and packaged foods; alcohol and tobacco use.
High Salt Consumption: Average Indian adolescents consume over 8 grams of salt/day whereas WHO recommends less than 5 grams/day even for adults
Rising Childhood Obesity: Excess weight increases cardiac and vascular strain.
Physical Inactivity: Sedentary lifestyle becoming the norm.

The risk factors also include non-modifiable factors like age, genetics, and co-existing conditions such as diabetes.

Key Trends in India

Comprehensive National Nutrition Survey (2016-18): 7.3% of Indian adolescents already had hypertensive blood pressure levels, rising to 9.1% in urban areas.
NFHS-5 (2019-21):
- 12% of teenagers aged 15-19 already exhibit elevated blood pressure.
- 21% women and 24% men aged 15 and above have elevated blood pressure. The rates are slightly higher in urban areas than in rural areas.
A study conducted between 2019 and 2021 revealed that over one in four Indian adults has hypertension. Of these, only one-third are diagnosed, fewer than one in five are treated, and a mere one in 12 have their blood pressure under control.

Government Initiatives to Tackle Hypertension:

Population-Based Screening (2016): Launched under the National Health Mission for early detection of NCDs, including hypertension.
India Hypertension Control Initiative (IHCI, 2017): Joint initiative by MoHFW, ICMR, WHO India, and Resolve to Save Lives. It focuses on standard treatment protocols, uninterrupted medicine supply, task-sharing, and decentralized care at the primary level.
Integration with NP-NCD: IHCI best practices merged into the National Programme for Prevention and Control of Non Communicable Diseases (NP-NCD) to enable real-time tracking of screening, treatment, and control outcomes down to village level.
‘75 by 25’ Target: Goal to bring 75 million people with hypertension or diabetes under standard care by 2025; 71 million already enrolled (as of 2025).

Solutions & Way Forward

Strengthen Primary Healthcare Delivery: Ensure continuous availability of antihypertensive drugs at Ayushman Arogya Mandirs. Promote the use of validated, automated BP monitors for accurate diagnosis and monitoring.
Enhance Digital Health Integration: Leverage ABHA (Ayushman Bharat Health Account) to track patient history and treatment across facilities for better continuity of care.
Incentivize Screening and Follow-up: Expand and align incentives for frontline workers (CHOs, ASHAs) with outcomes such as diagnosis, treatment initiation, and BP control.
Transform Mid Day Meal Scheme: Upgrade PM POSHAN into a nutrition + food literacy platform reaching 120 million children. Incorporate regionally-inspired, fresh menus and student participation in meal planning and preparation.
Adopt Global Best Practices: Adapt Japan’s ShoKuiku model of food education and Vietnam’s school lunch reforms to instill healthy eating habits from a young age.
Policy Actions: Increasing excise taxes on tobacco and alcohol, banning their advertisement, reducing salt in processed foods, eliminating trans fats, and promoting healthy eating and physical activity.

Shingles Vaccine lowers Dementia Risk

Context: A new study by Wales finds that the Shingles vaccines may reduce the risk of dementia.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key facts related to shingles; dementia.

About Shingles

Shingles is a viral infection that causes painful rashes. It is caused by the varicella-zoster virus- the virus which also causes chickenpox.
Shingles typically produce a painful and blistering rash, erupting in a stripe of blisters that wraps around either the left or right side of the torso, along a nerve path. It can occur anywhere on the body.
Symptoms: Painful rashes, and in severe cases, vision loss, brain inflammation, or paralysis.
Transmission:
- Reactivation of the varicella zoster virus. After recovering from chickenpox, the virus remains dormant in the body and can reactivate later in life as shingles.
- The virus could be transmitted if the person comes into direct contact with the blisters of someone with Shingles to develop chickenpox.
Vaccine: Shingles vaccine prevents this reactivation and is typically recommended for individuals over the age of 50 and those with compromised immunity (e.g., people living with HIV).

