Prelims Nuggets

Kudavolai System: Chola Ballot Pots 

Context: In a recent address at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the Prime Minister of India highlighted Chola empire's indigenous democratic tradition, contrasting it with the often-cited Magna Carta of 1215 CE in Britain.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About Chola Empire, Kudavolai System.

Mains: Features, relevance, and limitations of Cholas governance system.

Chola Empire

  • The Chola Empire (9th to 13th centuries CE) is one of the longest-ruling dynasties in South India. It is known for its maritime power, temple architecture, and democratic administrative systems. 
  • Long before the enlightenment in Europe birthed the ideals of representative governance, the Cholas had rules for local self-rule, literally inscribed into stone. 

Chola Democratic System

  • The Chola model of statecraft relied heavily on decentralised administrative systems. It was built on two core village-level institutions:
    • Sabha: Found in Brahmadeya villages (settlements gifted to Brahmins). Composed exclusively of Brahmin male members. Functioned through various committees (variyams) like garden committee, tank committee, justice committee, etc. Selection to these committees was often through the Kudavolai system.
    • Ur: For non-Brahmin villages. Peasant (Vellvangai) settlements were called Ur. Landholders of Ur (peasant village) acted as members of assembly Urar. Urar were entrusted with upkeep of temples, maintenance of tanks and managing water, and oversaw administrative functions like collection of revenue, maintenance of law & order. Less formal structure than Sabha, but still crucial to village-level decentralisation.
  • These were not symbolic councils, but functioning elected bodies with substantial powers over revenue, irrigation, temple management, and even justice.
  • The ‘Uttaramerur Inscription’ issued by Prantaka Chola offers detailed information about the world’s earliest surviving evidence of a formal electoral system called Kudavolai System.

Kudavolai System: Ballot Pot Elections

  • The Kudavolai system, meaning “ballot pot”, was an early electoral method used in Chola village assemblies.
  • Under this method:  
    • The names of eligible candidates were inscribed on palm leaves and placed inside a pot. 
    • A young boy, typically chosen for his impartiality, would draw the lot in full public view. 
    • The selected individual would assume a position in the village assembly.
  • This randomised draw was not a game of chance, but a civic ritual rooted in transparency, fairness, and collective consent. 
  • To ensure that power was not monopolised by dynastic elites, eligibility criteria under the system were strict. 

Eligibility & Disqualification Criteria:

  • Candidates had to own tax-paying land, be between 35 and 70 years old,
  • Possess knowledge of Vedic texts or administration, and 
  • Have no record of crime or domestic abuse. 
  • Debt defaulters, alcoholics, and close relatives of sitting members were disqualified. 

Accountability Mechanism

  • Annual audits were mandatory.
  • Misappropriation of funds or dereliction of duty could lead to disqualification from future office, a radical mechanism even by modern standards.
  • Inscription no. 24 from Epigraphia Indica details the dismissal of a treasury officer over embezzlement, followed by a fine.
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Trade:

  • By empowering merchant guilds such as the Manigramam and Ayyavole, and sustaining local assemblies, the Cholas expanded both trade and legitimacy. 

Limitation of Cholas Administration:

  • However, the Chola system was far from egalitarian in the modern sense. It excluded women, labourers, and landless groups. 

Also Read: Imperial Chola 

SC panel proposes power corridors through Great Indian Bustard habitat

Context: The Supreme Court panel has proposed power corridors to reroute overhead power lines in Bustard habitats in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The idea behind creating power corridors is to ensure that birds, especially in high-risk habitats are not forced to repeatedly navigate through a maze of criss-crossing power lines.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Great Indian Bustard. 

Great Indian Bustard

  • A large bird of the bustard family, it is one of the heaviest flying birds in the world.
  • Physical characteristics and behaviour:
    • Black crown on the forehead contrasting with the pale neck and head. 
    • The body is brownish and the wings are marked with black, brown and grey. 
    • Males and females generally grow to the same height and weight but males have larger black crowns and a black band across the breast. 
    • They breed mostly during the monsoon season when females lay a single egg on open ground. 
    • Males play no role in the incubation and care of the young, which remain with the mother till the next breeding season.
    • They feed on grass seeds, insects like grasshoppers and beetles, and sometimes even small rodents and reptiles.
  • Habitat: 
    • Bustards generally favour flat open landscapes with minimal visual obstruction and disturbance, therefore adapt well in grasslands. 
    • They avoid grasses taller than themselves and dense scrub like thickets.
  • Distribution: Its population is confined mostly to Rajasthan and Gujarat. Small populations occur in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
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Threats

The estimated population of the large bird- once considered a candidate for national bird- is below 150. 

