Prelims Nuggets

Kerala's Wildlife Trophy Amnesty Proposal

Context: The Kerala Forest Department’s recent move to approach the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change for a one-time amnesty for people possessing wildlife trophy in the State has reignited a debate over the department’s alleged preferential treatment of wildlife offenders.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key provisions in the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

As per the Section 40 of WPA, 1972: Any person having the control, custody or possession of any animal article, trophy or uncured trophy of captive animals specified in Schedule I can voluntarily surrender it to the Chief Wild Life Warden (an appointee of state governments) or the Authorised Officer.
No compensation will be paid to the person for it, and the surrendered items will become the property of the state government.
Illegal possession of a wildlife trophy can result in imprisonment for three to seven years and a fine of not less than ₹25,000.

Demand for one-time amnesty for people possessing Wildlife Trophy:

Kerala has pushed a proposal to the State Board for Wildlife for granting another chance to declare wild animal articles and trophies under Section 40 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
The last opportunity fixed by the Union government for individuals to declare the wildlife trophy in their possession had expired in 2003.
Rationale: To offer an opportunity for the legal heirs who inherited wildlife trophies from their ancestors with valid ownership certificates but could not get their names declared.
The power to provide the amnesty vests with the Union Ministry for Environment, Forest and Climate Change. The State Board for Wildlife may request the Central government to take suitable action on the matter in real and genuine cases.

Also Read: When tigers and jackals get the same protection

India-Croatia to strengthen bilateral ties

Context: Recently, the Prime Minister of India visited Croatia. He held official talks with the Croatian Prime Minister to enhance bilateral relations across defence, space, infrastructure, and digital sectors.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Recent developments in India-Croatia bilateral ties; Location of Croatia.

Key Highlights of the Visit

Defence Cooperation: India and Croatia will make long-term plans for deepening the defence partnership, focusing on defence production alongside training and military exchange.
Joint Ventures in Space: India and Croatia to jointly work on space technology and projects, reflecting India's growing soft power in tech diplomacy.
Economic Cooperation:
- India seeks to enhance investment into Croatia’s critical industries like pharmaceuticals, agriculture, IT, clean technology, digital technology, and semiconductors.
- Under the Sagarmala Project, the Indian PM invited Croatian companies to participate in port modernisation, coastal zone development, multimodal connectivity, and shipbuilding initiatives in India.
Connectivity: Croatia can serve as India’s gateway into Central and Southeastern Europe. Though not a formal stakeholder in IMEC (India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor) yet, Croatia would complement the corridor’s European leg through regional logistics and port connectivity.

India has historical ties with the Adriatic region, further strengthened by people-to-people connections.

Location of Croatia

Croatia is situated in Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea.
It borders Slovenia (northwest), Hungary (northeast), Serbia (east), Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro (southeast), and shares a maritime border with Italy to the west.
Capital and largest city: Zagreb

Trade may open doors to Invasive Alien Species

Context: Shifting trade agreements and new ties between previously unlinked nations may further increase the spread of new invasive alien species between continents.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Invasive Alien Species.

Mains: Impact of Invasive alien species.

Freight transport between growing economies is projected to triple by 2050, especially maritime and air cargo transport, increasing invasion risk by reducing travel time and improving the survivability of alien species.

What are Invasive Alien Species?

They are non-native species introduced (intentionally or accidentally) into new environments where they cause harm.
They outcompete native species, disrupt ecosystems, and harm human livelihoods and health.
E.g., Giant African snail arrived in India around the 1870s, displaced native snails, damaged crops and ecosystems, and spread the rat lungworm parasite, threatening human and wildlife health.

How do Invasive Alien Species enter?

The introduction of these exotic species can be deliberate or accidental.

Deliberate Introduction (Biocontrol):

Gambusia (mosquitofish), Poecilia reticulata (guppies), and Pterophyllum scalare (angelfish)- introduced for mosquito control and ornamental trade.
Tilapia- introduced to boost food security, but has outcompeted native freshwater species.

