Science & Technology

Scientists find second Natural Source of Gold

Context: Researchers have reported that the universe may have another way to produce the element gold, apart from collision of neutron stars. They have reported the first direct observational evidence of a process called r-process nucleosynthesis in a powerful flare emitted by a magnetar in 2004.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Neutron stars; Magnetars; r-process nucleosynthesis.

Known Source of Gold- Neutron Star Collisions:

Neutron Stars: Incredibly dense remnants of supermassive stars (with masses around 10²⁵ times the mass of the Sun) that have exploded as supernovae.
Gold is predominantly produced in the violent collisions and mergers of ultra-dense neutron stars. Such events are detected using space telescopes and gravitational wave detectors (E.g., LIGO).

The New Discovery- Magnetar Flares produce Gold

Magnetars: Types of neutron stars with much more powerful magnetic fields than normal neutron stars. Most powerful known magnetic objects in the universe with magnetic fields in the range of 10¹⁵ gauss.
Magnetar Flares: Magnetar occasionally release large bursts of energy in flares (much powerful than solar flares).
Observation:
- A powerful flare emitted by a magnetar in 2004 was recorded by NASA's Compton Gamma Ray Observatory.
- Almost a day after the flare, a delayed burst of high-energy gamma rays was released.
- The delayed emission was inconsistent with standard flare afterglows and contained evidence of radioactive decay from r-process nucleosynthesis.
r-process nucleosynthesis: The rapid neutron capture process is the major nucleosynthesis process responsible for the synthesis of heavy nuclei, including gold.
The study concludes that some magnetar flares can eject neutron-rich matter into space, where it goes through r-process nucleosynthesis to create heavy elements like gold.

Significance

The early universe only had hydrogen, helium, and trace amounts of lithium. All other elements were created later in stars, cosmic explosions, and laboratory experiments. Mapping the sources tells us how galaxies, stars, and planets took shape over time.
Understanding the sources can also reveal how often an element was produced, and how the presence of an element influenced the source’s own evolution.

Also Read: What are Fast Radio Bursts?

Climate Change is disrupting the Human Gut

Context: As per the latest research, climate-driven food shortage and undernourishment could affect the composition of the human gut microbiota, exacerbating the effects of climate change on human health.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to gut bacteria; Impacts of Climate Change.

Microbiota in Human Gut

The human gut is home to around 100 trillion microbes like bacteria, fungi, and viruses- mostly bacteria. The collective genetic material of these microbes (known as gut microbiome) contains over 100 times more genes than the human genome.
These microbes produce thousands of chemicals (metabolites) that support- digestion and nutrient absorption, immune system regulation, blood sugar and metabolic balance and protection against harmful pathogens.
A healthy gut depends on a balanced relationship between beneficial and harmful bacteria.
- Good bacteria help break down food, produce vitamins, and protect against harmful invaders.
- Bad bacteria, when overgrown, can cause inflammation, infections, or disease. A healthy gut depends on a balanced relationship between these beneficial and harmful bacteria.

However, climate change is now threatening this balance with long-term implications for public health.

Impacts of Climate Change on Gut Microbiota and Population:

1. Nutritional Disruptions and Microbial Imbalance:

Climate change is adversely affecting the yield and nutritional quality of crops and animal-based food sources. High atmospheric carbon dioxide levels can diminish the quantity of plant micronutrients like phosphorus, potassium, zinc, and iron, along with protein concentrations in vital crops such as wheat, maize, and rice.
This reduction compromises the nutritional intake necessary for maintaining microbial diversity in the gut, potentially leading to gut dysbiosis or microbiota dysbiosis - the imbalance in gut microbial population.

Microbiota Dysbiosis can lead to dysregulation of bodily functions and diseases such as:

2. Rising Heat and Disease Burden:

Foodborne and waterborne infectious diseases and malnutrition increase with heat. These diseases further disturb gut microbiota and worsen the burden of malnutrition and gastrointestinal illnesses, especially in vulnerable populations like children and the elderly.

3. Vulnerability of LMICs and Indigenous Communities:

Low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), are particularly vulnerable, as these regions face the brunt of climate stressors, including higher temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide, which affect their agricultural output and make nutrient deficiencies more common.
Indigenous peoples often rely on local and traditional food sources and exhibit high gut microbial diversity. Climate-induced changes in ecosystems threaten these food systems, potentially reducing microbial diversity and thus impacting their health disproportionately.