  • Owing to its poor vision, the GIB is at high risk of injury and death due to collisions with high tension electric wires. 
  • Hunting and Occasional poaching for eggs outside Protected Areas 
  • Fast moving vehicles 
  • Free-ranging dogs in villages. 
  • Habitat loss and alteration as a result of widespread agricultural expansion and mechanised farming.
  • Infrastructural development such as irrigation, roads, electric poles, as well as mining and industrialisation.

Conservation Status:

  • IUCN Status: Critically Endangered
  • Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule I 
  • CITES: Appendix-I 
  • Declared as the state bird of Rajasthan. 

Conservation Efforts by Government of India

  • Listed in Schedule-I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, thereby accorded the highest degree of legal protection from hunting.
  • Important habitats of Great Indian Bustards are designated as National Parks/ sanctuaries for their better protection.
  • Identified for conservation efforts under the component ‘Species Recovery Programme’ of the Centrally Sponsored Scheme- Development of Wildlife Habitats. 
  • Conservation breeding has been undertaken in collaboration with Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra Forest Departments with technical support of Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.
  • A satellite conservation breeding facility has been established at Sam, Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.

Mangroves and role of M.S Swaminathan in Mangroves Conservation

Context: July 26 is observed as the International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem. At the national level, M.S. Swaminathan was instrumental in revolutionising India's management of Mangroves.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Mangroves.

Mains: Significance of Mangroves and role of M.S Swaminathan in Mangroves Conservation.

What are Mangroves ?

  • Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that grow in intertidal coastal zones, where the land meets the sea, especially in tropical and subtropical regions.

Key Features of Mangroves:

  • Halophytes: They thrive in salty brackish water.
  • Aerial Roots (Pneumatophores): Help in breathing in oxygen-poor (anaerobic) soil.
  • Vivipary: Seeds germinate while still on the parent tree- a unique adaptation.
  • Buttress and Prop Roots: Provide stability in loose, waterlogged soils.
  • Habitat: Found in estuaries, lagoons, backwaters, and river deltas.

Ecological Importance:

  • Coastal Protection: Act as natural barriers against tsunamis, cyclones, storm surges, and erosion.
  • Carbon Sink: Store large amounts of carbon- called "blue carbon".
  • Biodiversity Hotspots: Provide breeding grounds for fish, crabs, mollusks, and migratory birds.
  • Water Purification : Filter sediments and pollutants from water flowing to the sea.

Mangroves in India

  • According to the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023, the total mangrove cover in India is 4,991.68 sq. km, which constitutes 0.15% of the country’s total geographical area.
  • Compared to ISFR 2019, there has been a net increase of 16.68 sq. km in mangrove cover across India.
  • Mangroves are known by different local names across various regions of India: Sundari Forest in West Bengal, Tivar Forest in Gujarat, Kandal Forests in Kerala etc.  
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Contribution of M.S Swaminathan in Mangroves Conservation

M.S Swaminathan played a pivotal role in mangrove restoration, conservation and management. 

  • Highlighted mangroves as a key solution to rising sea levels and cyclones at a Tokyo conference on climate change, at the climate change and Human Responses Conference in Tokyo in 1989.
  • Proposed sustainable mangrove management as a climate adaptation measure, rooted in:
    • Ecology- preserving coastal ecosystems
    • Economics- protecting livelihoods
    • Equity- involving local communities
  • Proposed using mangrove genes to develop salt-tolerant crops like rice.
  • Co-founded the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) and served as its first president (1990-93). ISME conducts assessment of economic and environmental values of mangrove forests, organises workshops on mangrove conservation and sustainable utilization, public World Mangrove Atlas.
  • Co-created the Charter for Mangroves and included it in the World Charter for Nature, prepared by the United Nations conference on Environment and Degradation. 
  • Supported creation of the Global Mangrove Database and Information System (GLOMIS) to document mangrove experts, research, and species.
  • Guided the evaluation of 23 mangrove sites across nine countries, leading to a global network of Mangrove Genetic Resource Centres.