Accidental Introduction (Biofouling, Trade & Transport):

Parthenium grass- entered into India with the US wheat imports under the PL-480 ‘Food for Peace’ programme in 1955.
Giant African snail- likely arrived around the 19th century through East African trade.
Asian paddle crab- introduced to New Zealand via biofouling in ballast water.

Biofouling:

When ships travel between countries without cargo, they are filled with ballast water to help the ship stay stable on the high seas.
Biofouling is the undesirable accumulation of plants, animals, and algae on surfaces, sometimes during the filling and flushing of ballast water, which can transport exotic species from one region to another.
E.g., The Asian paddle crab was introduced from the Northwest Pacific and East Asian waters to New Zealand, where it carries the white-spot syndrome virus, via Biofouling.

Impacts on India

A 2022 study found that India has lost $127.3 billion (₹830 crore) to invasive alien species over the last 60 years. This makes India, the second-most financially affected nation by invasive alien species in the world, after the US.
The estimate is based on costs from only 10 out of 2,000+ invasive species in India. Economic impacts are known for just 3% of these species; data for the rest is incomplete or missing.
Semi-aquatic and aquatic invasive alien species pose a greater fiscal burden than terrestrial species as they often affect high-value sectors like public health, water infrastructure, and fisheries.
E.g., The yellow fever mosquito is the most financially damaging invasive semi-aquatic species in India. It poses threats to both public health and the economy.

Way Forward

To reduce the risk of importing invasive alien species, India needs to:

Strengthen National Policy: Enforcing stricter biosecurity at ports and other entry points and developing real-time species-tracking and early-warning systems that can catch invasion events before they get out of control.
Stronger Collaboration between government departments and researchers to track potentially invasive species and their spread under changing climate and trade patterns.
Mandatory Implementation of post-trade biological impact assessments, typically in quarantine facilities managed by the respective departments.

Strengthening policies to reduce the spread of invasive species is one step towards managing their consequences on native biodiversity. Like One Health, the implementation of a ‘One Biosecurity’ framework will better our chances of managing invasive alien species.

What happens if Iran Withdraws from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty?

Context: Amid the heightened military tensions between Iran and Israel, Iran's Parliament is preparing a Bill to potentially leave the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT).

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key facts about Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Mains: Crisis in West Asia- Key Developments.

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)

NPT is a multilateral treaty, signed in 1968, aimed at limiting the spread of nuclear weapons including three elements:
- Non-proliferation
- Disarmament
- Peaceful use of Nuclear Energy.
It defines nuclear weapon states (NWS) as those that had manufactured and detonated a nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967. Five NSW are China, France, Russia, the UK and the US. All the other states are non-nuclear weapon states (NNWS).
The Treaty does not affect the right of state parties to develop, produce, and use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) verifies NNWS compliance with commitments under the NPT not to acquire nuclear weapons.
India, Israel, and Pakistan possess nuclear weapons but have never accepted the NPT. India considers NPT as flawed and as it does not recognise the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment.

Iran is a signatory to NPT, and is obligated to allow IAEA inspections and limit enrichment. Recently, the IAEA’s Board of Governors has censured Iran for breaching its non-proliferation obligations.

According to the IAEA, Iran has 400 kg of uranium that is already enriched to 60%, just a few steps away from further enrichment to weapons-grade level of 90% or more. The total stockpile of uranium and other nuclear material would be much more.

Can Iran leave the NPT?

The United States has attacked three key nuclear installations in Iran- Fordow, Isfahan and Natanz. This marked the entry of the US into the ongoing conflict between Israel and Iran. Iran has the legal right to withdraw from the NPT owing to the US strikes.

Article 10 of NPT: Each Party shall in exercising its national sovereignty have the right to withdraw from the Treaty if it decides that extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardised the supreme interests of its country.
A notice of withdrawal must be given to other parties and the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), three months in advance, and such notice shall include a statement of the extraordinary events it regards as having jeopardised its supreme interests.

Exiting the treaty raises two major concerns:

Increased opacity in Iran’s Nuclear program: It will keep Iran out of the IAEA’s purview and regular inspections. IAEA would lose access to visit nuclear-sites in Iran.
Set a precedent to exit NPT: It could set a precedent for other states to leave the global framework and weaken cooperation on nuclear non-proliferation.

