Prelims Nuggets

Naangarni Spardha

Context: Recently, Naangarni Spardha, the traditional oxen ploughing race was organised at Ringane village in Maharashtra’s Ratnagiri district.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about traditional animal-based sports in India. 

Naangarni Spardha

  • Naangarni Spardha is a traditional oxen race held annually in Ratnagiri district in Maharashtra. 
  • The unique rural sporting tradition thrives during the monsoon season.
  • The oxen race is held on a horseshoe-shaped, mud-filled track. Strict rules are enforced; any oxen pair that touches the track flags or steps outside the boundaries is immediately disqualified. Victory is determined solely by speed. 
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Other livestock‑based sports in India: 

1. Jallikattu:

  • Jallikattu is a traditional bull-taming sport from Tamil Nadu. 
  • In this event, a zebu bull such as the Pulikulam or Kangayam breeds, is released into a crowd of people (not teams), and many people attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull attempts to escape. They hold the hump for as long as possible, attempting to bring the bull to a stop. In some cases, they must ride long enough to remove flags on the bull's horns.
  • Location: Tamil Nadu
  • Duration of the year: January (during Pongal)
  • History of the Event: Inception: around 6th-1st century BCE (Sangam period). It began during the Sangam period when Ayar tribal people living in Mullai region (dense forest) of Tamil Nadu started playing this sport. 
  • Legal backing: In May 2023, a five judge Constitution Bench dismissed petitions challenging constitutionality of Jallikattu and upheld the validity of Tamil Nadu laws protecting the sport.

2. Kambala: 

  • Kambala is an annual buffalo race held in the southwestern Indian states of Karnataka and Maharashtra. 
  • The festival is dedicated to an incarnation of Hindu God Shiva- Lord Kadri Manjunatha. 
  • The festival is celebrated every year after harvest season (generally from November to March) to offer thanks to the god for a year of good harvest. 
  • Traditionally, it was sponsored by local Tuluva landlords in Dakshina Kannada and  Kasaragod region of Kerala, a region collectively known as Tulu Nadu.

Gaza War and Diplomatic Isolation of Israel 

Context: The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom has announced to recognise the state of Palestine during the coming UN General Assembly session in September 2025, unless Israel agrees to a ceasefire in Gaza, allows more humanitarian aid and commits itself towards long-term peace based on the two-state formula.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Balfour Declaration; Diplomatic Isolation of Israel; Gaza War. 

Gaza War and Diplomatic Isolation of Israel

  • The Gaza war began in October 2023, when Hamas launched coordinated armed incursions on Israel from the Gaza Strip. In retaliation, Israel declared war and launched “Operation Swords of Iron,” launching airstrikes against Hamas militants in the Gaza Strip. 
  • As the 21-month-long war on Gaza rages on, over 58,000 people have been killed, including more than 17,000 children. 
  • Israel is facing one of its biggest diplomatic crises with more and more countries in the West (Israel’s traditional allies) adopting a favourable position towards Palestinian statehood.
    • Recently, the President of France declared to recognise Palestinian statehood in September. 
    • Canada and Portugal have also expressed their intention to do the same. 
    • The United Kingdom has announced to recognise the state of Palestine during the coming UN General Assembly session. 
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Changing Diplomatic Positions of the Western Nations: 

Of the 193 UN member states, 147 have already recognised the state of Palestine. Until now, powerful Western countries had resisted such recognition, insisting it should be part of a final diplomatic settlement to the Israel-Palestine conflict. However, the position is beginning to shift. 

  • Among the five members of the UN Security Council, Russia and China have already recognised Palestine. If France and the U.K. follow through with their recent statements, the U.S., Israel’s closest ally and patron, will be isolated at the UNSC. 
  • France, the U.K. and Canada are also members of the G7 group of advanced economies, and their recognition could influence other countries to follow suit. 
  • Britain’s move, in particular, carries historic weight, given its central role in the Israel-Palestine question. In the 1917 Balfour Declaration, Britain became the first major power to endorse the Zionist demand for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. 

About Balfour Declaration: 

  • The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British Government in 1917 during the First World War announcing its support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine. 
  • The declaration was issued by Sir Arthur Balfour, the British Foreign Secretary, addressed to Lord Lionel Walter Rothschild, a Zionist and leader of the British Jewish community. 
  • By the time the Balfour Declaration was issued, there were roughly 60,000 Jews in Palestine, accounting for over 9% of the total population. Palestine was a part of the Ottoman Empire until the end of the First World War, in the late 19th century.

108 years after the Balfour Declaration was issued, Britain' s announcement to recognise the state of Palestine, clearly reflects a change in the UK’s policy towards Israel and Palestine.