Revolutionised India's Management of Mangroves: 

  • Moved attention from blaming local communities to identifying ecological causes of mangrove degradation, instead highlighted clear-felling and altered bio-physical conditions as the real cause of mangrove degradation.
  • Introduced the fishbone canal method, a hydro-ecological technique successfully tested in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal. This technique is used to artificially inundate areas that do not get regular tidal inundation.
  • Advocated for Joint Mangrove Management (JMM) involving local communities and State Forest Departments, 
  • His efforts led to increased government investments in mangrove conservation, especially after the 1999 Odisha cyclone and 2004 tsunami.

PARAM-1: India’s Foundational LLM 

Context: In July 2025, the government-backed BharatGen released PARAM-1, a bilingual Large Language Model (LLM) built from scratch to reflect India’s linguistic and cultural realities, focusing on Hindi and English.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Features of PARAM-1.

Foundational AI

  • Foundational AI: Large-scale AI models trained on very large datasets and over which numerous specific applications can be built, including generative AI. 
  • Large Language Models (LLMs) are a type of Foundational AI model trained with vast datasets with at least one billion or more parameters. E.g., AI-powered tools like ChatGPT, Gemini, Perplexity, DeepSeek, Grok. 
  • Small Language Models (SLMs) are compact AI systems typically having fewer than 1 billion parameters (ranges from millions to a few billion parameters). Cheaper to run and maintain, and ideal for specific use cases. 

In its mission to build open source Large Language Models (LLMs) for Indian researchers and developers, BharatGen, the government-backed AI Initiative, has released a LLM called PARAM-1.

About PARAM-1 

  • PARAM-1 is a 2.9-billion parameter bilingual foundational AI model developed by the BharatGen team. 
  • It reflects India’s linguistic and cultural realities- with 25% of its training data in Hindi and the rest in carefully curated English. 

Key Features: 

  • Bilingual focus: Trained in Hindi and English, incorporating government documents, literary works, educational and community content.
  • Script-aware Tokeniser: 
    • Tokeniser is the first step in how a language model processes text. It breaks sentences into smaller units, or tokens, which the model can interpret.
    • Standard tokenisers (built for English) perform poorly on Indian scripts, splitting words into too many fragments. 
    • PARAM-1 addresses this with a script-aware tokeniser that recognises Hindi and other Indic scripts, creating fewer and more meaningful tokens. This improves both accuracy and efficiency.
  • Three-phase training focuses on language fluency, factual consistency, and long-context understanding. This allows the model to gradually develop fluency, retain factual information, and improve performance on tasks that require reading and reasoning over longer texts.
  • India-centric evaluation: Tested on Indian benchmarks like MILU (competitive exam questions) and SANSKRITI (cultural knowledge), besides global ones like MMLU and ARC.

Limitations:

  • Currently supports only Hindi and English, excluding India’s wider linguistic diversity. Raises concerns over the model’s inclusivity, especially in a country where linguistic identity often intersects with regional politics and access to services.

Molecular Imaging: Caltech’s Angstrom-Scale Microscope 

Context: Scientists at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) have developed a breakthrough imaging technique that enables real-time filming of Brownian motion (molecular motions). This imaging technique indirectly detects molecules by observing their interactions with light and tapping into Brownian motion. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Basic idea about working of Microscope; Brownian motion; Applications of high-resolution Molecular Imaging. 

Conventional Microscope

  • Conventional light microscopes work by using visible light to magnify and resolve small objects or structures. 
  • Limitations: 
    • Conventional microscopes are invasive (disturb or damage the sample being studied) either physically, chemically, or by introducing heat or radiation. 
    • Have limited fields of view. They can not distinguish individual molecules, which are around tens of Angstroms in size (1 Angstrom = 0.0000000001 m). 

Brownian Motion: 

  • Brownian motion is the random movement of particles in a fluid (liquid or air) due to their collisions with other atoms or molecules. The more massive a particle, the slower its Brownian motion. 
  • Examples of Brownian Motion include:
    • The motion of pollen grains on still water
    • Movement of dust motes in a room (although largely affected by air currents)
    • Diffusion of pollutants in the air
    • Diffusion of calcium through bones
    • Movement of "holes" of electrical charge in semiconductors.
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Breakthrough Imaging Technique

  • The breakthrough imaging technique utilises Brownian motion, ultrafast lasers, and light-matter interaction to indirectly detect and visualise molecular behaviour by observing their interactions with light. 
  • Their technique taps into the Brownian motion of particles. By measuring how fast a molecule changes the properties of light, researchers could determine its size. 
    • The more massive a particle, the slower its Brownian motion. 
    • Small molecules spin fast and disturb the light more than larger ones. This fact allows the size estimation of molecules by observing their interaction with light. 
  • Benefits of the Microscope: Non-invasive; Can help visualise molecular sizes in real-time at the Angstrom scale (higher resolution). No existing technique till date has achieved this level of detail.
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Significance: This new imaging technique could help better visualise processes and transform biomedical research, disease detection, drug design, and nanomaterial fabrication. 

