Context: Recently, the Assam Cabinet decided to name a new Guwahati flyover after Prithu, a 13th-century Kamrup ruler, as a symbol of Assam’s historic resistance to foreign invasions.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Prithu: 13th-century Kamrup ruler.
King Prithu of Kamrup
King Prithu, also referred to as Raja Prithu Rae, was a 13th-century king of the Kamarupa kingdom, which corresponds to modern-day Assam.
He belonged to the Khen dynasty, who drew their lineage from Narakasura. They worshipped Kamteswari, an incarnation of Hindu Goddess Durga. Khen were probably local chieftains who rose to power after the fall of the Pala Dynasty.
He has not been featured prominently in mainstream historiography, but local lore, inscriptions, and regional narratives elevate him as a heroic defender of the region.
He is remembered for defeating the invading army of Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1206 CE.
Prithu has gained renewed recognition in recent decades, largely due to the efforts of historian Raktim Patar who wrote Maharaja Prithu: The Unsung Warrior King Who Annihilated Bakhtiyar Khalji in 2021.
He also defeated Hisan Uddin Iwaz (Delhi Sultan Ghiassuddin), noted British civil servant Wolseley Haig in The Cambridge History of India, Volume III.
Prithu and Bakhtiyar Khilji’s Invasion:
Bakhtiyar Khilji, a general under Muhammad of Ghor, was one of the earliest Turko-Afghan commanders who attempted to expand Islamic rule into eastern India.
In 1205-1206, following his destructive raid on Nalanda and Bengal, Bakhtiyar Khilji aimed to expand his conquests into Tibet through Kamrupa.
The campaign ended in disaster, Khilji’s forces were completely routed in Kamrup, with local accounts suggesting that he was fatally wounded.
This marked the first successful repulsion of Turko-Afghan incursions into the Northeast frontier. The Kanai Varasi rock inscription (Assam) is proof of the destruction of the Turks who invaded Kamrupa in 1206 CE.
The identity of the local ruler who inflicted this defeat has remained uncertain due to the absence of direct contemporary evidence, but modern scholars often associate the victory with King Prithu of Kamrup.
Context: As ‘Bengal Files’ Film brings the Great Calcutta Killing back into debate, the figure of Gopal ‘Paantha’ Mukherjee re-enters the spotlight.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Gopal ‘Paantha’ Mukherjee and his role in Direct Action Day.
Who Was Gopal ‘Paantha’ Mukherjee?
Born in 1916 in Kolkata’s Bowbazar area, Gopal Mukherjee was part of a middle-class Bengali Hindu family.
His family ran a meat shop on College Street, which earned him the nickname Paantha (goat, in Bangla).
Known for his fearless personality, long hair, and commanding presence, he led a local gang that grew into one of the city’s most formidable street organisations by the mid-1940s.
When Direct Action Day violence broke out, Gopal and his group of over 800 young men mobilised to protect Hindu neighbourhoods from Muslim League mobs. In his own later words, he took up arms “to save the women of his area, to save the people.”
Family members describe him as inspired by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, involved in revolutionary groups like the Atma Unnati Samiti, and determined to resist what he saw as the forced incorporation of Bengal into Pakistan.
However, critics point out that Gopal’s “army” was not a patriotic militia but an extension of Calcutta’s underworld sustained by wrestlers, gamblers, and street enforcers.
In 1947, Mahatma Gandhi visited Calcutta to restore peace and asked people to surrender their arms. Gopal Mukherjee was summoned to meet him. Though he eventually went, he refused to surrender his weapons, telling Gandhi’s aides: “With these arms I saved the women of my area, I saved the people. I will not surrender them.”
Direct Action Day:
On 16 August 1946, the All-India Muslim League called for “direct action” to push their demand for Pakistan, after the British exit from India.
In Bengal, where the League was in power under the Chief Minister H. S. Suhrawardy, the call took a violent turn (the Great Calcutta killings).
What began as a hartal and rally at the Ochterlony Monument (today’s Shahid Minar) spiralled into four days of riots across Calcutta. Between 5,000 and 10,000 people were killed, and thousands more injured.
Context: The recent film Kesari Chapter 2: The Untold Story of Jallianwala Bagh is based on Sir C. Sankaran Nair.
Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: About C Sankaran Nair and his key Contributions.
About C. Sankaran Nair
Born in the year 1857 in Malabar, Kerala.