India’s Stand in Israel-Palestine issue

  • India announced its recognition of Israel in 1950 and has recognised Palestine in 1988.
  • Two-State solution: India consistently supports a negotiated two-state solution leading to the establishment of a sovereign, independent and viable state of Palestine, living within a secure and recognised border, side by side at peace with Israel. 
  • Focus on Practical solutions: Recently, at a United Nations conference (July 2025), India joined the call for Israel to end the war in Gaza and ensure access to food, for Hamas to return hostages, and for U.N. members to recognise the Statehood of Palestine. India advocated the need for practical solutions, not paper solutions, to bring about a Two-State solution through purposeful dialogue and diplomacy. 

As Israel is facing accusations of committing genocide against Palestinians, and images of Gaza’s devastation and starving children are coming out, it becomes untenable for many Western nations to continue to back Israel unconditionally.

Also Read: Is Israel committing Genocide in Gaza? 

Odisha and Chhattisgarh to ‘amicably’ resolve Mahanadi River Dispute 

Context: After a prolonged legal battle in a designated Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal over sharing of the Mahanadi river water, Odisha and Chhattisgarh have expressed willingness to resolve the dispute amicably between themselves.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key provision for resolution of Inter-State River Water Dispute. 

Inter-State River Water Dispute

  • Article 262 of the Constitution provides for the adjudication of inter-state water disputes. It makes two provisions:
    • Parliament may by law provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint with respect to the use, distribution and control of waters of any inter-state river and river valley.
    • Parliament may also provide that neither the Supreme Court nor any other court is to exercise jurisdiction in respect of any such dispute or complaint.

Under this provision, the Parliament has enacted two laws:

1. The River Boards Act 1956: 

  • The Act provides for the establishment of river boards for the regulation and development of inter-state river and river valleys. 
  • A river board is established by the Central government on the request of the state governments concerned to advise them.

2. Inter-State River Water Disputes Act 1956: 

  • The Inter-State River Water Disputes Act empowers the Central government to set up an ad hoc tribunal for the adjudication of a dispute between two or more states in relation to the waters of an inter-state river or river valley. 
  • The decision of the tribunal would be final and binding on the parties to the dispute. 
  • The Supreme Court nor any other court does not have jurisdiction in respect of any water dispute which may be referred to such a tribunal under this Act. 

Mahanadi River System

  • Mahanadi river rises in the Sihawa hills, Chhattisgarh. This is south of the Amarkantak Plateau region. 
  • Basin states: Chhattisgarh and Odisha and comparatively smaller portions of Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, draining an area of 1,41,589 sq. kms. The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. 
  • The Mahanadi basin is geographically bounded by:
    • Central India hills on the north
    • Eastern Ghats on the south and east
    • Maikal range in the west. 
  • Major Dams: 
    • Hirakud Dam (Odisha): One of the longest earthen dams in the world. 
    • Hasdeo Bango & Arpa Projects (Chhattisgarh). 
Left bank TributaryRight bank Tributary
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HasdeoTel
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Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal: 

  • Mahanadi River Dispute: Odisha alleges that the upper riparian state Chhattisgarh had "illegally" constructed a number of barrages across the river and its tributaries, which has seriously affected inflow into the Hirakud reservoir in Odisha, particularly in the non-monsoon seasons.  
  • The Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal was established in 2018. The proceedings continued between 2018 and 2023 with data submissions, arguments, and inspections from both states.

It is to be noted that no inter-state water dispute in the country has ever been resolved entirely through tribunal proceedings. Hence, the move towards amicable resolution of the inter-state river water dispute between Odisha and Chhattisgarh is a step in the right direction. 

Bio-fortified Potatoes to hit Indian Market soon

Context: The Director-General of the International Potato Center (CIP), based in Peru, has announced that bio-fortified iron-rich potatoes will soon be available in Indian markets. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Bio-fortification; Bio-fortified Potatoes; International Potato Center.

What is Bio-fortification?

  • Bio-fortification is a technique of increasing the nutritional value of crops using conventional breeding or biotechnology. E.g., adding iron or vitamins to potatoes.
  • It helps tackle hidden hunger especially in poor and rural communities.

Why Bio-fortified Potatoes?