Applications of high-resolution Molecular Imaging:

  • Early detection of diseases (like cancer, cardiovascular, neurodegenerative) by visualising specific biomarkers associated with disease progression. 
  • Drug design and targeted drug delivery: Help researchers visualise delivery of drugs to specific tissues or cells, and optimise the design of nanocarriers for improved therapeutic outcomes.
  • Efficient electronics: Observing the movement of electrons, and manipulating it to design more efficient electronic devices.
  • Nanomaterial fabrication: Helps understand molecular processes in nanomaterial synthesis. 

Also Read: Nobel Prize in Physics for Attosecond Physics 

2nd BIMSTEC Ports Conclave 

Context: India hosted the 2nd BIMSTEC Ports Conclave in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh on 14-15 July 2025.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About BIMSTEC and BIMSTEC Ports Conclave.

BIMSTEC Ports Conclave

  • India hosted the 2nd BIMSTEC Ports Conclave in Visakhapatnam.
  • Organised recently by Visakhapatnam Port Authority (VPA).
  • Aim: To operationalise the recently signed BIMSTEC Agreement on Maritime Transport Cooperation (AMTC), facilitate dialogue on port-led development, and foster deeper integration in maritime trade, logistics, cruise tourism, and skill development. 
  • Theme: Navigating the Future- Blue Economy, Innovation and Sustainable Partnerships.

Key Highlights of the Conclave: 

Member countries pushed for greater collaboration between the members of the grouping.

  • In line with India’s ‘Neighbourhood First’ policy, the participants were in agreement on the need for deeper BIMSTEC collaboration in port-led growth, digital integration, and skill development to unlock regional prosperity.
  • Call to make the BIMSTEC maritime economy more innovative and inclusive. Despite the grouping’s 1.7 billion population and a combined GDP of $4.5 trillion, its intra-regional trade stands at just 7%, as against 25% in the ASEAN maritime zone.
  • Industry and government representatives called for:
    • Unifying digital port platforms for seamless tracking and trade 
    • Creation of a regional skill certification framework for maritime professionals
    • Promotion of coastal shipping and cruise tourism circuits to boost connectivity and culture.
  • The Union Minister for Ports, Shipping and Waterways urged the member countries to ratify and implement the recently inked BIMSTEC Agreement on Maritime Transport Cooperation (AMTC).

BIMSTEC Agreement on Maritime Transport Cooperation (AMTC):

  • AMTC was signed during the 6th BIMSTEC Summit held in Bangkok, Thailand (April 2025).
  • The agreement seeks to facilitate dialogue on port-led development and foster greater integration of maritime trade, logistics, cruise tourism, and skill development.

Key initiatives:  

The conclave also hammered out key initiatives, including : 

  • Regional collaboration through the Kaladan corridor linking northeast India with Myanmar,
  • A BIMSTEC cruise tourism circuit.
  • Launch of a real-time maritime dashboard for regional project tracking.
  • Leveraging public-private partnerships to build world-class port and logistics infrastructure.

Significance of BIMSTEC Ports Conclave

  • Strategic Connectivity Boost: Strengthens multimodal links like the Kaladan project, enhancing access to India’s Northeast and deepening India-ASEAN connectivity.
  • Maritime Trade & Blue Economy: Supports India's SAGAR vision by fostering regional maritime trade, cruise tourism, and port-led development.
  • Geopolitical Leverage: Enhances India’s leadership role in the Bay of Bengal amidst growing Chinese influence in the Indo-Pacific.
  • Digital and Skill Diplomacy: Promotes digital port integration and regional skilling, aligning with India’s push for innovation and capacity-building in neighbourhood diplomacy. 
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About BIMSTEC

  • BIMSTEC stands for Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation.
  • Established: 1997 through Bangkok Declaration.
  • Members: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand.  
  • Objective: To promote regional cooperation in areas like trade, technology, transport, energy, tourism, fisheries, and security.
  • Permanent Secretariat: Dhaka, Bangladesh
  • BIMSTEC constitutes a unique link between South and South-East Asia, with:
    • five members from South Asia (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka) 
    • two from South-East Asia (Myanmar and Thailand).