The Challenge: Limited understanding of Gut Microbiome

However our understanding of the gut microbiota’s role in human health is still evolving.

While the gut microbiome is critical to health, its connection to climate change is still poorly understood. Many gut health studies do not yet account for environmental factors like pollution, rising heat, or changing crop patterns.
Moreover, individual gut microbiomes are unique, making it difficult to predict how each person will respond to climate-induced changes in diet or disease exposure.

Way Forward

Need for Multidisciplinary and Global Research: Scientists are calling for more collaboration across fields- nutrition, climate science, public health, and microbiology to study how environmental changes affect the gut.
Advances in computational biology and metagenomics (the study of microbial genes) are helping scientists better understand gut microbes. Tools like GutBugBD, an open-access database from India, allow researchers to track how gut microbes interact with food and drugs. These developments could lead to personalised treatments using probiotics and nutraceuticals to restore gut balance.

What are Harop Drones?

Context: Indian armed forces reportedly deployed Israeli-origin Harop drones to carry out precision strikes on air defence systems in Pakistan as part of their ongoing 'Operation Sindoor'.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about HAROP Drone.

About Harop Drone

Developed by: Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI).
It is a loitering munition - a cross between a drone (UAV) and a missile. This category of weapons loiter in the air close to the designated target.
It is capable of independently identifying and destroying high-value targets, particularly radar systems and air defence platforms.
The drones are launched from canister-based systems mounted on mobile ground vehicles or naval platforms, making them deployable across diverse terrains and suitable for fast, targeted strikes.
Designed for deep precision attacks, the Harop can loiter over target zones for up to 9 hours using an electro-optic seeker to locate, identify, and strike from multiple angles.
They cause destruction by crashing into their targets with the explosive payload that they carry, earning names such as “suicide drones” and “kamikaze drones”.
Its immunity to satellite jamming (GNSS) and real-time human oversight give it both autonomy and flexibility in complex battlefield environments.

Harop does not only eliminate terror infrastructure but is also capable of degrading Pakistan’s defensive capabilities to prevent further incursions.

How Air Defence Systems work?

Context: India’s Air Defence Systems have been instrumental in thwarting Pakistani aerial attacks along the western border, amid the ongoing India-Pakistan face-off. Controlling the skies is of paramount importance in modern warfare, and thus air defence systems are vital.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: India’s Air Defence Systems: Types and Working.

What is the Air Defence System?

The primary objective of Air Defence Systems is to eliminate threats from the sky- be it enemy fighter aircraft, unmanned drones, or missiles. A capable and operational air defence system offers protection against enemy air strikes.
This is done with the help of a complex system of radar, control centres, defensive fighter aircraft, and ground-based air defence missile, artillery, and electronic warfare systems.

How do Air Defence Systems work?

An air defence system can be sub-categorised into three interlinked operations.

1. Detection:

The ability to detect threats in the first place, is the key to the success of any air defence system. This is typically done by radar. In some cases, such as an enemy launching an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM), satellites may be used for detection.
Radar sends out beams of electromagnetic radio waves through a transmitter. These waves are reflected by the objects that they hit (such as an enemy aircraft). A receiver then collects the returning radio waves. Based on which, the radar is able to interfere with the distance of the threat, its speed, and its specific nature (what kind of aircraft/ missile).

2. Tracking:

The efficiency of an air defence system is also determined by its ability to constantly and accurately track an aerial threat. This is typically done using a combination of radar and other sensors such as infrared cameras or laser rangefinders.
The air defence system has to identify and track multiple, fast-moving threats in complex and cluttered environments, which may also include friendly aircraft.
The accuracy of tracking is crucial for effectively neutralising the enemy without targeting false threats.

3. Interception:

Once the threat has been detected and tracked, it must be neutralised. The specifics of the threat, i.e., its range, type (what kind of missile/ aircraft), speed, etc., determine the ways in which air defences work.

All these three aspects of an air defence system have to work together as a whole. This is called C3 or a “command, control and communication” system in military parlance.

To establish air superiority over enemy territory, the enemy’s air defence systems have to be neutralised. Suppression of Enemy Air Defences (SEAD) operations target enemy air defences with missiles, EW, bombs, UAVs or even ground attacks.

How are Targets Intercepted?