  • Potato is the third most consumed food crop in the world after rice and wheat. Potatoes are rich in carbohydrates, but naturally low in micronutrients. Iron deficiency is a major concern in India, especially among women and children.
  • Bio-fortified iron-rich potatoes are aimed at addressing iron deficiency and hidden hunger. E.g., Sweet potatoes fortified with Vitamin A are already being used in Karnataka, West Bengal, Assam, and Odisha. 
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About the International Potato Center (CIP)

  • CIP is a leading international research organisation focused on tubular crops, especially potatoes and sweet potatoes.
  • Headquarters: Peru
  • Collaborates with national governments, research bodies, and private stakeholders.
  • CIP South Asia Regional Centre to be established in Agra, Uttar Pradesh.
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Bairabi-Sairang Railway Line and Act East Policy

Context: Indian Railways recently commissioned a 51.38 km railway line to Sairang, located near Aizawl, the capital of Mizoram. This is a significant step toward enhancing connectivity in the Northeast and advancing India’s Act East Policy.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: About Bairabi-Sairang Railway project; Regional connectivity projects, Act East Policy.

Background of the Project

  • Before this project, Mizoram had just 1.5 km of metre-gauge track connecting Bairabi in Kolasib district, Mizoram to Silchar in Assam.
  • The gauge conversion and extension project was sanctioned in 2000, and the extension up to Sairang began in 2008-09.
  • However, progress was slow due to inclement weather, a difficult and landslide-prone terrain, manpower shortage, and issues with transporting construction materials.
  • This project is part of the Indian Railways’ larger goal from the early 2010s to connect all Northeastern state capitals to the National railway network. 
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Key Features of the Bairabi-Sairang Rail Line: 

  • The total length is 51.38 km. Includes 48 tunnels with a combined length of 12.85 km.
  • Contains 142 bridges, including one with India’s tallest railway pier.
  • The total project cost is over ₹5,020 crore.
  • Received safety clearance and awaits formal inauguration.

Significance of the Project: 

  • The Aizawl-Silchar highway via Sairang takes around five hours. Trains from Sairang, including a proposed Rajdhani Express could reduce travel time to 1.5 hours. The project will lower transportation costs and reduce truck dependency
  • It is expected to boost tourism, trade, and goods movement.
  • Sairang is also expected to be vital for transhipment of goods from the India-funded Sittwe Port in Myanmar. 
  • Sairang railhead is strategic vis-a-vis the Act East Policy, envisaging rail and road connectivity to improve trade with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and other East Asian countries, deepen diplomatic engagements, and build stronger security cooperation.

What is the Act East Policy?

  • The Act East Policy was announced in 2014.
  • It was a more ambitious version of the Look East Policy initiated in 1991.
  • It is a strategic and diplomatic initiative aimed at enhancing India’s engagement with the ASEAN region and the broader Indo-Pacific. 
  • Objective: To transform the northeastern region into India’s gateway to the ASEAN bloc.

Infrastructure Push under Act East Policy: 

  • The Centre has increased the budgetary allocations for the region by 300% from ₹36,108 crore during the 2014-15 fiscal to more than ₹1,00,000 crore during 2024-25. 
  • More than 10,000 km of highways and 800 km of railway tracks were built, eight new airports established, and several inland waterway projects undertaken during this period. 
  • Important projects include:
    • Dimapur-Zubza (near Kohima) railway project in Nagaland (82.5 km)
    • Imphal-Moreh plan in Manipur
    • Asian Highway 1 from Assam to Moreh via Kohima and Imphal. 

Challenges: 

  • Ethnic conflicts: The ethnic conflict in Manipur has affected the proposed railway line between Imphal and Moreh. 
  • Unrest in India’s neighbourhood: The connectivity projects to link the northeast with Southeast Asia have not progressed beyond India’s borders due to the unrest in India’s neighbourhood. E.g., Civil war in Myanmar; Fall of the Sheikh Hasina government in Bangladesh in August 2024.
  • Agartala-Akhaura Rail Link Stalled: Agartala-Akhaura railway to connect Tripura to Chittagong Port via Bangladesh is stalled due to the political turmoil and change in government in Bangladesh. 
  • Kaladan Project Delayed: Kaladan Multi-Modal Project in Myanmar, aimed at reducing distance between Mizoram and Kolkata by 1000 km, is also delayed.

Stablecoins and their Regulation 

Context: Hong Kong is set to enforce a new Stablecoins Ordinance, requiring a licence for issuing fiat-referenced stablecoins (FRS). This move aims to regulate stablecoin issuers, ensure transparency, protect investors, and prevent financial risks like money laundering and unbacked digital assets.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key facts about Stablecoins; CBDCs. 

What are Stablecoins?

  • Stablecoins are a class of cryptocurrencies with their values linked to assets.
  • Unlike cryptocurrency coins such as Bitcoin (BTC) and Ether (ETH) or even tokens such as Shiba Inu (SHIB), whose values can wildly rise and fall due to investor sentiments and other factors, stablecoins are designed to maintain relatively steady prices. 
  • This stability is achieved through the process of “pegging” the stablecoin to an asset such as:
    • Fiat currency (like U.S. Dollars, EU Euros, Hong Kong Dollars, etc.)
    • A commodity (like gold)
    • Other cryptocurrencies (such as Bitcoin), by regulating their value via computer algorithms, or by mixing multiple strategies. 
  • While the price of Bitcoin might rise or fall in the coming years, a USD-pegged stablecoin should ideally remain around $1. 