He was a liberal constitutionalist, social reformer, and a fierce critic of both British imperialism and reactionary elements within Indian society.
He was a staunch advocate of universal liberty and equality.
He was a brilliant jurist, being appointed as Advocate General of the Madras Presidency and later a judge of the Madras High Court.
Author of book “Gandhi and Anarchy” (1922)- a critique of Gandhi’s political methods, especially non-cooperation and Khilafat movement. Despite his disagreements with Gandhi, Nair acknowledged his global stature.
Nair firmly believed in constitutional methods and rejected political fanaticism. This conviction led him to oppose Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement as well as the Khilafat agitation.
Critic of extreme nationalism, religious mobilisations, and political fanaticism.
Key Achievements:
He was the first Malayali and the only Keralite to preside over the Indian National Congress (Amaravati Session, 1897).
Nair was among the first Indian members of the Viceroy’s Executive Council, overseeing portfolios like education and health.
He was a member of London’s National Liberal Club.
Key Contributions:
Vision of Secular India:
At the 1897 Amravati Congress, Nair advanced a vision of secular India, advocating education for lower castes, upliftment of women, and the dismantling of caste-based barriers.
He opposed the creation of sectarian institutions like Banaras Hindu University, fearing they would breed communalism.
Resignation over Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: He resigned from Viceroy Executive Council in protest against the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
Champion of Social Reforms:
He campaigned for the abolition of caste, equality of women, and reform of the matrilineal system among the Nairs of Kerala.
He was associated with the Social Reform Conference and believed political freedom was meaningless without social emancipation.
He resisted the Village Cess Bill in the Madras Legislative Council, which threatened traditional self-governing village systems.
Protector of Free Speech and Education:
As a Viceroy’s Council member, he refused to allow a church prayer supporting Allied victory during WWI, stating : “Christ does not take sides in war.”
He advocated English education as a means of women’s empowerment, political awakening, and rational public discourse.He envisioned an India where reason triumphed over dogma.
Political Realism: For Nair, India was not a romantic ideal but a land bound by social evils. He remarked: “India was a land of millions- ignorant, illiterate, half-starved, superstitious, and shackled by caste.” He did not glorify a mystical past, unlike many contemporaries. Instead, he offered a rational, reformist blueprint for a modern India.
Context: Tabla maestro and one of the greatest Cultural ambassadors of India, Ustad Zakir Hussain, passed away at the age of 73 in the US. He is known to take Indian classical music to the global stage.
He was known for incredible speed, dexterity, and creativity, mesmerising audiences across cultures and making him one of the greatest musicians of all time.
Specialisation: Hindustani Classical Music, Jazz and fusion.
He lent his musical genius to many Bollywood movies such as Parasmani, Muhafiz, Mr and Mrs Iyer, Parzania and Manto.
Awards:
Government of India's Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in 1990, Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship (Ratna Sadsyata) in 2018.
United States’s National Heritage Fellowship, the highest award given to traditional artists and musicians.
He has won four Grammy awards.
Biography: Zakir Hussain: A Life in Music written by Nasreen Munni Kabir.
Brihaddesi by Matanga compiled between 8th-9th century AD.
Sangeeta Ratankara written by Sarangadeva (13th century AD)
Tala System: Tala is the cyclic arrangement of time units which is central to Hindustani Classical Music.
Two broad categories of Musical forms:
Anibaddha Sangeet: Free-flowing music, not restricted by meaningful words and tala. Its finest form is the alap.
Nibaddha Sangeet: Structured compositions with tala and lyrics, such as Dhrupad and Khayal. Prabhandha is a specific type of Nibaddha.
Of all known prabandhas, Jayadeva’s (12th century) compositions are best known. His significant work was Gita Govinda, and his songs are ashtapadis (each song has eight couplets).
Main styles of singing in Hindustani Music:
There are 10 main styles of singing in Hindustani music like the Dhrupad, Dhamar, Hori, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturang, Ragasagar, Tarana, Sargam and Thumri.
Dhrupad: Oldest surviving classical style of Hindustani vocal music. It refers to both the poetry's verse structure and the manner in which it is sung. In the mediaeval era, dhrupad rose to prominence as the primary singing style.
Baba Gopal Das, Swami Haridas, and Tansen (who was regarded as one of the Navaratna or nine gems of the Mughal court) were supported by Akbar.