Findings of the Recent Study:

A recent study from Wales has found the potential of the shingles vaccine to reduce the risk of dementia (a major neurodegenerative condition for which there is currently no cure).
It found dementia diagnoses among people who had gotten the shingles vaccine reduced 3.5% over a seven-year period. This equates to a 20% lower relative risk of getting dementia compared to the unvaccinated population.

How do vaccines prevent dementia?

Scientists are yet to determine what might be behind this but there are two leading theories:

Viral Reactivation Hypothesis: The varicella-zoster virus, which causes shingles, has been linked to long-term cognitive damage; vaccination may reduce dementia risk by preventing the virus from reactivating.
Immune Modulation Hypothesis: The vaccine may induce beneficial changes in the immune system that help protect against neurodegenerative processes associated with dementia.

Shingles Vaccines & their Effectiveness:

There are two approved shingles vaccines- Zostavax and Shingrix, both available in India.
Zostavax uses a live, weakened virus, while Shingrix uses a recombinant technology to develop parts of the virus that do not cause the disease.
Both vaccines show promising results in reducing dementia risk, but the recombinant Shingrix is preferred globally due to its stronger and longer-lasting protection, especially in older adults.

These findings suggest that routine adult vaccinations may play a broader neuroprotective role beyond preventing infectious diseases.

India ranks among top six nations globally in 6G patent filings

Context: India ranks among the top six countries globally in terms of 6G patent filings. Indigenous 6G development will ensure secure communications, developed and managed within India, and further strengthen the nation's position in the global technology landscape.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: 5G Technology vs 6G Technology.

India’s Rising Role in 6G Technology:

At the recent Bharat 6G 2025 Conference, the government revealed India’s growing achievements in the 6G space.
- India now ranks among the top six countries globally in terms of 6G patent filings.
- Over 111 research projects have been funded with a sanctioned amount of ₹300 crore.
Bharat 6G Vision Document was released in 2023 by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT). It is a roadmap for India to become a global leader in 6G through indigenous research, international collaboration, and ecosystem development.

Evolution of Mobile Networks

What is 6G?

6G stands for the sixth generation of wireless mobile communication technology, expected to be rolled out around 2030.
It will be far more advanced than 5G in terms of speed, latency, intelligence, and applications.

How is 6G different from 5G ?

Parameter	5G	6G
Deployment	Commercial rollout started globally around 2020	Expected rollout around 2030 (currently in R&D phase)
Speed & Latency	Peak data speeds up to 10 Gbps.Latency as low as 1 millisecond.Enabling real-time applications- autonomous vehicles and remote surgeries.	Expected to be 100 times faster, with speeds up to 1 terabit per second (Tbps).Latency below 0.1 milliseconds, enabling near-instantaneous communication.
Frequency & Spectrum	5G operates on sub-6 GHz and millimeter wave (mmWave) bands up to 100 GHz.	6G will operate in the Terahertz (THz) frequency band (100 GHz to 10 THz), allowing it to carry exponentially more data.But it also demands advanced infrastructure due to short-range and high signal loss.
Connectivity density	Supports up to 1 million connected devices per square kilometer.	Aims to connect over 10 million devices per square kilometer, enabling an Internet of Everything- where humans, machines, sensors, and the environment are interconnected in real time.
Security and Privacy	Improved cybersecurity through advanced encryption and network segmentation.	Address emerging threats through quantum-resistant cryptography, zero-trust architecture, and enhanced privacy protections, crucial for applications like e-governance and digital identity.
Applications and Use Cases	Enables smart cities, high-speed broadband, autonomous vehicles, remote healthcare, and industrial automation.	Support immersive applications like holographic communication, digital twins, tactile internet, precision agriculture, and even space-terrestrial communication.
AI / ML Integration	Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) are used externally to assist in managing traffic, optimising performance, and detecting faults.However, the network itself is not AI-native. E.g., AI might help predict network congestion or suggest optimal routes for data, but human operators still make many decisions.	AI and ML will be deeply embedded into the network architecture from the beginning.AI will make real-time decisions about routing, security, load balancing, and fault repair without human intervention. E.g., 6G network can detect a cyberattack, isolate it, and reroute traffic instantly, all through AI-driven responses.