Difference between Stablecoins and Central Bank Digital Currencies

  • CBDCs are digital currencies officially issued and controlled by a government’s central bank, while Stablecoins can be privately issued and can also be pegged to foreign currencies. 

Why do Stablecoins require Regulation? 

  • Widespread Use: Stablecoins are used globally for trading, savings protection, and cross-border transactions, especially in countries facing currency instability (E.g., Argentina, Turkey, Afghanistan).
  • Market Size: Over $250 billion worth of stablecoins are in circulation. E.g., Tether (USDT) alone has a supply of over 163 billion USDT.
  • Lack of Transparency: Issuers may not always have adequate reserves backing their stablecoins, leading to trust issues and risks of fraud or insolvency.
  • Potential Impact on Fiat Currencies: Excessive or unregulated issuance may affect the value and stability of the underlying fiat currencies or commodities.
  • Risk of Collapse: History shows that algorithmic stablecoins (like UST in 2022) can fail, leading to massive investor losses and systemic risks.
  • Need for Oversight: Regulation ensures reserve transparency, financial audits, consumer protection, and compliance with anti-money laundering (AML) norms.

Regulation of Stablecoins around the world

GENIUS Act:  

  • The US President signed the GENIUS Act (July 2025) to regulate stablecoins and protect the US Dollar.
  • The Act requires 100% reserve backing with liquid assets like US dollars or short-term Treasuries for stablecoins.
  • Those issuing this asset will also have to make monthly, public disclosures of the composition of their reserves, apart from complying with marketing rules.

Other countries that have started to regulate stablecoins include Japan and Singapore, while multiple other jurisdictions have more generic regulations that cover stablecoins along with other cryptocurrencies. 

What is Hong Kong’s Stablecoins Ordinance?

  • It will be illegal for people to offer any unlicensed fiat-referenced stablecoin (FRS) to a retail investor, or actively market the issue of unlicensed FRS to the public of Hong Kong.
  • Companies that want to legally issue stablecoins to users in Hong Kong will have to obtain a licence from the Monetary Authority as well as meet set requirements when it comes to managing reserve assets and redemption, asset stabilisation, and processing user requests.
  • In addition to this, they will have to comply with the applicable regulations that prevent money laundering and terrorist financing, thus making sure that their assets are properly disclosed and audited. 

Also Read: Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) 

PM E-DRIVE scheme

Context: The PM E-DRIVE (Prime Minister Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement) scheme, launched in 2024 (initially for 2 years), has been extended by two years till March 2028. There will be no extra budget allocated to the extension and remaining funds out of the total outlay of ₹10,900 crore will be utilised. 

Relevance of the topic: Prelims- Key provisions of PM E-DRIVE scheme. 

About PM E-DRIVE scheme

  • The ‘PM Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement (PM E-DRIVE)’ came into effect on October 1, 2024, and will remain in force until March 31, 2026. 
  • Outlay: Rs 10,900 crore
  • Aim: To accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), develop essential charging infrastructure, and establish a robust EV manufacturing ecosystem across the country. 
  • Initiative of: Ministry of Heavy Industries
  • The scheme replaces the earlier FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles) Scheme of 2015.
About PM E-DRIVE scheme

Key Scheme Components:

The PM E-DRIVE scheme is implemented through the following key components:

  • Subsidies: Demand incentives for electric vehicles such as e-2 wheelers (e-2W), e-3 wheelers (e-3W), e-ambulances, e-trucks, and other emerging categories of EVs.
  • Grants for creating capital assets: Funding will be provided for the acquisition of electric buses (e-buses), the establishment of a comprehensive network of charging stations, and the upgrading of the Ministry of Heavy Industries (MHI) testing facilities.
  • Administration of the Scheme including IEC (Information, Education & Communication) activities and fee for project management agency (PMA).
PM E-DRIVE scheme
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Eligible Categories:

  1. Two Wheelers: The scheme aims to incentivize approximately 24.79 lakh electric two-wheelers (e-2Ws). Only e-2Ws equipped with advanced batteries are eligible for this incentive. Both commercially registered and privately owned e-2Ws can benefit from the scheme.
  2. Three-wheelers: To incentivize around 3.2 lakh electric three-wheelers (e-3Ws), covering registered e-rickshaws/e-carts or L5 category vehicles. Only those e-3Ws with advanced battery technology are qualified for the demand incentive. The scheme is solely applicable to e-3Ws used for commercial purposes.
  3. e-Ambulances:
    • Allocation of Rs 500 crore to promote comfortable patient transport.
    • Standards: Performance and safety standards to be formulated with MoHFW, MoRTH, and other stakeholders.
  4. e-Buses:
    • Allocation of Rs 4,391 crore for procurement of 14,028 e-buses for STUs/public transport agencies.
    • Demand Aggregation: Managed by CESL in cities with populations over 40 lakh.
    • Preferences: Given to cities/states replacing old STU buses through authorized scrapping centers (RVSFs).
  5. e-Trucks: Fund of Rs. 500 crore allocated to promote the adoption of electric trucks to reduce CO2 emissions. Only those holding a scrapping certificate from MoRTH-approved vehicle scrapping centers (RVSF) are eligible for the incentives.
  6. Public Charging Stations (EVPCS): To establish a robust network of public charging stations, including 22,100 fast chargers for e-4Ws, 1,800 for e-buses, and 48,400 for e-2Ws and e-3Ws. These charging points to be installed in key cities with high electric vehicle penetration and along select highways.
  7. Modernisation of Testing Agencies: Allocation of Rs 780 crore to upgrade and modernize testing agencies under the Ministry of Heavy Industries (MHI) to equip them with new and emerging technologies, thereby promoting green mobility.

Other key provisions of the scheme: 

  • Beneficiaries of the Scheme: 
    • The scheme primarily targets electric two-wheelers (e-2Ws) and three-wheelers (e-3Ws) registered for commercial use. Privately or corporately owned e-2Ws are also eligible. 
    • EVs purchased by government departments are not qualified for demand incentives, preventing the transfer of funds within government bodies.
  • e-Vouchers to avail incentives: The Ministry of Heavy Industries (MHI) is introducing e-Vouchers for EV customers to avail the demand incentive under the scheme.
    • The scheme portal will generate an e-KYC Aadhaar FACE authenticated e-Voucher for the customer at the time of purchase. 
    • This e-voucher will be signed by the buyer as well as the dealer and uploaded on the PM E-DRIVE portal to claim reimbursement of demand incentives under the scheme.

Benefits: 

  • Environmental Impact: Reduce transportation’s environmental footprint and improve air quality with sustainable transportation solutions.
  • Facilitate establishment of essential EV charging infrastructure.
  • EV Industry Growth: Promote a competitive and resilient domestic EV manufacturing sector and strengthen the EV supply chain.
  • Spur investment in the EV sector and create employment opportunities along the value chain.

Research, Development, and Innovation (RDI) Scheme

Context: The Central government has announced a Rs 1 lakh crore fund to empower the private sector in advancing India's sovereign technology goals. The RDI Scheme will offer long-term, low-interest loans and risk capital for deep-tech and transformative projects.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: key facts about the Research, Development, and Innovation (RDI) Scheme. 

Research, Development, and Innovation (RDI) Scheme

  • The government has launched the ambitious Research, Development, and Innovation (RDI) Scheme in 2025. 
  • Aim: To incentivise private-sector participation in research and development (R&D), particularly in sunrise and strategic sectors.
  • Outlay: ₹1 lakh crore over 6 years, with ₹20,000 crore allocated for FY26.
  • A dedicated 'Deep-Tech Fund of Funds' will also be established to scale up private investment in innovation.
  • Nodal Agency: Department of Science & Technology (DST).

Key Features of the Scheme: 

  • The scheme will provide long-term, low-interest loans and risk capital to support deep-tech, critical technologies, and transformative projects.
  • Technology sectors of strategic importance have been identified under the RDI Scheme. These include:
    • Energy Security and Climate Action. 
    • Deep technologies such as Quantum Computing, Artificial Intelligence,  Semiconductors, Biotechnology, and Digital economy. 
    • Sectors critical for Strategic and Economic security. 
  • There exists the flexibility to include additional sectors based on approval from the Empowered Group of Secretaries (EGoS).

Funding Mechanism

  • Fund allocation to innovators, researchers, and start-ups will be managed through a Special Purpose Fund (SPF) under the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF), which serves as the Level 1 Fund Custodian. 
  • Implementation will be carried out by Second-Level Fund Managers, including Alternate Investment Funds (AIFs), Development Finance Institutions (DFIs), Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), and Focused Research Organisations (FROs), such as BIRAC, TDB, and IIT Research Parks, with approval from the Empowered Group of Secretaries (EGoS).
    • Funding to R&D projects by the 2nd level fund managers would normally be in the form of long-term loan at low or nil interest rates. 
    • Financing in the form of equity may also be done, especially in case of startups. 
    • Contribution to Deep-Tech Fund of Funds (FoF) or any other FoF meant for RDI may also be considered.