Man Singh Tomar, the Maharaja of Gwalior was responsible for the enormous vogue of Dhrupad. Bean and Pakhwaj were associated with Dhrupad.
Khyal: It means the idea or imagination is a Persian term. As it allows for more improvisation, this style is well-liked by artists. It is built on a collection of brief songs with two to eight lines. Khyal composition is typically also referred to as a Bandish.
The origin of this style was accredited to Amir Khusaru (13th century). It attained its maturity at the hands of Niyamat Khan Sadarang and Adarang of the 18th century.
Amir Khusrau is believed to have invented the sitar and the tabla and is said to have introduced new ragas.
There are Gharanas in Khayal which are schools of singing founded or developed by various individuals or patrons such as king or nobility. Important gharanas are Gwalior gharana (oldest), Agra gharana (founded by Khuda Baksh) and Jaipur gharana (directly took off from Dhrupad), Rampur Saheswan gharana (Uttar Pradesh).
Thumri and Tappa: Thumri is a love song whereas Tappa consists of the song uttered in a fast note pattern.
Tarana Style: In this style, the rhythm plays a very crucial role and uses many words that are sung at a fast tempo. The origin of this style was also accredited to Amir Khusaru.
Context: Magh Purnima marks the observance of Sant Guru Ravidas Jayanti (February 24). To commemorate the 647th birth anniversary of Sant Guru Ravidas, the Prime Minister unveiled a statue in Varanasi.
About Guru Ravidas:
(Ravidas’s statue in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh)
Born: 1377 CE in Govardhanpur near (Varanasi) Uttar Pradesh.
His place of birth is now known as Shri Guru Ravidas Janam Asthan.
Revered as a guru in regions such as Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.
Early life:
Parents: Mata Kalsi and Santokh Das, belonged to an untouchable caste and were engaged in leatherworking.
At the age of 12, he married Lona Devi, and together they had a son named Vijay Dass.
Ravidas redirected his focus towards spiritual pursuits along the banks of the Ganga.
Took extensive pilgrimage travels to Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and the Himalayas.
He became a disciple of the bhakti saint-poet Ramananda.
Contributions to Bhakti movement:
He adhered to the Nirguna sampradaya and rejected the Saguna form of Bhakti.
Historians of religion classify bhakti traditions into two broad categories:
Saguna (with attributes): Focused on the worship of specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and his avatars (incarnations) and forms of the goddess or Devi, all often conceptualised in anthropomorphic forms.
Nirguna (without attributes): Nirguna bhakti on the other hand was worship of an abstract form of God.
Ravidas’s teachings symbolized resistance against untouchability, confronting discrimination by higher-caste individuals against those from lower castes.
His egalitarian teachings are adhered by various scheduled classes, now known as Dalits, influencing social-reform movements in the 20th century.
He engaged with Sufi saints, sadhus, and ascetics, fostering a diverse spiritual understanding.
(Manuscript painting of Ravidas-Left and Kabir-Right)
In Literary works/traditions:
His devotional verses have found a significant place in Sikh scriptures:
Scholars suggest that Ravidas had interactions with Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism.
41 of his poems are included in the Adi Granth, signifying his status as one of the 36 contributors to this central scripture of Sikhism.
Premambodha, a Sikh hagiography written over 170 years after his death, portrays him as one of the seventeen saints in the Indian religious tradition.
Dadu Panthi tradition within Hinduism incorporates numerous poems attributed to Ravidas in the Panch Vani text.
Anantadas Parcai, considered one of the earliest surviving biographies of poets from the Bhakti movement, narrates the birth of Ravidas.
Bhaktamal, proposes that he was a disciple of the Brahmin bhakti-poet Ramananda (1400-1480 A.D), and thus, it is believed that Ravidas was the contemporary of Sant Kabir.
Although Ravidas's hagiographies were penned long after his demise, they shed light on social dynamics during the period he lived:
Illustrate a clash between heterodox communities and the orthodox Brahminical traditions as well as an inter-communal and inter-religious struggle for social unity
Present various legends, including Ravidas's interactions with Hindu Brahmins and the Delhi Sultanate ruler Sikander Lodi (1458-1517).
(Footprint of Guru Ravidas)
Guru Ravidas and Meera Bai:
In Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, adjacent to Mirabai’s temple, a chhatri (pavilion) with the engraved footprints of Ravidas is found.