Adoption of 6G Technology is expected to create entirely new industries and revolutionise existing ones, and is expected to contribute Rs 85,37,000 crore (USD 1 trillion) to India's economy by 2035.

Chandrayaan 5 Mission

Context: Indian Government has approved the Chandrayaan 5 mission which will be jointly conducted by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Chandrayaan Mission series.

Chandrayaan 5 Mission

Chandrayaan-5 or LUPEX (Lunar Polar Exploration) aims at deeper exploration of the Moon’s surface to study water and water-ice both on the lunar surface and the subsurface.
The LUPEX mission will be launched from the Tanegashima Space Center, Japan by a Japanese rocket (H3 Launch Vehicle).
- H3 is a three-stage launch vehicle powered by solid-fuels and cryogenic fuels (Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen). It is 63 meters tall and weighs 574 tons.
The mission is expected at a little over 100 days after the lunar landing, or for a maximum of one year.
Tentative launch: 2027-28

Joint project between ISRO and JAXA:

ISRO will build the lunar lander, while Japan will build the rover.

The LUPEX craft would weigh 6,500 kg approximately, and this includes a 350 kg rover.
The rover will drive on its own to search for areas where water is likely to be present and sample the soil by digging into the ground with a drill. The collected samples will be analysed in detail with observation equipment mounted on the rover.

Scientific payloads that LUPEX will be carrying:

LUPEX will be carrying a total of 10 scientific payloads. These include five payloads from JAXA, three payloads from ISRO, and one payload each from NASA and the European Space Agency.
The payloads are: Resource Investigating Water Analyzer (REIWA), Lunar Thermogravimetric Analyzer (LTGA), Triple-reflection Reflectron (TRITON), Aquatic Detector using Optical Resonance (ADORE), International Symposium of Antennas and Propagation (ISAP), Advanced Lunar Imaging Spectrometer (ALIS), Neutron Spectrometer, Ground Penetrating Radar, Exospheric Mass Spectrometer for LUPEX (EMS-L), Mid-Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (MIR).

Lunar Missions by ISRO:

Chandrayaan-1:

India's first moon mission launched in 2008.
Launch vehicle: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
The spacecraft orbited around the Moon at a height of 100 km. It mapped the Moon in infrared, visible, and X-ray light from lunar orbit, and used reflected radiation to prospect for various elements, minerals, and ice.
It released an impactor (Moon Impact Probe- MIP) that studied the thin lunar atmosphere before crashing on the Moon’s surface.
It gave definitive proof of the presence of water ice in the Moon’s atmosphere and surface.

Chandrayaan-2:

Second moon mission launched in 2019.
Launch vehicle: LVM-3
The spacecraft consisted of an orbiter, a lander, and a rover.
The orbiter circled the Moon in a polar orbit at a height of 100 km, and has a planned mission lifetime of seven and a half years.
Vikram lander planned to demonstrate soft landing on the moon, however, it crashed due to a software error. Despite it, 90-95% of the mission objectives have been accomplished.
It has enriched understanding of the Moon's evolution and mapped minerals and water molecules in the Polar Regions.

Chandrayaan-3:

Third moon mission launched in 2023.
Launch vehicle: LVM3
The spacecraft consisted of Vikram lander and Pragyan rover. The Vikram lander touched down on the Moon on August 23, 2023.
It made one of the closest approaches to the moon's South Pole. The landing site is located about 600 kilometers from the South Pole of the Moon, on the near side of the Moon.
The rover operated for one lunar day (approximately 14 Earth days). It aimed to collect lunar samples, do in-situ experiments and send data to Vikram lander, to transmit it back to Earth.
India became the fourth country to land spacecraft on the Moon after the US, Russia, and China.
The Virtual Launch Control Centre at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre played a vital role in continuous real-time monitoring of the launch activities from SHAR.
The International Astronomical Union (IAU) has approved the name “Statio Shiv Shakti” for the landing site of Chandrayaan-3’s Vikram lander.