Depending on the challenges they foresee, nations utilise a wide assortment of weapons to neutralise aerial threats. These include the following:

1. Fighter Aircraft:

Interceptors are fighters that take on attacking enemy aircraft, especially bombers. These agile aircraft can be scrambled at a moment’s notice, and they climb quickly to altitude and neutralise an enemy aircraft before it deploys its weapons.
Interceptors are equipped for air-to-air combat with cannon, rockets, a suite of visual-range and beyond-visual-range missiles, and electronic warfare systems.
Aircraft such as MiG-21 (an upgraded variant of which is still in service with the Indian Air Force) were dedicated interceptors; latest fighter aircraft have multirole capabilities.
India can deploy Sukhoi Su-35s, MiG-29s, HAL Tejas, Mig-21 Bisons, and Dassault Rafales for interceptor missions.

2. Surface-To-Air Missiles (SAMs):

SAMs can be used to target enemy fighters, helicopters, and missiles. They are generally radar-guided, infrared-guided, or laser-guided.
In addition to being operated from the ground, SAMs can also be launched from ships. The three unofficial classes of SAMs are:
- Heavy long-range systems which are fixed or semi-mobile
- Medium-range vehicle-mounted systems that can fire on the move
- Short-range man-portable air-defense systems (or MANPADS).
India’s arsenal of SAMs include: indigenously-developed medium-range Akash missiles, the medium-to-long range Barak missiles, and the long-range S-400 missiles.

Types of SAMs: Each SAM class has a different function:

Heaviest SAMs: Russian-made S-400 system used by India take on enemy ballistic missiles or aircraft at long range of up to 400 kilometres.
Medium range SAMs have the capability to hit targets in the 50-100 km range but are more mobile, and can be launched in next-to-no time. E.g., Akash Missile System; Akash-NG (New Generation); Barak-8.
MANPADS are used for low-lying targets such as hovering helicopters or drones, or fixed-wing aircraft engaged in ground attack roles. These are far more cost-effective than the other classes, and are also used by non-state actors in unconventional warfare.

3. Anti-Aircraft Artillery (AAA):

Augmented with automated fire-control systems, they remain crucial last-ditch defences, and are also used for specialised anti-unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) roles.
AAA fire shells rapidly, at rates of over 1,000 rounds per minute. AAA shells are designed to explode at pre-determined altitudes so as to disperse shrapnel over a wide area. This makes an AAA battery effective even if it does not achieve a direct hit.

4. Electronic Warfare (EW):

EW systems are designed to disrupt, deceive, or destroy threats using the power of the electromagnetic spectrum.
EW is most often used to jam enemy radar and targeting systems, so as to impede its ability to accurately and effectively deploy its weapon. EW can confuse attack drones or prevent enemy air-to-surface missiles from homing in on targets.
E.g.,
- DRDO’s Netra AEW&C (Airborne Early Warning & Control).
- DRDO’s Advanced Electronic Warfare Suite 'Shakti' for Indian Naval Ships.

Also Read: S-400 Missile System: India's Sudarshan Chakra

Establishing air superiority allows an Air Force to operate with a degree of impunity, and without fear of attrition in bombing, tactical air support, paratroop insertion, or supply-drop missions.

India’s Precision-guided Long Range Weapons

Context: Amid ongoing India-Pakistan face-off, India is using new-age weapons to carry-out precision strikes to hit terrorist infrastructure inside Pakistan and in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Precision-guided Long Range Weapons.

India’s Precision-guided Long Range Weapons

Indian military has built up a formidable arsenal of new-age weapons that includes a range of precision-guided long-range weapons and drones, including loitering munitions. Some examples include:

1. HAMMER (Highly Agile and Manoeuvrable Munition Extended Range):

Air-to-ground precision-guided weapon system for the Rafale fighter aircraft.
Built by: Safran Group, France
Range of up to 70 km. Integrated with Rafale fighter Aircraft.
Autonomous guidance system (Inertial Navigation System (INS), Global Positioning System (GPS) and laser).
Used for precision strikes against a range of targets in medium-range tactical operations.
Can be launched from low altitude over rough terrain.
Can also be fitted to bombs and various guided systems.
All-weather and insensitive to jamming.