States cannot demand Delimitation claiming parity with J&K: SC 

Context: The Supreme Court dismissed a petition seeking the Delimitation of Assembly Constituencies in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana on grounds of parity with the recent delimitation exercise in Jammu and Kashmir (2022). 

Relevance of the topic : Prelims : Article 170(3), Delimitation process and legal provisions

What is Delimitation Exercise?

  • Delimitation refers to the process of redrawing the boundaries of constituencies or electoral areas. This ensures that each constituency has a roughly equal number of voters, based on the principle of ‘one vote, one value’.
  • The Constitution under Article 82 mandates delimitation after each census to readjust the seats as per changes in population. (Article 82 for Lok Sabha and Article 170 for State Legislative Assemblies).
  • After each census, a readjustment is to be made in: 
    • allocation of seats in the Lok Sabha to the States
    • division of each State into territorial constituencies.
  • Such an exercise was carried out after the 1951, 1961 and 1971 Census.
  • The 42nd Constitution Amendment Act, 1976 put the delimitation exercise on freeze for 25 years until the 2001 Census to encourage population-limiting measures. 
  • Further, 84th Amendment Act, 2001 put on hold the delimitation exercise again until the first Census after 2026.

The Supreme Court rejected the petition as Article 170 (3) imposes a freeze on delimitation of State Legislative Assembly seats until the first Census after 2026. 

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What Article 170 (3) says?

Article 170 deals with the composition of Legislative Assemblies. 

  • Article 170 (1): Subject to the provisions of Article 333, the Legislative Assembly of each State shall consist of not more than 500, and not less than 60 members chosen by direct election from territorial constituencies in the State.
  • Article 170 (2): 
    • Each State must be divided into territorial constituencies in such a way that the population per seat is roughly equal across the State. This division is based on the most recent census for which final figures have been published.
    • Until the figures of the first post-2026 census figures are published, the term “last census” will mean the 2001 Census. (84th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2001) 
  • Article 170 (3): Until the relevant figures for the first Census taken after the year 2026 have been published, it shall not be necessary to readjust:
    • Total number of seats in the Legislative Assembly of each State as fixed by the Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 1976; and
    • Division of each State into territorial constituencies as made by that Order.
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Why was Delimitation allowed in Jammu & Kashmir ? 

  • Jammu & Kashmir became a Union Territory in 2019 after the abrogation of Article 370. As a Union Territory, it is not bound by the freeze under Article 170(3).
  • The delimitation exercise in 2022 was based on the 2011 Census, following the Jammu & Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019.

The Supreme Court also held that:  

  • Allowing delimitation for Andhra Pradesh and Telangana through a judicial dictum would foster discontent among other States and breed inequality.
  • Granting such a relief would prompt unabated challenges from other similarly situated regions. In particular, the four NorthEastern States- Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, and Nagaland, which were expressly excluded from the scope of delimitation by way of a Central notification in 2021.

Also Read: Delimitation and concerns of South Indian States 

Ministry blocks 25 OTT platforms over ‘Obscene Content’

Context: The Information & Broadcasting Ministry has directed the blocking of websites and Apps of 25 OTT platforms for allegedly carrying obscene, vulgar, and in some cases, pornographic content.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Information Technology Act, 2000, and the IT Rules, 2021. 

Ministry blocks OTT platforms over Obscene content

  • The Information & Broadcasting Ministry has directed the blocking of websites and Apps of 25 OTT platforms for allegedly carrying obscene, vulgar, and in some cases, pornographic content.
  • Utilising the provisions of the Information Technology Act, 2000 and the IT Rules, 2021, notifications have been issued to various intermediaries to ensure that access to these sites and Apps is disabled.
  • The content hosted on these platforms was found to be in violation of: 
    • Section 67 of the IT Act, 2000; Section 67A of the IT Act, 2000
    • Section 292 of the Indian Penal Code  
    • Section 4 of the Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986. 
  • The government had received multiple public grievances against these platforms, including the references from the National Commission on Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) about content on platforms Ullu and ALTT. 

Legal Basis of the Ban: 

  • Section 69A of IT Act, 2000 empowers the government to block public access to any online information (block content on internet) in the interest of: (i) interest of sovereignty and integrity of India, (ii) defence of India, (iii) Security of the State, (iv) friendly relations with foreign States, (v) public order, (vi) for preventing incitement to the commission of any cognizable offense relating to above.
    • Criticism: The law does not have “decency and morality” as grounds for blocking information. 