Significance: 

  • Addresses funding gaps in private sector R&D by providing growth and risk capital to sunrise and strategic sectors. 
  • Supports innovation, technology adoption, and competitiveness with sector selection guided by India’s economic priorities and strategic needs.
  • Finances transformative projects at higher levels of Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) 4 and above. 
  • Enables acquisition of strategically important technologies, and promotes the creation of a Deep-Tech Fund of Funds.

By addressing the critical need of the private sector for long-term affordable financing, the RDI Scheme facilitates a conducive innovation ecosystem in the country. 

Also Read: India’s R&D Investment: Challenges and Opportunities 

Why are Arya Samaj Marriages under the scanner of Courts?

Context: Recently, the Allahabad High Court directed the state government of Uttar Pradesh to investigate the functioning of “fake Arya Samaj societies" allegedly involved in conducting illegal marriages across the state.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Arya Samaj Marriages; Special Marriage Act 1954. 

What is Arya Samaj?

  • The Arya Samaj was formally established as a Hindu revivalist movement by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875. 
  • It gained prominence in northern India, especially Punjab (including present-day Pakistan), in the late 19th century.
  • Arya Samaj made the very first attempts to convert persons from other faiths or ideologies to its version of Vedic, monotheistic Hinduism through a process it called “shuddhi” (purification).
  • One of the ways it facilitated this was by having a progressive view of inter-caste and even interfaith marriages. 

Arya Marriage Validation Act, 1937

  • The Arya Marriage Validation Act was enacted in 1937. This law formally recognised marriages conducted according to Arya Samaj rituals.
  • These weddings follow a simplified set of Hindu ceremonies and require only that the couple is of legal age and identifies as Arya Samajis- regardless of caste or prior religious affiliation.
  • The Act clearly states that Arya Samaj marriages cannot be considered invalid just because the individuals belong to different castes or were from another religion before the marriage.

The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 which covers not just Hindus but also Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs recognises Arya Samaj marriages. Those belonging to other religions simply need to convert to Hinduism before the wedding.

In effect, till the Special Marriage Act, 1954 came into force, the Arya Samaj provided the only way for a Hindu to marry out of caste or religion and to still retain their caste.

About Special Marriage Act, 1954: 

  • The Special Marriage Act (SMA) 1954 was enacted to provide a secular legal framework for marriages between individuals belonging to different religions, castes, or communities. 
  • SMA enables marriage between inter-faith or inter-caste couples, without them giving up their religious identity or resorting to conversion.
  • Under the SMA, the couple must provide a 30-day public notice before they marry. This notice is displayed publicly at the Registrar's Office, leaving them vulnerable to harassment from their families or allowing anyone to raise objections to the marriage

Arya Samaj weddings are fast (a couple of hours) with the ease of paperwork and relaxed requirements. This makes Arya Samaj weddings popular among eloping or runaway couples, who often belong to different castes or religions.

Challenges associated with the Arya Samaj Marriage: 

  • Illegal weddings:
    • Concerns over mass-scale solemnisation of marriages by Arya Samaj organisations without verifying marriage eligibility conditions. 
    • Additionally, a growing number of fake organisations operating under the Arya Samaj name have emerged. These unauthorised groups often conduct marriages without proper checks, forged documents, and in some cases, even solemnise the weddings of underage brides.
  • Odds with Anti-conversion law: Various states have passed stringent anti-conversion laws in recent years. Arya Samaj marriages are at odds with the state anti-conversion laws. The shuddhi performed before most interfaith Arya Samaj marriages does not comply with the onerous process for conversion prescribed in the anti-conversion law.
    • E.g., In Uttar Pradesh Prohibition of Unlawful Conversion of Religion Act 2021 renders void any marriage that is preceded by an unlawful or procedurally non-compliant religious conversion. The Act requires both a pre-conversion declaration 60 days before marriage and a post-conversion declaration within a specified timeframe to the district magistrate. 

The Allahabad HC and Madhya Pradesh HC have ordered police investigations into instances where these organisations allegedly married minors using forged documents, and facilitated conversions without following procedures mandated by the anti-conversion laws of these states.

Also Read: Special Marriage Act 1954: Provisions and Concerns 

NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar

Context: The NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) satellite was successfully launched on 30th July 2025 from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh.

The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV-F16) successfully lifted and precisely injected the NISAR satellite weighing 2,392 kg into its intended sun-synchronous orbit.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) Mission.