2. SCALP (SCALP-EG or Storm Shadow):

Air-launched cruise missile designed for long-range deep strikes.
Manufactured by: MBDA (European multinational group)
Range of 450 km. Has stealth features. Can be operated at night and in all weather conditions.
Integrated with Rafale fighter Aircraft.
Difficult to detect due to its low-flying capability when fired from an aircraft. Can penetrate bunkers and ammunition stores.
Has advanced and highly accurate navigation system, which uses Inertial Navigation System (INS), Global Positioning System (GPS) and terrain referencing.

3. METEOR:

Beyond Visual Range Air-to-Air Missile (BVRAAM) system designed to deliver unmatched performance in complex electronic-warfare environments.
Manufactured by: MBDA (European multinational group)
Equipped with a solid-fuel ramjet engine. Sustains thrust throughout the flight, unlike conventional rocket-powered missiles.
Offers the largest ‘No Escape Zone’ of any air-to-air missile system (i.e., a much greater area within which the target cannot evade the missile).
Range over 100 kilometres. Integrated into Rafale aircrafts. Highly resistant to jamming.

4. BRAHMOS:

Supersonic cruise missiles built by BrahMos Aerospace, a joint venture between India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Russia’s NPO Mashinostroyeniya.
Range: ~450 km (earlier 290 km)
Operates at close to Mach 3 speed in the cruise phase, which ensures reduced flight time, lower dispersion of targets, and quicker engagement time and non-interception.
Operates on a ‘Fire and Forget Principle’, adopting varieties of flights on its way to the target.
Terminal Altitude: 10- 15 km
The missile carries a conventional warhead weighing 200-300 kg.

5. Loitering Munitions:

Used for surveillance and identification of targets.
Can carry out precision strikes, autonomously or otherwise.
Range: 30-100 km
E.g., SkyStriker (Israeli-origin)

DOT notifies new Satellite Internet Service Rules

Context: The Department of Telecommunications (DoT) has issued a fresh set of stringent security guidelines aimed at tightening control over satellite-based internet services in India.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Satellite Internet Service Rules.

New Satellite Internet Service Rules

The Department of Telecommunications has introduced new security requirements for satellite communication/ internet companies in India. The satellite internet operators-

Must localise essential functions such as locating the Network Control and Monitoring Centre within Indian territory.
Must provide real time monitoring to ensure that no user traffic originating from, or destined for India is being routed through any gateway outside Indian territory.
Prohibited from copying or decrypting Indian telecom data outside the country.
Must prevent any unintentional coverage spillover into neighbouring countries using geo-fencing technology and be capable of blocking access to websites banned in India.
Required to implement systems that can block, restrict or deny network access to specific users or groups, based on instructions from the authorities.
Must have the ability to intercept communications and monitor user activity and share user data with security agencies.
Must share user terminal information with Indian security agencies. All terminals in use must be registered and authenticated in the country, and enable support for NavIC (India’s own satellite navigation system). Indian satellite internet terminals are prohibited from working outside India.
Share a year-wise phased manufacturing plan aiming at indigenisation to a level of at least 20% of their ground segment of the satellite network. The terminals must eventually be manufactured in India, within a five year span.
Ensure that their data centres are based within the geographical boundary of India and shall make provision to provide Domain Name System (DNS) resolution within its territory.

Rationale of the New Rules

To prevent cross-border signal spillover, especially in sensitive regions.
To ensure that satellite connectivity can be monitored, intercepted, and governed in India.
To uphold national security interests while managing the growing complexity of satellite-based communication networks.

The revised conditions will apply not only to current GMPCS (Global Mobile Personal Communications by Satellite Services) license holders such as Eutelsat OneWeb and the Jio-SES alliance, but also to new entrants like Elon Musk’s Starlink and Amazon’s Project Kuiper to operate in India.

The new rules reflect India’s intent to maintain tighter control over digital infrastructure as global satellite internet players seek entry into its high-potential market.

One Day One Genome Initiative

Context: The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has released detailed graphical summaries, infographics, and other details of over 100 bacterial genomes as part of the ‘One Day One Genome’ initiative launched to harness the microbial potential of India.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: One Day One Genome Initiative; Beneficial use cases of Bacteria.

One Day One Genome Initiative

Initiative of: Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and Biotechnology Research and Innovation Council (BRIC), launched in 2024.
Aim: To highlight the unique bacterial species found in India and emphasise their critical roles in the environment, agriculture, and human health.
It aims to make genomic data more accessible to researchers, students and the general public.