However, remaining in the NPT does not necessarily signal an intention to build nuclear weapons, because signatories (like North Korea) have also developed weapons in the past.

India to be world’s 4th largest electric car maker by 2030

Context: India’s planned electric four-wheeler manufacturing capacity is projected to rise over tenfold to 2.5 million units by 2030, up from just 0.2 million at present, making it the fourth-largest electric car producer globally after China, Europe, and the US.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts- EV Manufacturing status; FAME I, FAME II, PLI-Auto, PM E-DRIVE, SPMEPCI.

Mains: EV Policy in India: Progress & Gaps

Electric Vehicle Manufacturing in India

Rapid Expansion

By 2030, India’s electric car demand is estimated to reach between 0.4-1.4 million units, up from 0.1 million in 2024. The electric vehicle (EV) penetration rate would be around 7-23% in four-wheelers from 2% in 2024.
India’s electric car production capacity is expected to reach 2.5 million units, and the manufacturing capacity would outstrip domestic demand. India’s anticipated production capacity will be far behind China’s 29 million, EU’s 9 million, and 6 million in the US.

Need to catch up Pace:

To protect local manufacturers, India has maintained import tariffs of up to 70-100% on fully built EVs. However, this protective stance also limits consumer choice and raises costs. Presently, almost 100% of India’s EV manufacturing is only for its domestic market.
By 2030, India’s cell production capacity will lag behind China, Europe, the US, and Canada. China is expected to lead with a cell manufacturing capacity of 4,818 gigawatt hours (GWh), in contrast to India at 567 GWh.

Govt. Initiatives to drive India's EV Sector:

FAME Scheme (Phase I & II)
PLI Scheme for Automobile and Auto Components (PLI-Auto)
PLI Scheme for Advanced Chemistry Cells (PLI-ACC)
PM E-DRIVE Scheme (Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement)
SPMEPCI Scheme (Scheme to Promote Manufacturing of Electric Passenger Cars in India)

The increase in domestic EV manufacturing aligns with the government’s strategy to ‘Make in India for the world’. However, Indian companies will need to lower the cost of manufacturing to compete with exports from China.

Also Read: Addressing Policy Gaps in India’s EV Journey

Small Satellite Launch Vehicle

Context: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) has bagged a Transfer of Technology deal from the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), valued at ₹511 crore, to build and operate Small Satellite Launch Vehicles (SSLVs). This deal will enable commercialisation of SSLV launches.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV).

About Small Satellite Launch Vehicle

The Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is the new small satellite launch vehicle developed by Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to cater to the emerging global small satellite launch service market.
It is designed to meet 'Launch on Demand' requirements in a cost-effective manner.
It is a three-stage Launch Vehicle configured with three Solid fuel Propulsion Stages. It also has a liquid propulsion based Velocity Trimming Module (VTM) as a terminal stage.
SSLV is capable of launching Mini, Micro, or Nanosatellites (10 to 500 kg mass) up to 500 km in the Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
It is capable of multiple orbital drop-offs i.e., launch multiple microsatellites in one launch.
SSLVs will cost 1/10th of a PSLV and will need only 72 hours for launch in comparison to 70 days for PSLV.
Manufacturing of SSLV will be through Indian industry partners led by New Space India Limited, ISRO's commercial arm.

Advantages:

Reduced Turn-around time
Launch-on-Demand i.e., it can be launched on a short-time based on the demand for launch services
Flexibility in accommodating multiple satellites in one launch (Ride Sharing/ multiple orbital drop-offs)
Minimum launch infrastructure requirement
Cost optimisation i.e., provides low-cost access to Space.

FASTag Annual Pass Scheme

Context: The Union Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) has announced a FASTag-based annual pass for hassle-free-highway travel for a given duration.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about FASTag; How does the FASTag system work?