This signifies the spiritual and poetic connection between Ravidas and Mirabai.
As per the legends, Ravidas was a guru to Mirabai.
Mirabai, as a respect to her Guru, wrote: ‘Guru Miliya Ravidasji’.
Philosophy:
A recurring term in his verses is ‘Sahaj,’ representing a mystical state characterized by the union of diverse truths into a singular reality.
Manuscripts originating from Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh (18th and 19th centuries), feature a debate between Ravidas and Kabir on the nature of the ‘Absolute’.
Kabir advocates for a monistic Oneness, while Ravidas argues from the premise that the Brahman can be both a monistic Oneness and a separate anthropomorphic incarnation.
According to the Bhaktamal text, Ravidas's teachings aligned with Vedic and ancient scriptures, embracing ‘non-dualism’.
However, conflicting beliefs within the Dalit community suggest that Ravidas rejected the Hindu Vedas and faced opposition from Brahmins and caste Hindus, as reflected in certain hymns present in the Guru Granth Sahib.
His concept of Beghumpura:
Signifies a ‘city without sorrow.’
His vision encompassed a utopian world free from discrimination and inequality.
Aiming to eradicate the evil of untouchability.
Emphasizing the significance of labor (Kirat).
Ravidas followed Ananya bhakti, which emphasises on the devotion that transcends the sense of duality between the worshipper and the object of worship.
Rejected formal devotion and advocated for personal bhakti through meditative meditation.
Disapproved of rituals, pilgrimages, and penances as the optimal paths to realize God.
Ravidassia Religion:
Originating in the 21st century, it emerged as a distinct faith separate from Sikhism, shaped by the followers of Guru Ravidas’s teachings.
It was established following an event in 2009, when Sikh militants attacked a Ravidas temple, in Vienna, Austria.
Ravidassia religion formulated a new sacred text, the ‘Amritbani Guru Ravidas ji’, exclusively based on teachings and writings of Guru Ravidas and comprises 240 hymns.
Context: Renowned Indian art historian and critic Brijinder Nath Goswamy, celebrated for his extensive research on the Indian miniature painting tradition, has recently passed away in Chandigarh after battling prolonged illness. As a recipient of the Padma Bhushan, Goswamy gained prominence following the release of his seminal 1968 article, 'Pahari Painting: The Family as the Basis of Style.'
More from the news article:
Brijinder Nath Goswamy, was born on August 15, 1933, was a distinguished Indian art critic and historian.
The Government of India acknowledged Goswamy's contributions with the prestigious Padma Shri in 1998 and later honoured him with the Padma Bhushan in 2008.
In his article, 'Pahari Painting: The family as the basis of style,' Goswamy delved into the intricate family lineages of renowned artists.
His expertise in Pahari painting, a traditional miniature art form originating in the Punjab region's hills, was exemplified through detailed studies of artists like Pandit Seu, Nainsukh, and Manaku.
His literary knowledge extended across various themes, with notable works such as 'A Place apart: Painting in Kutch, 1720-1820.' He explored Kutch's visual history, highlighting the influence of Mughal connections on the region's art.
The landmark work, 'Painters at the Sikh court,' delved into the wealth and patronage of Sikh courts.
Utilizing historical documents, he provided a comprehensive narrative of Punjab's post-British occupation art scene, shedding light on the lives of painters during that period.
In the edited book 'Life at Court: Art for India’s rulers, 16th-19th centuries,' he explored subjects in Rajput and Mughal painting, offering unique insights into the lives of India's rulers.
Esteemed for his profound understanding of Indian art, B. N. Goswamy's contributions continue to shape the discourse in art history. His enduring publications remain essential resources for studying India's rich artistic heritage, making him a revered figure in the realm of Indian art and culture.
About Miniature paintings:
Miniature painting, an exquisite art form IS characterized by details on a small scale, captivating with its vibrant colours and intricate patterns, as noted by the World Art Community.
One distinctive aspect of miniature paintings lies in their diminutive size, crafted with intricate brushwork that contributes to their unique identity.
Natural sources such as vegetables, indigo, precious stones, gold, and silver provide the vibrant colours.
While artists worldwide convey diverse themes through paintings, Indian miniature paintings often centre around Ragas (musical notes patterns), religious narratives, and mythological stories.