Some unique bacterial species under research include:

The genome of microbeMethylophaga lonarensis found at Lonar lake, Maharashtra has shown a high degree of specialisation that includes the production of ectoine, a valuable molecule with promising applications in skincare.
- Formed by a meteorite impact, Lonar Lake is one of the rare soda lakes. Its extreme conditions—high salinity, elevated pH, and limited nutrients—make survival difficult for most life forms.
Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (ILSF15) is a novel probiotic bacterial strain isolated and characterised from the gut samples of tribes of Odisha. Genomic studies discovered genes linked to probiotic features, survival traits, and, importantly, how it can resist acid/bile and lower cholesterol in vitro.

The study of genomes of these diverse bacterial species can support important sustainable research.

Key facts about Bacteria

Microscopic, single-celled organisms (prokaryotic microorganisms).
Bacteria inhabit the air, soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep biosphere of Earth's crust.

Beneficial use cases of Bacteria

Soil fertility: Convert atmospheric nitrogen into plant-usable form; aid in nutrient uptake, especially phosphorus.
Food Industry: Fermentation of various food products (curd, cheese), preservation of food; development of distinct flavours and textures; probiotics.
Biomedical use: Used as a host organism in genetic engineering to produce various proteins, enzymes, and other products (like insulin, growth hormones etc). Used as vectors (vehicles) to carry therapeutic genes into human tissues.
Biofuel production: GM bacteria and cyanobacteria can be used for biofuel production.
Biogas production: Break down organic matter in the absence of oxygen, producing biogas (methane and carbon dioxide) as a byproduct.
Bioremediation: Can break down a range of pollutants, including hydrocarbons and toxic chemicals to clean up contaminated environments.

SMRs can bridge rising Energy demand of AI

Context: Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) has eased access to art and reduced the time and the effort required to complete certain tasks. But this ease comes at a significant energy cost. Small modular nuclear reactors could be the energy answer to support booming AI and data infrastructure.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Artificial Intelligence: Challenges

Energy cost of Artificial Intelligence:

Data centres (the backbone of AI operations) consume enormous electricity and contribute 1% of global greenhouse gas emissions.
A simple search request made through ChatGPT (an AI-based virtual assistant) consumes 10 times the electricity consumed by a Google Search.
Training advanced AI models can emit up to 552 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent which is comparable to the annual emissions of dozens of cars.
Projections indicate that these data centres could account for 10% of the world’s total electricity usage by 2030. The majority of this electricity comes from fossil fuel sources.
India currently has sufficient capacity to generate electricity for its own domestic AI needs. Yet, with increasing adoption and ambitions, proactive planning is imperative.

Potential of SMRs is bridging the Energy demand

Leveraging nuclear energy, specifically Small Modular Reactors (SMR), could be a possible alternative to support booming AI and data infrastructure. This is possible as:

SMRs are designed to be compact and scalable. Their flexibility allows them to be deployed closer to high-energy-demand facilities, such as data centres, which require consistent and reliable power to manage vast amounts of computational workloads. In contrast, traditional large-scale nuclear power plants demand extensive land, water, and infrastructure.
SMR can provide 24X7, zero-carbon, baseload electricity making it an ideal alternative to renewable sources such as solar and wind by ensuring a stable energy supply regardless of weather conditions.
Their modular construction reduces construction time and costs when compared to conventional nuclear plants, enabling faster deployment to meet the rapidly growing demands of AI and data-driven industries.
SMRs offer enhanced safety features, with passive safety systems that rely on natural phenomena to cool the reactor core and safely shut down, reducing the risk of accidents. This makes them more acceptable and easier to integrate into regions where large-scale nuclear facilities would face opposition.
SMR’s ability to operate in diverse environments, from urban areas to remote locations, also supports the decentralisation of energy production, reducing transmission losses and enhancing grid resilience.

In India's case, the cost of electricity from SMRs is predicted to fall from ₹10.3 to ₹5 per kWh after the reactors are functional, which is less than the average cost of electricity.

Challenges in adoption of SMRs:

Significant policy shifts are required to create a robust regulatory framework that addresses safety, waste management and public perception.
Adoption requires substantial upfront investment, as the technology is still maturing and may face issues of cost competitiveness when compared to established energy sources.
Coordinating SMR deployment with existing renewable energy initiatives will require careful planning to maximise synergies while minimising redundancy.

Sustainable AI Adoption

AI companies need to be transparent about their energy consumption, i.e., disclose their environmental impact.
Such data would provide further insights on where energy is being used the most, and encourage R&D to create a more sustainable model of AI development.