FASTag Annual Pass Scheme:

The annual pass would cost Rs 3000 and will allow free passage of non-commercial private vehicles- car, jeep or van at National Highway (NH) and National Expressway (NE) fee plazas for the given duration, without per-trip user fee charges.
FASTag-based passes will be effective from August 15, 2025 and valid for one year or 200 trips or crossings, whichever comes earlier.
The user may re-purchase the Annual Pass once the 200-trip limit is exhausted, even if the one-year validity period has not yet ended.
The pass is non-transferable and is valid only for the vehicle on which the FASTag is affixed and registered.
Valid only at National Highway and National Expressway fee plazas. At plazas on Expressways, State Highways managed by state governments or local bodies, the FASTag will operate as a regular FASTag.
Key Benefits: Address the long-standing concerns regarding toll plazas; Economical as the average cost of crossing one toll plaza will be only Rs 15.

What is FASTag?

FASTag is an electronic toll collection system.
Launched in 2014 as a pilot project and made mandatory at every toll plaza in the country in 2021.
Managed by: National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) and the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI).

How does the FASTag system work?

The FASTag uses Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) to collect toll tax payments on the road.
A FASTag sticker is usually pasted on the windscreen of a car. When a FASTag-attached vehicle approaches a toll plaza, a scanner at the plaza identifies the tag via RFID, and deducts tax from the linked bank account or the prepaid card.

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Technology

RFID technology refers to a wireless system comprising two components: tags and readers.
Reader is a device that has one or more antennas that emit radio waves and receive signals back from the RFID tag. Readers can be mobile so that they can be carried by hand, or they can be mounted on a post or overhead.
RFID Tag is embedded on the windscreens of the vehicles for transporters. It can store a range of information from one serial number to several pages of data. The tags use radio waves to communicate their identity and other information to nearby readers.

The new FASTag annual pass is a strategic step toward modernising India’s highway toll system with smarter mobility and efficient toll management. It enhances user experience, promotes digital infrastructure, reduces environmental impact, and provides a cost-effective solution for frequent travelers.

Also Read: Satellite-based toll collection

Step-and-shoot spot-scanning Proton Arc Therapy for Cancer

Context: A technique called step-and-shoot spot-scanning proton arc therapy (SPArc) has been successfully used to treat a patient’s adenoid cystic carcinoma for the first time. SPArc works by targeting tumours with protons while sparing surrounding tissue.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about New Emerging Technologies: Cancer Treatment.

Step-and-shoot spot-scanning Proton Arc Therapy (SPArc)

SPArc is an advanced radiation therapy that delivers precise proton beams to target tumours in sensitive areas.
The treatment includes a computer programme that scans through all possible spots and energy layers where the proton beams could be delivered.
- An energy layer is a slice of tissue that receives proton beams of a specific energy. It determines the proton beam’s range, i.e., how far it is able to penetrate the tissue.
When the machine fixes one energy level, it deposits the radiation dose in that energy layer. Then the machine switches to the next energy level and repeats the process.

Advantage:

The team compared the techniques: SFO-IMPT (standard proton therapy) and step-and-shoot SPArc.

Reduces radiation exposure: Owing to its spot-scanning and precision, the SPArc method reduced radiation delivered to the brainstem (by 10%), optical chiasm (56%), oral cavity (72%), and spinal canal (90%) over SFO-IMPT. This is particularly significant to treat cancers (tumours) of the head and neck, as it can reduce radiation exposure to sensitive areas like the brain stem and spinal cord.

Concerns: The full clinical implementation of the technology is under development. It is very expensive and is often suitable for a small patient population.

Important Cutting-Edge Technologies for Cancer Treatment:

S.No.	Technology	Details
1.	Chemotherapy	Involves administration of drugs that interfere with cell division to slow down the growth of tumours. Limitations: These drugs can disrupt the cell division of normal cells too, causing complications.
2.	Radiation Therapy	Radiation therapy directs high-energy radiation at the part of the body where a tumour is located. Limitations: The radiation process is not perfect and the nearby tissues are often harmed.
3.	Image-guided Radiation Therapy	Form of radiation therapy that uses imaging techniques to precisely locate and treat cancerous tissue. Allows for higher doses of radiation to be delivered to tumour while minimising exposure to surrounding healthy tissues.
4.	Proton Therapy	Type of radiation therapy that uses high-energy proton beams to destroy cancerous cells. Particularly useful to treat tumours located in sensitive areas (brain, eyes and spinal cord) where traditional radiation therapy can cause severe side effects.
5.	Precision Medicine	Uses genomic information (genetic profile of their tumour) to personalise treatment for cancer patients.
6.	Immunotherapy	i. CAR-T Cell Therapy (cell-based gene therapy which involves genetically modifying T-cells to help them attack cancer cells)ii. Utilising Monoclonal Antibodies iii. Injecting Cancer Vaccines