This delicate tradition traces its origins back to the Buddhist Pala dynasty which ruled Bengal and Bihar from the 8th to the 11th century. These intricate artworks emerged as a response to the religious teachings of Buddha.
Initially manifesting as illustrations of religious texts on Buddhism and Jainism, these early paintings graced palm leaves until the advent of paper in the 11th to 13th centuries.
Around 960 A.D., miniature paintings made their way to the western regions of India, introduced by the rulers of the Chalukya Dynasty.
However, the true flourishing of the miniature painting tradition began during the Mughal Empire in the early 1500s. Humayun and his descendants played a pivotal role in elevating court painting, particularly in the form of Mughal miniatures.
Schools of Miniature paintings:
Indian miniature painting evolved through the centuries, with each school bearing the imprint of the social, religious, economic, and political milieu of its region.
1. Pala school (8th century A.D.):
With a focus on symbolic colour usage, these paintings drew inspiration from Buddhist tantric rituals. This style radiated across South-East Asia, reaching Sri Lanka, Nepal, Burma, and Tibet.
2. Jain school (11th century A.D.):
The Jain school portrayed religious texts like 'Kalpa Sutra' and 'Kalkacharya Katha' through miniature paintings.
Originating on palm leaves and transitioning to paper in the 12th century, these paintings featured vibrant colours, enlarged eyes, and intricate depictions of Tirthankara goddesses.
This school witnessed a decline in the late 16th century.
3. Orissa school (17th century A.D.):
The Orissa school maintained its tradition by using palm leaves despite widespread paper usage.
This school predominantly depicted the love stories of Radha and Krishna, Krishna Leela, and Gita Govinda.
The paintings, rich in colour, vividly captured the eastern landscapes of India with bold and expressive strokes.
4. Mughal school (16th-18th centuries):
The Mughal School, an amalgamation of Indian and Persian styles, flourished under Akbar's reign.
This era witnessed a fusion of the Indian artistic tradition with the Persian style, giving birth to the distinctive Mughal style of painting.
Scenes from the royal court, hunting expeditions, and battles graced these paintings. The Mughal influence extended to Hindu painters, who incorporated stories from 'Ramayana' and 'Mahabharata.'
Yet, this golden era experienced a decline during Aurangzeb's reign, prompting skilled miniaturists to migrate to the princely courts of Rajasthan, the lower Himalayan hill kingdoms, and the plains of Punjab.
4. Rajasthani school:
Rajasthan, too, witnessed the rise of diverse schools of miniature painting, including Kishangarh, Bundi, Jaipur, Mewar, and Marwar.
The miniature paintings of Rajasthan, while retaining traces of Mughal influence, carved out their own unique identity.
These artworks often delved into the royal lifestyle, narrating tales of bravery, and weaving mythological stories around revered figures like Lord Krishna and Radha.
5. Pahari school (17th-19th centuries A.D.)
In regions like Himachal Pradesh, Jammu, Tehri-Garhwal, a fresh artistic expression emerged known as Pahari painting.
Pahari paintings depicted both religious and secular themes, featuring detailed renditions of epics such as Mahabharat, Ramayana, Puranas, and Gita.
Schools like Guler, Basohli, Garhwal, Chamba, and Kangra thrived.
Gods and goddesses, along with the scenic beauty of the Himalayas, were common themes.
Influenced by both Mughal and Rajasthani styles, these paintings featured bold colours and ornate frames.
6. Deccan school (16th-19th centuries A.D.):
This style, born after the dissolution of the Bahmani Sultanate in 1520, initially developed independently of Mughal influences.
Thriving in places like Ahmednagar, Golconda, Tanjore, Hyderabad, and Bijapur, the Deccan school drew from the rich traditions of the Deccan and influences from Turkey, Persia, and Iran.
Unlike its Mughal counterpart, it showcased intense colours, sensuous female figures, geometrically accurate buildings, and multi-dimensional effects.
Each school of Indian miniature painting serves as a testament to the nation's artistic diversity, offering a captivating journey through time and cultural influences.
Context:The Lieutenant Governor of Delhi unveiled six renovations in Mehrauli's Archaeological Park, with one of the monuments being the restoration of the 13th-century tomb of Balban.
About Ghiyas-ud-din Balban
Introduction:
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, the ninth sultan of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi and an Ilbari Turk, reigned from 1266 AD to 1287 AD.