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About NISAR: 

  • NISAR is a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) observatory which will be placed in sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 747 km and an orbit inclination of 98.4°. 
  • It is a joint project between NASA and the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) to develop and launch a radar imaging satellite. The satellite will be the first to use dual frequencies.
  • Duration: Baseline mission duration of three years. 
  • Estimated Mission Cost: $1.5 billion.
  • The Earth observation satellite is capable of penetrating cloud cover and operating day and night regardless of the weather conditions, expected to revolutionise earth-observing capability. NISAR will observe nearly all the planet’s land and ice surfaces twice every 12 days. 
  • The 2,800 kilograms satellite consists of both L-band and S-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR) instruments, which makes it a dual-frequency imaging radar satellite.
    • L-band SAR operates at a frequency of around 1 to 2 GHz. The lower frequency (higher wavelength) of L-band SAR allows it to penetrate through vegetation and soil, making it useful for monitoring changes in forest cover, soil moisture etc. 
    • S-band SAR operates at a frequency of around 2 to 4 GHz. S-band SAR has a higher resolution than L-band SAR and is typically used for applications where higher resolution is required, such as monitoring changes in urban areas or coastal zones.

Significance:

  • NISAR will observe natural processes and changes in earth’s complex ecosystems.
    • Study Earth’s dynamic land and ice surfaces in greater detail and observe subtle changes in Earth’s surfaces. E.g., Track flow rates of glaciers and ice sheets, landslide-prone areas and changes in the coastline etc.
    • Spot warning signs of natural disasters, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes and landslides.
    • Measure groundwater levels, agricultural mapping, vegetation biomass, natural resource mapping and monitor Earth’s forest and agricultural regions to improve understanding of carbon exchange. 

Pralay Missile System

Context: The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has successfully conducted two consecutive flight tests of the Pralay missiles from Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Island, off the coast of Odisha. 

The missile followed a desired quasi-ballistic trajectory, demonstrated mid-air manoeuvres, and struck its designated target with hit-to-kill accuracy and pin-point precision.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Pralay Missile System. 

Pralay Missile System

  • Pralay is a short-range surface-to-surface missile developed for tactical battlefield use. 
  • The missile system is designed to meet the specific operational needs of the Indian Army and incorporates several indigenous technologies.

Key features of Pralay Missile: 

  • Propulsion system: Two-stage solid-propellant rocket motor with Manoeuvrable Re-entry Vehicle (MaRV) technology in the terminal stage.
  • Speed: Capable of reaching speeds between Mach 1 and Mach 1.6.
  • Range: Operational strike range of 150-500 kilometres.
  • Weight: Approximately five tonnes.
  • Flight trajectory: Quasi-ballistic and low-altitude trajectory, allowing it to evade early detection.
  • Guidance: Equipped with an inertial navigation system and integrated avionics for high-precision targeting and real-time trajectory correction.
  • Launch platform: Can be fired from an 8x8 BEML Tatra Transporter Erector Launcher, providing mobility and rapid deployment capability. 
  • Defence penetration: The missile can manoeuvre mid-flight, oscillate during travel, and alter its trajectory to evade enemy interception systems.
  • Survivability and effectiveness: Designed to resist interception, deliver precision strikes on short- and medium-range targets, and enhance battlefield readiness.
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Significance

The MoD has already cleared orders for Pralay missiles for the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force (IAF). 

  • The missile fills the gap of a conventionally armed ballistic weapon system and remains unaffected by the 'no first use' nuclear policy. 
  • Flexible and precise strike option that can be deployed rapidly in response to evolving threats. Deployed with conventional warheads along the borders, the missile can target radar and communication installations, command and control centres, and advanced airfields.
  • Enhances India’s tactical deterrence capabilities, strengthens India's strategic posture and promotes greater self-reliance in advanced defence technologies.

The successful completion of the phase-1 flight tests marks a crucial step toward the missile’s eventual induction into the Armed Forces. 

SC questions Age Restriction for Surrogacy

Context: The Supreme Court has reserved its verdict in a group of petitions challenging the age cap for couples seeking to have a child through surrogacy. The petitioners are especially those couples who had started the surrogacy process before the enactment of the present legal framework for surrogacy.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021. Mains: Challenges In Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021. 

Surrogacy in India: Concept and Legal Provisions

  • Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 defines surrogacy as a practice where a woman gives birth to a child for an intending couple with the intention to hand over the child after the birth to the intending couple. 
  • Surrogacy can be classified into:
    • Altruistic surrogacy entails no financial compensation for the surrogate.
    • Commercial surrogacy involves paying the surrogate for bearing the child, implying a profit
    • Compensated surrogacy simply involves covering the incurred expenses and loss of wages.
  • The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021 and the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021, prescribe the legal framework for surrogacy.

About Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021

  • The Act prohibits commercial surrogacy, but allows altruistic surrogacy. 
  • Rationale: To prevent the commodification of reproductive labour and to impose procedural safeguards to ensure that surrogacy is used only in cases of medical necessity.
  • The Act permits surrogacy to: 
    • Intending couple who suffer from proven infertility (Intending woman must be between 23-50 years of age; fathers must be between 26 and 55).
    • Indian woman who is a widow or divorcee between the age of 35 to 45 years and who intends to avail the surrogacy.
  • Surrogacy clinics are prohibited from conducting surrogacy or any associated procedures unless they receive registration approval from the relevant authority.
  • The National Surrogacy Board (NSB) and State Surrogacy Boards (SSBs) shall be established by both the central and state governments, respectively.
  • For a surrogate mother to be eligible for a certificate from the appropriate authority:
    • she must have a familial relationship with the intending couple
    • not have served as a surrogate mother previously
    • possess a certificate confirming her medical and psychological health
    • be an ever-married woman having a child of her own, and be 25 to 35 years old.
  • The surrogate mother is not allowed to use her own eggs for the surrogacy process.
  • An order concerning the parentage and custody of the child to be born through surrogacy, has to be passed by a Magistrate's court.
  • Insurance coverage for a period of 36 months covering postpartum delivery complications for surrogate. 

Issue of Age Restriction on Surrogacy: 

In Devika Biswas v. Union of India, the Supreme Court held that Right to Reproduction is an essential facet of the ‘Right to Life’ under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.

  • The legal framework for surrogacy has a certain age limit for the married couple or single married widowed women intending to have a child through surrogacy. 
  • The petitioners argue that the age limit creates an unreasonable classification:
    • violating Article 14 of the Constitution. 
    • interferes with reproductive autonomy which has been recognised as an aspect of personal liberty under Article 21.

The government has defended the age restrictions on grounds of medical safety, citing that the statutory age caps are based on recommendations from medical experts, and align with practices in reproductive health. The argument is that: 

  • Surrogacy age limits align with natural reproductive timelines and are necessary for protecting the welfare of the child.
  • Advanced parental age influences both an unborn child’s health through genetic and epigenetic changes, and also the filial love that a child requires for 20 years of their life.

Challenges In Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021: 

  • Exclusionary: The provisions deny this opportunity to LGBTQ+ persons, live-in couples, unmarried women and single parents. The definition of single women excluding unmarried women is arbitrary and violative of Articles 14 and 21 of the Constitution.
  • Altruistic surrogacy is Paternalistic: It expects a woman to go through the physical and emotional tolls of surrogacy free of cost and only out of ‘compassion’. Thus reinforcing the age old patriarchal norm of no economic value to the women’s work. 
  • It does not respect the bodily autonomy of women: By shifting from right based to need based approach, it snatches away the right of a woman to decide upon her reproductive choices. Further, it is violative of her fundamental rights under Articles 14 (right to equality) and 21 (right to life) of the Constitution. 
  • Impetus to black marketing: Blanket ban on commercial surrogacy may lead to creation of unregulated, exploitative underground/black markets.
  • Does not define close relative: The Act does not define ‘close relative’, which is a condition to be fulfilled by the surrogate mother. Thus, scope for confusion and exploitation of loop holes is always there.
  • Reproductive liberty to the couples: Several restrictions in form of eligibility criteria etc. restrict the surrogacy option to intending couples, which is a denial of reproductive liberty to them.
  • No power to make a decision on abortion: The Intending couple does not have final say in the consent to abort a surrogate child, even if the child being born out of a surrogacy arrangement is at the risk of physical or mental abnormalities. 
  • Identity and emotional aspect: Several times couples do not want to reveal their plans of opting for surrogacy, now putting the condition of close relative to be a surrogate clearly ignores this aspect and restricts the choices. Further, familial bonds and interaction may involve high emotional complications between surrogate mother and intended parents.
  • Definition of infertility: Infertility is restricted to failure to conceive, does not cover other issues that a woman may face in delivering a child. 

Way Forward

  • The government should remove the time limit for IVF treatment before permitting surrogacy, taking into consideration medical circumstances and concerns that deter some women from childbirth.
  • The issue of postpartum depression should be addressed by implementing provisions for its management, and maternal benefits should be accessible to all mothers.
  • The government should provide a clear definition of close relative and infertility.
  • With appropriate safeguards, expanding the surrogacy sector to include commercial surrogacy will benefit individuals who long for the experience of parenthood.
  • The government should include live-in couples, unmarried women, and single parents in this Act, as Right to Reproduction is a fundamental right.