Also Read: Environmental Impacts of Artificial Intelligence

The public-private partnership model presents a realistic solution to the challenges of sustainable AI development. By leveraging the strengths of both sectors, this model can facilitate the efficient development of SMRs alongside other forms of renewable energy to support advancements in AI.

Ethanol production from Maize: Fuel vs Feed debate

Context: Ethanol production from Maize has raised its prices, making livestock feed costlier and hurting soybean farmers due to cheaper feed substitutes. Thus, it has triggered a broader fuel vs. feed debate.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Biofuels: Food vs fuel debate.

Agriculture is a source of food, feed, fibre and fuel. Traditionally, crops like cotton were used for multiple purposes (lint, oil, cattle feed). Now, maize (corn) is being diverted increasingly toward making ethanol, a biofuel. This has brought the Fuel vs. Feed dilemma to the centre of India’s agricultural and energy policy.

Why is Maize used in Ethanol Production?

Maize grains contain 68-72% starch and 1-3% of other carbohydrates (sucrose, glucose and fructose). Its high starch content (68–72%) makes it ideal for fermentation into ethanol, which is then blended with petrol to reduce India’s fuel import bill.
One tonne of maize gives ~380 litres of ethanol, a 99.9% pure alcohol that can be blended with petrol.
In FY23, sugar mills/distilleries supplied ~31 crore litres of ethanol produced from 0.8 MT of maize. In FY24, this rose to ~286 crore litres, consuming 7.5 MT of maize.
For the FY25 supply year (November-October), oil marketing companies have contracted over 480 crore litres of maize ethanol. The corresponding maize requirement would be over 12.7 MT.

Impact of diverting Maize for Ethanol Production:

The large-scale use of maize for ethanol production has created significant ripple effects across multiple sectors:

Price Surge: The diversion of maize for biofuel has completely upset the demand-supply balance. The surge in demand from it has led to a shortage of grain and pushed up prices. All-India average prices of maize have surged from Rs 14,000-15,000 to Rs 24,000-25,000 per tonne in the last four years.
Feed Shortage: Reduced availability of maize for livestock feed (especially poultry and cattle). Poultry and dairy industries face rising production costs, affecting consumer prices and margins.
Pressure on Soybean Farmers: Ethanol byproduct DDGS (Distillers Dried Grains with Solubles) is now used as a cheaper protein substitute in animal feed. This has reduced demand for soyabean DOC, leading to a 30% drop in soyabean prices. Farmers are selling below MSP causing income distress.
Export Decline: Earlier maize surplus allowed exports (3.7 MT in FY22). With 12.7 MT maize now being diverted for ethanol, exportable surplus has vanished.

Stakeholder Demands:

India now allows up to 0.5 mt of maize imports annually at 15% customs duty, with quantities beyond that attracting 50% duty. Also, it does not permit imports of genetically modified (GM) maize.
The feed industry is urging the government to ensure affordable maize availability for livestock feed to control rising input costs. They are also demanding duty-free import of genetically modified (GM) maize, strictly for ethanol production only, not for food or feed.
Soyabean Farmers demand price support interventions, higher procurement, and promotion of soy-based feed to protect income.

Way Forward

The government should adopt a balanced approach:

Boost domestic maize productivity through better seeds, irrigation, and technology.
Diversify ethanol feedstocks instead of over-relying on maize.
Allow limited imports of GM maize exclusively for industrial ethanol use, with strict regulatory checks.
Support soyabean farmers with MSP enforcement and encourage soy-based feed innovation.

Maize-Ethanol debate underscores the challenge of balancing energy security with food and feed needs. While ethanol production supports India’s green energy goals and offers price benefits to maize farmers, it must not come at the cost of livestock industries or other crop growers like soyabean farmers.

Also Read: What are biofuels?

Thorium Fuelled Nuclear Reactors

Context: Recently, China has successfully refuelled a working 2MW Thorium-fuelled molten salt reactor without causing a shutdown.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: Thorium fuelled Nuclear reactors; Advantages of Thorium reactors over Uranium reactors.

Thorium Reactor in China

China has developed a small, 2MW experimental Thorium Nuclear Reactor in the Gobi Desert, near the Mongolian border. It is operational from 2024.
China is working towards developing a 10 MW Thorium Nuclear Reactor for commercial use by 2030.
China’s efforts have put it at the forefront of both thorium-based fuel breeding and molten-salt reactors.