Legal Provisions on Obscenity in India: 

  • Section 67 of the Information Technology Act, 2000: An offence is committed by a person who publishes or transmits any material which is lascivious or appeals to the prurient interest.
  • Section 67A of the Information Technology Act, 2000: Punishment for publishing or transmitting material containing sexually explicit acts, etc. in electronic form.
  • Article 19(2) of Indian Constitution: Allows the State to impose reasonable restrictions on freedom of speech and expression for reasons like- security of the state, public order, morality, etc. It provides constitutional backing to Section 69A of the IT Act, 2000. 
  • Sections 292 and 294 of the Indian Penal Code contemplate the selling, letting on hire, distribution or public exhibition of obscene matter. 
  • Section 4 of the Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986: Prohibition of publication or sending by post of books, pamphlets, etc., containing indecent representation of women. 
  • IT Rules, 2021 (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Mandates OTT platforms to:
    • Self-classify content into age-based categories
    • Set up Grievance Redressal Mechanisms
    • Adhere to a Code of Ethics. 

Also Read: What does Indian Law say about Obscenity? 

ICJ's Climate Ruling and its Significance 

Context: Recently the International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivered a landmark advisory opinion in response to a 2022 UN General Assembly resolution led by Vanuatu. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About ICJ and its ruling on Climate obligations.

Mains: Significance of ICJ ruling on Climate obligations.

The International Court of Justice held that: 

  • Climate action was not a matter of choice or preference, but a legal obligation. The countries are under a legal obligation to take steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and could be held liable to pay compensation, if they failed to do so.
  • Rich and industrialised countries in Annexure I of the UNFCCC have an obligation to take the lead on emissions reduction, and facilitate technology and financial transfers to developing countries.
  • Failure to fulfil climate obligations may be deemed an internationally wrongful act, which could have legal consequences, including the liability to provide full reparation to countries that suffer on account of climate disasters, or other impacts of climate change.
  • Countries could be held liable even for the irresponsible actions of private businesses or corporations, if they had failed to exercise due diligence and not taken adequate regulatory or legislative measures to prevent the irresponsible behaviour of private actors.

The ruling is an advisory opinion, not a binding judgment. It does not impose immediate legal consequences on any country. Nonetheless, it can have significant implications for the global fight against climate change.

Significance of the Ruling:  

  • Though non-binding, the ruling is the most authoritative interpretation of international climate law, and will likely guide national and international courts.
  • It declares that climate commitments under treaties like the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement are legal obligations, not just policy choices. The ruling puts the spotlight back on climate change, amid stalled global progress and missed 2030 emission reduction targets.
  • The ICJ recognises the right of climate-affected countries to seek full reparation, not just compensation.
  • Endorsed the concept of loss and damage in climate laws, calling upon developed countries to take the lead in raising financial and other support to help countries recover from impacts of climate change. 
  • By asserting that climate action must be sufficient in scale, the ruling contrasts with the Paris Agreement’s “self-determined” approach to climate targets.
  • Enhances the negotiating strength of developing nations by legally framing the responsibility of richer countries. The ruling may trigger lawsuits by developing nations, and against corporate polluters for climate damages.

Every SC/ST Complaint must lead to FIR without Preliminary Inquiry: Madras HC

Context: Recently, the Madras High Court has ruled that the police cannot conduct preliminary inquiry on receipt of complaints disclosing cognisable offences under the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act of 1989. Police should straightaway register First Information Reports (FIRs) against the suspects.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About Madras HC ruling and key Provisions of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.

Mains: Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 Provisions and issues in Implementation. 

In a significant verdict, the Madras High Court has held that : 

  • The police must immediately register an FIR upon receiving complaints that disclose cognizable offences under the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, without conducting any preliminary inquiry.  
  • The court cited Section 18A(1)(a) of the SC/ST Act (inserted via 2018 Amendment) which states:  No preliminary inquiry shall be required for registration of an FIR against any person under this Act.
  • The court reinforced that As per Rule 7(1) of the SC/ST Rules 1995, only officers not below the rank of Deputy Superintendent of Police (DSP) are authorised to investigate.
  • Directed that the chargesheet must be filed within 60 days of FIR registration to ensure timely justice.
  • The Judge directed the Director-General of Police/ Head of Police Force to communicate a copy of his order to all Commissioners as well as Superintendents of Police in the State to ensure compliance with legal procedures in SC/ST cases.