4. Chandrayaan-4:

Planned lunar sample return mission expected to launch around 2027.
Aim: To collect samples from the moon's surface and bring them back to the Earth.
Landing site: Planned near Statio Shiv Shakti (landing site of Chandrayaan-3), near south pole region.
Design: The spacecraft would comprise five modules onboard two separate LVM-3, and will be docked in the Earth orbit. In the final lunar orbit, the modules will undock. The samples will be collected and brought back to Earth.

Why is there a lot of interest in water on the moon ?

Water can be electrolysed (split) to produce rocket fuel (oxygen and hydrogen). If there is enough water, it will be an important resource for future crewed space activities because it will eliminate the need to transport large quantities of fuel from the earth.

LUPEX will land in an area where past remote sensing observations indicate the high possibility of the existence of water (ice). LUPEX rover will directly measure the water content by in-situ observation.

The Chandrayaan-5 / LUPEX mission will be one of the major short-term milestones in India’s lunar exploration odyssey, which envisions Indian Gaganyatris (astronauts) landing on the Moon by year 2040.

Researchers unlock Indian Yak’s genetic secrets

Context: Specialists from four institutions of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) have successfully assembled the first-ever chromosome-level genome of the Indian Yak.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about chromosome-level assembly of genes; Indian Yak.

Chromosome-level genome of Indian Yak

Researchers have assembled the first-ever chromosome-level genome of Indian Yak (Bos grunniens) i.e., not only the entire Yak genome was sequenced (decoded), rather the genes were also accurately mapped to their physical locations on the chromosomes.
Technologies used: Long-read sequencing technology and bioinformatics tools to generate the chromosome-level assembly.

Genome Sequencing:

Genome sequencing is the decoding of the entire DNA present in the human cell. In simple words, it is reading the entire book of genome letter by letter (base by base). It determines the precise order of the four nucleotide bases (A,T,C,G) in DNA.
Long-read sequencing (LRS) technology is a third-generation DNA sequencing method that can sequence longer fragments of nucleotides compared to traditional short-read methods. E.g., LRS can read thousands to even millions of DNA bases in a single read, as compared to short-read methods which can only read 100-300 at a time.

Significance:

The research marks a leap for yak genomic science that can help in:

Understanding of the genetic complexities of the species. E.g., identifying genetic markers for traits like cold tolerance, disease resistance, and milk production.
Revolutionising yak breeding programmes.
Conservation efforts- how to sustain yak populations across the Himalayan belt.

A comparative genomics between other bovine species with the generated data will open up allele mining for useful genes contributing to biotic and abiotic stresses and quality traits.

Indian Yak:

In India, yaks are found above 7,000 feet in Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Himachal Pradesh.
Often called the ‘ship of the Himalayas’, domestic yaks are an integral to the economy of high-altitude dwellers- reared for meat, milk, and transportation.
They face numerous challenges, including reduced grazing area, climate change, disease, and genetic erosion.
Conservation status:
- Domestic Yaks are not categorised in the IUCN Red data list.
- However, the IUCN status of wild yaks is Vulnerable. Wild Yaks are protected under the Schedule i of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.

Also Read: Genome Sequencing and the Genome India Project

The research will ensure the long-term sustainability of yak populations and ultimately lead to the socio-economic uplift of yak herders.

Indigenous Defence Innovation: Key Technologies used in Operation Sindoor

Context: Operation Sindoor has highlighted India's military might and indigenous weapons. Indigenous development of the defence ecosystem has been made possible by contributions of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), and lately by Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX).

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key facts about iDEX, Indigenous Defence Technologies (SkyStriker; D-4 Anti-Drone System)

Key Indigenous Technologies used in Operation Sindoor:

SkyStriker Loitering Munitions:

Suicide drones developed by Bengaluru-based Alpha Design Technologies in collaboration with Elbit Systems (Israel).
The precision-striking drone can carry a 5-10 kg warhead and has a range of 100 km.
Its electric propulsion system helps reduce noise, making it suitable for covert missions at low altitudes.
Cost-effective solution for long-range precision strikes. The drone supports direct aerial fire missions and enhances operational awareness and survivability for ground forces.