Thorium based Nuclear Reactors

Thorium (Th-232) is a fertile material that has to be converted to fissile material Uranium 233. The naturally occurring isotope Th-232 cannot be fissioned, but when irradiated in a reactor it absorbs neutrons and forms uranium-233, a fissile material that generates heat.
Coolant: Molten salt. China’s reactors use fluoride-based salts, which melt into a colourless, transparent liquid when heated to about 450 ºC. The salt acts as a coolant to transport heat from the reactor core.
Rather than solid fuel rods, molten-salt reactors use the liquid salt as a substrate for the fuel, such as thorium, to be directly dissolved into the core.
Compared to light water reactors in conventional nuclear power plants, molten salt reactors work at significantly higher temperatures. The result is that it can generate electricity much more efficiently.

Thorium reactors offer multiple Advantages:

As the world confronts the twin challenges of climate change and energy security, Thorium is making a comeback.

Less radioactive waste (burning thorium does not create plutonium, a highly toxic chemical element)
Cheaper alternative to Uranium and More fuel-efficiency
Far safer (because the fuel is already dissolved in liquid and they operate at lower pressures than do conventional nuclear reactors, which reduces the risk of explosive meltdowns)
Lower risk of nuclear weapons proliferation (its waste products are less weapons-grade than Uranium)
Does not need to be built near watercourses, since the molten salts serve as a coolant. (Conventional uranium power plants that need huge amounts of water to cool their reactors).

India and its plan to use Thorium Reactors

India has the world’s largest reserves of thorium — a million tonnes — particularly in its monazite-rich coastal sands.
As per the three-stage nuclear programme envisioned by nuclear scientist Dr Homi Bhabha, the country would use thorium reactors in the third stage. However, India has only commenced its second stage of nuclear programme in 2024.

Also Read: Three-stage Nuclear Program of India

India produces world's 1st Rice varieties using Genome Editing

Context: India has become the first country in the world to develop rice varieties using genome editing technology. Scientists have used Site-Directed Nuclease 1 and Site-Directed Nuclease 2 (SDN-1 and SDN-2) genome editing techniques to develop the seeds

The two new varieties give 25% more yield and use less water, and incorporate no foreign DNA. The new seeds will be available for farmers after the required clearances within six months and large-scale seed production will probably take place during the next three crop seasons.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Regulation of Gene Editing in Agriculture; SDN technology (SDN1, 2, 3 etc.)

New genetically Edited Rice Varieties

Scientists have developed two-genome edited, climate resilient, improved rice varieties- 'DRR Dhan 100 (Kamala)' and 'Pusa DST Rice 1' , after receiving appropriate bio-safety clearance under India's simplified regulations for genome edited crops.
Developed by scientists from: Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi and the Indian Rice Research Institute, Hyderabad.
Benefits of the New Varieties:
- Enhance production (25% more yield)
- Crop needs shorter time, and thus saves water used for irrigation
- Reduces greenhouse gas emissions (by 20%)
Not GM Crop: The two new varieties incorporate no foreign DNA, so they are not genetically modified (GM). Hence the apprehensions about GM foods does not apply in this case.

India became the first country in the world to develop Genome-Edited (GE) Rice varieties. The new paddy varieties have the potential for revolutionary changes in higher production, climate adaptability, and water conservation.

Push For Genome Editing

Under the budget announcement 2023-24, the government of India had allocated Rs 500 crore for genome editing in agricultural crops.
ICAR has launched initiatives to harness genome editing for the development of many crops, including oilseeds and pulses, livestock, fish, and microbial varieties.
Genome editing, particularly the CRISPR-Cas technology, is being hailed as a breakthrough in precision breeding. It enables scientists to make targeted changes in the native genes of living organisms, creating new and desirable traits without introducing foreign DNA.
Two key approaches: Site Directed Nuclease 1 (SDN1) and Site Directed Nuclease 2 (SDN2) - produce genetically edited organisms that are considered indistinguishable from naturally occurring or conventionally bred mutants. They are exempt from the stringent bio-safety regulations under Rules 7-11 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

GE Rice Varieties: (Kamala and Pusa DST Rice 1)

Scientists selected two widely cultivated mega rice varieties - Samba Mahsuri (BPT5204) and MTU1010 (Cottondora Sannalu).
Samba Mahsuri is known for its fine grain quality and premium market value, but it falls short in terms of climate resilience. It is vulnerable to pests, diseases, and climate stress.
MTU1010 is a high yielding early-duration variety (125-130 days) well-suited to Rabi season cultivation in southern India. But it too suffers from sensitivity to drought and soil salinity.
Through genome editing, ICAR scientists enhanced these varieties with better stress tolerance, improved yield, and climate adaptability, without compromising their existing strengths, and developed two new varieties 'Kamala' and 'Pusa DST Rice 1'.
Developed using the CRISPR-Cas9 system, these crops are free of foreign DNA and showcase impressive traits.