SC and STs (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989

  • Enacted to prevent atrocities and hate crimes against Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
  • Aim: To provide protection, justice, and rehabilitation to victims of caste-based violence and discrimination. 
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Key Provisions of SC and STs (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989: 

  • Criminalises caste-based atrocities against members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
  • Includes acts like social boycott, denial of access to public spaces, forced labor, sexual abuse, and humiliation.
  • Does not cover offenses between SCs and STs themselves.
  • Most offences under the Act are cognizable and non-bailable.
  • Mandates establishment of exclusive Special Courts for speedy trial of cases.
  • Provides for relief, compensation, and rehabilitation of victims.
  • Burden of proof may shift to the accused in certain cases (reverse burden of proof).
  • Section 18: Bars anticipatory bail for accused under the Act (unless quashed by courts in exceptional cases).
  • Section 18A (Inserted in 2018): No preliminary inquiry required before FIR. No prior sanction needed for arrest of public servants. 
  • Rule 7 of SC/ST Rules, 1995: Investigation must be conducted by a police officer not below the rank of Deputy Superintendent of Police (DSP).
  • Charge sheet must be filed within 60 days from FIR registration.

Issues in Implementation:  

  • Police continue to conduct preliminary inquiries before registering FIRs, despite Section 18A(1)(a) prohibiting it.
  • Inquiries are often conducted by officers below the rank of DSP, violating Rule 7(1) of the SC/ST Rules, 1995.
  • Police frequently delay or avoid FIR registration, misusing discretion and undermining victims’ rights.
  • Regular procedural non-compliance hampers justice delivery and weakens cases.
  • Final reports/chargesheets are not filed within the mandated 60-day period, defeating the objective of speedy justice.

Also Read: National Commission of Scheduled Caste

Special Intensive Revision in Bihar: Legal Basis and Criticism 

Context: The Election Commission of India (ECI) filed a counter affidavit in the Supreme Court in response to the writ petition challenging the constitutionality of the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) exercise, currently underway in Bihar. 

ECI has defended its authority to require electors to prove citizenship through fresh documentation as part of the SIR exercise. In Bihar, the last SIR was held in 2003.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Special Intensive Revision (SIR) and its legal basis.  Mains: Issues with SIR.  

What is the SIR (Special Intensive Revision)?

  • A process initiated by the ECI to revise and verify electoral rolls.
  • Aim: To ensure that the voter list is accurate, inclusive, and free from discrepancies by allowing new registration, deletions, and modifications.
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Legal Basis: 

  • Article 326: Mandates that only Indian citizens can be registered as Voters. ECI asserted that it has the authority to require individuals to submit relevant documents to prove citizenship and eligibility under Article 326.
  • Article 324 vests the ECI with the power to supervise and control the preparation of electoral rolls and conduct of Elections. 
  • Section 21 of the Representation of the People (RP) Act empowers the Election Commission (EC) to undertake a special revision of electoral rolls at any time, citing reasons in writing.
  • Section 15 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950 mandates the preparation of electoral rolls “under the superintendence, direction and control” of the ECI, Representation of the People Act, 1950 (RPA). 
  • Registration of Electors Rules, 1960: Permit summary and intensive revisions.

However, the term “intensive” is not mentioned in the Representation of the People Act, and the rules do not define it clearly, raising questions about the statutory backing of the SIR. 