D-4 Anti-Drone System:

Anti-drone system developed by DRDO.
Capability to neutralise hostile drones by disrupting GPS signals.
Equipped with advanced radar, RF jammers, and laser-based kill mechanisms, the D4 system can disrupt and disable enemy UAVs mid-flight.
Can be utilised for other purposes like- real-time battlefield monitoring and surveillance.

Akashteer

Akashteer is an indigenous AI-powered Air Defence System (India’s own Iron Dome).
Designed and manufactured jointly by: DRDO, ISRO and Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL).
Part of India's overall C4ISR (Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) system.
Akashteer works in coordination with ISRO satellites and Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (NAVIC) GPS.
Integrates data from radars and sensors, and provides real-time situational awareness and enables swift responses to aerial threats (drones, missiles, UAVs and other loitering munitions).
Through automated detection-and-response mechanisms, Akashteer can neutralise hundreds of incoming threats with unmatched precision.
Its vehicle-based, mobile configuration guarantees flexibility in high-risk areas.

Akash Missile Defence System

Indigenously developed by DRDO.
Medium-range, mobile surface-to-air missile (SAM) designed to neutralise aerial threats such as fighter jets, drones, cruise missiles, and air-to-surface missiles.
Operates on a command-guidance system with datalink for mid-course corrections and switches to active radar homing in the terminal phase.
Propulsion: The missile is propelled by an integrated ramjet-rocket engine, allowing it to maintain supersonic speeds (Mach 1.8 to 2.5) throughout its flight.
Range: Its range extends up to 25–45 km, with the ability to intercept targets at altitudes up to 20 km. The missile carries a 60 kg high-explosive, pre-fragmented warhead, detonated by a digital proximity fuse for maximum impact.
Supported by a sophisticated radar network. Real time multi-sensor data processing enables simultaneous engagement of multiple targets from any direction.
- Rajendra phased array radar can track up to 64 targets and guide eight missiles simultaneously.
- 3D Central Acquisition Radar (3D CAR) provides long-range surveillance and target acquisition.
Akash has evolved over the years, with variants like Akash-1 (25 km range), Akash-NG (up to 30 km with improved guidance), and Akash Prime (up to 35 km, optimised for low-altitude threats).

The Akash’s integration with advanced command-and-control systems like Integrated Air Command and Control System (IACCS) enabled real-time threat neutralisation.

Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX):

Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX) is a flagship initiative under the Ministry of Defence launched in 2018.
It brings together all the key innovation ecosystem actors, including start-ups, individual innovators, R&D institutions, and academia, to foster self-reliance in defence technologies.
Funding and Management: iDEX is funded and managed by the Defence Innovation Organisation (DIO), a Section 8 company, whose founding members were Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd (HAL) and Bharat Electronics Ltd (BEL).
iDEX adopts an open innovation approach. E.g., Through Defence India Startup Challenge (DISC), iDEX launches challenges for start-ups to offer solutions to specific technological needs of the Indian Armed Forces.
iDEX has facilitated domestic-global collaboration. E.g., iDEX partners with the US Department of Defense’s Innovation Unit to facilitate joint co-development of innovation between Indian and US start-ups.

Lately, iDEX has accelerated the defence innovation ecosystem in India. It has signed over 350 agreements with start-ups as of June 2024. This approach ensures an alignment between the operational needs of the defence sector and innovative solutions developed.

Soviet spacecraft Kosmos 482 crashes to Earth after 53 years

Context: A piece of a Soviet spacecraft, Kosmos 482, launched more than 50 years ago crashed back to Earth, splashing into the Indian Ocean off Jakarta's western coast, Indonesia.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Soviet spacecraft Kosmos 482.

Kosmos 482 Mission:

Kosmos 482 Mission is one among the series of probes launched to explore Venus by the erstwhile Soviet Union. Under the Venera Program, the Soviet Union sent 28 spacecraft to Venus between 1961 and 1984.
The probe was launched in 1972 with the purpose of landing on Venus. It consisted of various instruments to measure the temperature, pressure, wind speed, visibility, atmospheric gases and rock composition, and radio the results back to Earth.