Note:

Genetically Edited (GE) crops are different from genetically modified (GM) crops.
GE crops involve mere editing of genes naturally present in the host plant, leading to mutation or changes in their DNA sequence. No foreign genes or DNA are incorporated.
GM crops involve introduction of genes from unrelated species into host plants. E.g., genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (soil bacterium) in cotton crops.

Regulation of Gene Editing in Agriculture In India

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are regulated in India by the ‘Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/ Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989’. The rules are notified under the Environment Protection Act 1986 to regulate GMOs.
There is no explicit mention of the term gene editing. Recently, an amendment was introduced to the aforesaid regulation in order to encourage gene editing in agriculture.
Gene editing techniquesusing native genome are allowed in India. However, gene editing techniques using foreign genomes are not allowed.
- Gene editing techniques called SDN 1 and 2 (Site-Directed Nuclease) use native genome and hence, are allowed under the Rules under EPA, 1986.
- Gene editing techniques using foreign genomes like SDN 3, 4 and 6 are placed under GMO regulation, and therefore not allowed in India.

Common types of Gene Editing Techniques:

SDN-1: Site-Directed Nuclease (SDN) 1 is a site-directed mutagenesis (production of genetic mutations) without using a DNA sequence template. SDN1 introduces a precise cut in the DNA at the targeted location → the cell’s natural repair mechanisms fix these breaks without introducing any foreign genetic material.
SDN-2: In SDN 2, the edit involves a precise cut in the DNA at a target location → a small template from the same species is provided to guide the repair process.
SDN-3: Involves the insertion of foreign DNA and falls under the category of GMOs. E.g., Bt cotton → gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) → inserted into cotton plants.

Development of these two varieties using genome-editing technology has paved the way of using this innovative method in other crops too for higher yields, climate resilience and improved quality.

Rising Temperatures and Mango Productivity

Context: Despite rising temperatures and erratic weather affecting mango quality and flowering, India’s mango productivity has grown largely due to the fruit’s genetic diversity, which enhances its resilience to climate change.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Impact of rising temperatures on production of crops.

Rising Temperatures:

According to the India Meteorological Department’s (IMD) Annual Climate Survey of 2024, the year 2024 was the warmest year on record since 1901.
The country’s annual mean land surface air temperature during the year 2024 was +0.65°C above the 1991-2020 average. IMD data also shows that the last 12 years have been warmer than earlier years.

Impacts of rising temperatures on Mango Production

1. Anticipated Impact:

Higher temperatures lead to early maturity, fruit drop, and disorders such as spongy tissue in varieties like Alphonso.
Anecdotal information suggests that mango productivity has been affected due to rising temperatures.

2. Observed Impact:

Empirical evidence and statistical data of the Horticulture Department in India suggest otherwise contradicting the perception of decline.
Data from the Horticulture Department and Agricultural Market Intelligence Centre show that mango productivity and cultivated area in India have both increased.
- Mango productivity in India has increased from 5.5 metric tonnes per hectare (MT/Ha) in FY2009 to 9.7 MT/Ha in FY2018.
- India’s productivity in 2024–25 is expected to surpass that of major producers like China and Thailand.

Impacts of rising temperatures on Mango Production

Reasons behind increased production despite rising temperatures:

Experts explain this resilience is due to the genetic diversity of mangoes. Genetic diversity allows the fruit to adapt to changing conditions, such as high temperatures and irregular rainfall.
Indian researchers and horticulture experts suggest that while extreme weather can disrupt flowering and fruiting stages, the physiological mechanisms and genetic variation in mango species help them withstand environmental stress.

Despite climatic stressors like heat waves and erratic rainfall, India’s mango production remains robust, largely due to genetic adaptability. This offers hope for future agricultural resilience in the face of climate change.