Bharat Biotech and GSK to develop Shigella Vaccine

Context: Hyderabad-based Bharat Biotech has partnered with GSK (a British multinational pharma company) for the ongoing development and potential use of the Shigella vaccine candidate, altSonflex1-2-3.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Basic idea about how vaccines work; Antigens; Generalised Modules for Membrane Antigens; Shigella.

About Shigella

Shigella is a group of bacteria that causes shigellosis, a type of food poisoning.
Transmission: swallowing material contaminated by faeces, contaminated food and water.
Symptoms: stomach pain, fever, and watery or bloody diarrhoea.
Shigella has the distinction of being one of the first bacterial pathogens to be reported to be resistant to multiple antibiotics.

Shigella Vaccine

The Shigella vaccine utilises GMMA technology, a platform developed by GSK’s Global Health team. The technology employs outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) from bacteria to deliver antigens that activate the immune system.
The aim is to advance the development and potential distribution of the vaccine in low- and middle-income countries, where Shigella is a leading cause of diarrhoea among children under five.

Generalised Modules for Membrane Antigens (GMMA) Technology

GMMA is a technology platform to produce Outer Membrane Vesicles (OMV)-based vaccines.
- OMVs are naturally produced sub-units of bacterial pathogens with multiple surface-exposed antigens.
- OMVs can be used as a vehicle for delivering specific antigens of interest in therapeutic applications, such as vaccines, to induce immune response.
GMMA are OMVs derived from gram-negative bacteria modified through genetic engineering.
GMMA-based vaccines present a variety of bacterial antigens (resembling a natural bacterial infection) to the immune system. It stimulates a strong immune response, often without requiring adjuvants, and can target various bacterial diseases, such as Shigella.

Significance:

GMMA technology is low-cost and scalable, making it ideal for producing affordable vaccines for low-income countries.
It could help reduce illness and mortality rates while indirectly decreasing antibiotic use and addressing antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

Exercise Khaan Quest

Context: Exercise Khaan Quest 2025 is a multinational military exercise being hosted by Mongolia in Ulaanbaatar from June 14 to June 28.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts: Exercise Khaan Quest.

Exercise Khaan Quest

It is an annual joint military exercise that brings together military forces from around the world. This year’s exercise involves military contingents from over 20 countries, including India.
The current year is the 22nd iteration of the exercise.
- The exercise first started as a bilateral event between the US and Mongolian armed forces in 2003.
- Subsequently, from 2006 onwards, the exercise graduated to a multinational peacekeeping exercise.
Objective: To collaborate and enhance their peacekeeping capabilities.
Focus: The exercise focuses on a high degree of physical fitness, joint planning and joint tactical drills.

The aim of the exercise is to also prepare the Indian armed forces for peacekeeping missions while operating in a multinational environment, thereby increasing interoperability and military readiness in peace support operations. An Indian Army contingent is being represented by 40 personnel.

India's Nuclear Arsenal Increased: SIPRI Report 2025

Context: According to the latest Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) yearbook 2025, India has slightly expanded its nuclear stockpile in 2024, and continues developing new nuclear delivery systems.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about the SIPRI yearbook 2025

State of World Nuclear Arsenal

India had nuclear 172 warheads in 2024 and increased it to 180 in 2025. These warheads are in the country's stockpile, i.e., they are available to be deployed for operational use. India continues the development of new delivery systems, including canisterised missiles that may carry multiple warheads.
There are 12,241 nuke warheads globally, spread across nine nuclear-armed countries. The US and Russia own 90% of nuclear warheads. In comparison to India, China has 600 warheads and Pakistan has 170.
Nine nuclear-armed countries are the US, Russia, the UK, France, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea, and Israel.