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Key Issues and Criticism

  • Burden of Proof on Electors: 
    • SIR shifts the burden of proving citizenship onto all existing electors, despite their prior registration through due process. 
    • A complaint-based mechanism already exists to delete non-citizens, but the ECI has provided no data showing its failure due to large-scale inclusion errors. In absence of such evidence, the ECI’s claim that only SIR-based entries are authentic is unsubstantiated and legally weak.
  • Weak Statutory Basis: The Representation of the People Act, 1950 makes no distinction between electors added through summary or intensive revisions. The term “intensive” is absent from the Act and lacks a clear definition even in the 1960 Rules. Thus, the legal foundation of SIR is vague, raising concerns over its legitimacy and enforceability.
  • Arbitrary Privileging of 2003 Electoral Roll: 
    • ECI rejects EPIC as proof of citizenship but exempts electors in 2003 rolls and their children from furnishing documents, relying only on name extract. This contradiction is legally questionable, especially when no proof of house-to-house verification or deletions of illegal migrants in 2003 is provided.
    • Absence of 2003 SIR guidelines in the affidavit further weakens the claim, making the preferential treatment of 2003 entries arbitrary and unverified.
  • Questionable use of NRC-Based Citizenship Criteria: 
    • SIR 2025 applies citizenship verification norms from the CAA 2003, requiring extensive documentary proof (birth details of voter and parents). However, the constitutionality of CAA 2003 is still under Supreme Court review, and NRC, which the law envisaged, has not been implemented anywhere except Assam.
    • Rules under CAA 2003 were notified even before the Act was passed, casting doubt on their legality. Even the Registrar General of India has not ordered NRC initiation.
    • Hence, ECI lacks legal authority to enforce NRC-based citizenship tests via SIR in Bihar.
  • Arbitrary Exclusion of Aadhaar and Ration Cards as Eligibility Documents: 
    • ECI rejected Aadhaar as proof of citizenship, despite voluntarily collecting Aadhaar numbers in SIR 2025 forms. This is inconsistent, especially since ECI has no statutory mandate to test citizenship.
    • Ration cards were excluded citing the prevalence of forgeries, but no similar objection was raised against residence certificates, despite over 13.89 crore certificates issued in Bihar (2011-2025), far more than the state's total population.
  • Transparency Concerns:
    • The ECI’s counter-affidavit claims that over 90% of Bihar’s 7.89 crore electors have already submitted enumeration forms under the SIR exercise. However, the affidavit does not reveal how many of those forms were submitted with the required documents.
    • It admits that forms submitted “with or without documents” will be included in the draft electoral roll, to be published on August 1, 2025. Document verification has been postponed, and scrutiny by electoral registration officers will only happen after the draft is published. 
  • Operational & Implementation Issues in SIR:
    • Till 22 July around 21.35 lakh (2.7%) electors were yet to receive and submit their enumeration forms. As of July 24, around 7 lakh electors (0.9%) had not submitted enumeration forms.
    • Major political parties of Bihar were requested by the ECI to connect with the remaining electors, through their functionaries and booth level agents. 
    • Inability of the ECI in ensuring 100 % coverage through its own machinery of booth level officers (BLOs) and volunteers further exposes the impracticality of the SIR schedule.
  • Unverified Mass Exclusions: 
    • Over 53 lakh electors (6.7%) were not found at their addresses, including 21.6 lakh deceased and 31.5 lakh migrated voters.
  • The absence of constituency-wise data and pending verification raises concerns about error-prone deletions that may disproportionately affect certain demographics and constituencies. 

Also Read: Why are Bihar’s Electoral Rolls being revised?

Kanwar Yatra 

Context: Recently, the Kanwar Yatra was observed during Hindu month of Shravan. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Kanwar Yatra.

What is the Kanwar Yatra?

  • The Kanwar Yatra is an annual pilgrimage undertaken by devotees of Lord Shiva, mostly during the Hindu month of Shravan (Saavan).
  • Pilgrims, called Kanwariyas, carry water from the holy river Ganga in decorated slings called kanwars, walking to offer it at Shiva temples.

Mythological Roots: Why Ganga Water?

  • During the churning of the ocean (Samudra Manthan), a deadly poison (halahal) emerged.
  • To protect the universe, Lord Shiva drank the poison, which turned his throat blue, hence the name Neelkantha. To soothe the burning poison, Ganga water was offered to Shiva.
  • Since, this event occurred in the month of Shravan, offering Ganga water to Shiva during this month is considered highly auspicious.

Despite its mythological links, the Kanwar Yatra in its current mass form is relatively recent. It is not mentioned in major ancient texts or British-era records.

Scholarly analysis suggests that it originated in 1700s Bihar (Sultanganj) and gradually spread across North India.

Where do Pilgrims go?

  • Sources of Ganga water: Haridwar, Gangotri, Gaumukh (Uttarakhand), Sultanganj (Bihar), Varanasi, Prayagraj, Ayodhya.
  • Shiva temples: Offerings can be made at any local Shiva temple, though famous destinations include:
    • 12 Jyotirlingas
    • Baidyanath Dham (Deoghar)
    • Kashi Vishwanath (Varanasi)
    • Pura Mahadev (Baghpat)
    • Augharnath Temple (Meerut)

Why the Rapid Growth?

The popularity of the Yatra received a major boost in the 1980s. Scholars have linked it to following factors: 

  • Improved connectivity and infrastructure made long pilgrimages easier.
  • Hindu Identity Assertion 
  • Rising Incomes in North India 

Sociological Significance: The Kanwar Yatra helps blur rigid caste boundaries by fostering shared religious participation and community bonding across social hierarchies.