What went wrong with Kosmos 482?

Soon after the launch, a malfunction took place in the rocket. The upper rocket stage/engine (that was meant to propel the Kosmos 482 out of the Earth orbit) shut off too early due to a timer malfunction.
As a result, the spacecraft was left stranded in an orbit around the Earth. The lander module, which was supposed to land on Venus, broke apart from the main spacecraft. It kept orbiting the Earth for over 50 years. The main spacecraft, which was large and heavy, burned up in the (Earth’s) atmosphere.
Within the period of over 50 years, the spacecraft's orbit decayed slowly as the atmospheric drag slowly pulled it towards the Earth, leading to its re-entry into the Earth.

Concerns:

Growing space junk: Kosmos 482's reentry into the Earth serves as a reminder of the growing issue of space junk. While most space objects plunge into Earth's atmosphere and burn up; some particularly heavy or dense objects such as Kosmos 482, survive the hot reentry.
Environmental damage: Researchers also warn that satellite and space reentry can discharge harmful pollutants in the atmosphere of Earth and destroy the ozone layer and the environment at large, leading to climate change.

Also Read: What is Satellite Pollution?

With the volume of space traffic increasing, space debris management and minimising its environmental impacts will be an increasingly important issue.

First Pangenome of Asian Rice

Context: An international team of scientists have assembled a first of its kind ‘pangenome’ of Asian rice. It was developed by integrating key parts of genomes from 144 varieties of rice, including wild and cultivated varieties of rice from Asia.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key concepts: Pangenome.

Mains: Achievements of biotechnology to address climate change.

What is a Pangenome?

The pangenome refers to the entire set of genes present in a species, including both the core genome (genes present in all individuals) and the accessory genome (genes present in only some individuals or strains).
A pangenome map typically involves the identification and annotation of genes and their genomic locations within a species. It provides insights into the genetic diversity and variability within a species, as well as the presence of specific genes or gene variants in different individuals or populations.

First Pangenome of Asian Rice:

Pangenome is the comprehensive collection of the common genes as well as the unique genes found in the individual rice varieties. It presents a complete understanding of the genetic variation present in rice.
‘PacBio high-fidelity’(HiFi) sequencing technology and computational methods were used to create the pangenome.
The study identified 69,531 genes collectively spanning the pangenome, with 28,907 core genes and 13,728 wild-rice-specific genes. Of the 69,531 genes identified, about 20% were specific to wild rice.

Significance:

Evolutionary Insights: This study reinforced support for the hypothesis that all Asian cultivated rice has an evolutionary origin from a wild variety called Or-IIIa, the ancestor of japonica.
The rice pangenome allows researchers to:
- Develop new rice cultivars with high yield capacity
- Introduce new traits for disease-tolerance.
- Provides resilience against climate shocks.
- Develop region-specific varieties suited to local agroclimate.

These genetic resources can improve understanding of rice environmental adaptation, phenotypic plasticity and regeneration potential.

Rice: Staple Crop in India

Rice is a staple crop for nearly two-thirds of the globe. It is the primary crop grown in India over the monsoon months of June-September. In 2024-25, India produced a record 220 million tonnes of rice over 51,000 ha with an average yield of 4.2 tonnes/ha.
Threats impacting production of rice: India’s average temperature has increased by 0.7º C since 1901. 2024 was the hottest year on record, with the average minimum temperature 0.9º C above the long-term average. Studies have warned that rising temperatures due to climate change would not only affect yields but also increase arsenic uptake among several rice varieties.
Gene-edited Rice: Recently, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) announced the development of two varieties of genome-edited rice, Samba Mahsuri and MTU 1010, that reportedly promise higher yields and better drought resistance. These, however, are yet to be released into farmer fields.

Also Read: Understanding a human pangenome map

The ‘pangenome’ is the most comprehensive reference of the rice genome till date. It could potentially provide avenues for developing superior and more productive rice varieties, and enhancing the resilience to rapid environmental changes.