About Stockholm International Peace Research Institute

SIPRI is an independent international institute dedicated to research on conflict, armaments, arms control, and disarmament established in 1966.
It publishes reports on global arms transfers, tracking trends in arms imports and exports.
It aims to provide data-driven insights for policy-making in global security and military affairs.

India’s Nuclear Strategy

After conducting its second nuclear test in 1998, India adopted the 'no first use' policy. India's focus was on minimum credible deterrence, i.e. to have enough weapons that the enemy could suffer heavy losses in a counter-attack.
India’s growing stockpile is part of a maturing nuclear triad, a strategy involving delivery of nuclear weapons via aircraft, land-based missiles, and nuclear-powered submarines (SSBNs).
Traditionally, India has kept its warheads separate from launch systems during peacetime, but SIPRI suggests that the move toward canisterised missiles and sea-based patrols may indicate a shift in doctrine.

SIPRI’s Report cautions that if no new agreement is reached to cap nuclear stockpiles, the number of warheads deployed on strategic missiles might increase after the expiry of the bilateral 2010 Treaty on Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (New START) in 2026.

Air India Plane Crash: How DNA Identification Works?

Context: After the Air India Boeing 787 Dreamliner crash in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, the authorities are using DNA analysis to identify the remains of those killed in the accident.

DNA identification is the gold standard for identifying human remains, especially after mass fatality events in which bodies might not be easy to identify otherwise.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: DNA Profiling: Challenges & Methods; Applications of DNA Profiling.

What is DNA Profiling?

DNA profiling is the technique used to identify individuals by analysing the unique patterns in their DNA.
With the exception of identical twins, every person has a unique DNA that is present in nearly every cell of their body.

DNA Identification: Sample Collection & Analysis

DNA samples have to be collected as soon as possible from the body. As soon as an individual dies, their DNA begins to degrade.
- Extent of degradation depends on the kind of tissue DNA is extracted from, and the conditions in which the body is kept.
- DNA from soft tissues degrades much faster than that from hard tissues (bones and teeth).
Collected samples need to be stored in a cool and dry environment. They should ideally be frozen at minus 20 degrees Celsius, or in the case of soft tissues (skin, muscles, etc.), they may be stored in 95% ethanol.
For identification of the collected DNA sample, reference samples are collected from biological relatives. Parents and children of the victim are ideal candidates for providing these samples, given that they share 50% of each others’ DNA.

Methods of DNA Analysis

After the samples are collected, the next step is to extract DNA from them. Depending on the quality of the collected DNA, scientists can choose between a number of different methods of analysis.

Short Tandem Repeat (STR) Analysis:

The method evaluates short tandem repeats, which are essentially short repeating sequences of DNA. STRs are used for DNA identification as they widely vary between individuals.
STRs are typically found on nuclear DNA which is located within the nucleus of a cell. Therefore, to carry out STR analysis it is essential that the nuclear DNA extracted from the sample is not degraded.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Analysis:

This method is used when nuclear DNA is degraded or unavailable.
mtDNA is found in mitochondria, the cell’s energy-producing organelles. As mtDNA is present in multiple copies within the cell, it is easier to recover from human remains that are not well preserved.
mtDNA is passed down by the mother ‘unchanged’ to all her children. The samples can be matched with reference samples from their mother, maternal grandmother, siblings, maternal aunts or distant relatives from the maternal line of inheritance.

Y chromosome Analysis:

Humans have two types of sex chromosomes, X and Y: biological males typically have one X and one Y chromosome, and biological females typically have two X chromosomes.
In this method, a panel of STR on Y chromosomes, passed on from father to son, is examined to match the remains of the victim with their male relatives.
Any member of the paternal line, including brothers, paternal uncles, and paternal male cousins, may be used for matching.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) Analysis:

The method is typically used when the DNA to be analysed is highly degraded.
A SNP is a variation in the DNA sequence where a single base (A, C, G, or T) at a specific location differs among people.
Given that SNPs are unique to each person, they can be used for identification purposes with the help of reference samples taken from the victim’s personal belongings (E.g., a toothbrush and hairbrush). This method is not as effective as STR analysis.

Also Read: DNA Profling