Balban's journey to power began when he was initially sold as a slave to the then-ruler Iltumish in 1232 CE, only to be later freed by him.
During his rule, Ghiyas achieved various conquests, including subduing the troublesome inhabitants of Mewat, reclaiming Bengal, and successfully defending against the Mongol threat, though it came at the cost of his son's life.
Early Life:
Initially, he served as the Sultan's personal attendant or Khasdar and swiftly became one of the most distinguished members of the Chalissa, a group of forty Turkic nobles in Delhi.
During Razia Sultan's reign, he held the significant position of Amir-i-Shikar, responsible for both military and political duties.
Balban played a pivotal role in the overthrow of Alaud-din Masud and the installation of Nasiruddin Mahmud as Sultan, subsequently serving as the Wazir from 1246 to 1265.
During Nasiruddin Mahmud's reign, he was granted the titles of Amiri-Hajib and Naib-i-Mamlakat, signifying his significant role in the administration.
Military Campaigns:
Balban relied on the Turkish nobility for support but also raised a massive army of 2 lakh troops, encompassing individuals from various castes.
He identified four main problem areas: the vicinity of Delhi, the Ganga-Yamuna doab, trade routes, especially the one to Awadh, and rebellions in Rohilkhand.
Balban achieved several military feats:
He successfully lifted the Mongol siege of Uch under Masud Shah in 1246.
When the governor of Bengal, Tughral Khan, challenged Delhi's authority in 1275, Balban initially dispatched the governor of Awadh and later a second army, both of which failed. Balban personally led a third army, ultimately reclaiming the region and eliminating Tughral and his followers, with the assistance of his son, Nasiruddin Bughra Khan. Subsequently, Balban appointed his second son, Bughra Khan, as the governor, who declared independence after Balban's death, maintaining it for four decades.
Balban's military campaign against the Meo people of Mewat stands out as a significant endeavour. These raiders had been terrorizing the residents of Delhi, even in broad daylight. To quell this threat, Balban implemented his ‘Blood and Iron’ strategy. This involved a year-long effort to subdue the Meos, during which forests were cleared to eliminate their hiding spots, leading to a substantial reduction in their numbers. To further secure the region, Balban oversaw the construction of forts in the affected areas and granted control to iqtedar holders.
Reign as Sultan:
During Balban's reign, his governance was marked by the establishment of an unwavering ‘Fear of the governing power,’ which he considered the fundamental basis for effective rule.
To ensure unwavering loyalty to the crown, he implemented an efficient espionage system, modelled after the Umayyad Barid. This included the use of spies or barids to monitor his officials, who were placed under independent authority and answered solely to the Sultan.
Balban imposed severe punishments for any mishaps, even towards his nobles, and did not spare their own slaves. For instance, Malik Baqbaq, the governor of Budaun, was disciplined for ordering a slave to be beaten to death while intoxicated.
Balban also addressed the threat of the Mongols by reorganizing the military and restructuring the revenues of Iqtedar holders, discontinuing them for older Muqtas who could not serve as military commanders.
Balban was openly vocal about his concept of kingship, referring to himself as the representative of God on Earth and adopting the title 'Zillullah' or 'shadow of God.' His theory of kingship was based on the notion that a king's power emanated solely from God, making his actions beyond public scrutiny.
Balban maintained a notable distance from the common masses, forgoing public drinking and never appearing in court without his full regalia.
He introduced the Persian festival of Nowruz and enforced customs like 'Sijda' and 'Paibos' in his court to instil a sense of wonder among ordinary people.
Balban took a stern approach to rule, breaking up the 'Chahalgani,' a group of the forty most influential nobles in the court. He promoted junior Turkish officers to positions of equality with the members of the Chalisa Dal.
After his Death:
Ghiyas ud din Balban served as Sultan from 1265 until his demise in 1287.
Balban's elder son, Prince Muhammad Khan, lost his life in a battle against the Mongols.
Balban selected his grandson, Kaikhasrau, the son of Prince Muhammad, as his designated heir.
However, after Balban's passing, his nobles instead nominated Qaiqubad as the new Sultan.
Qaiqubad's reign lasted from 1287 to 1290, during which Bughra Khan asserted his independence in Bengal.
After Qaiqubad’s death, leadership was passed to his three-year-old son, Shamsuddin Kayumar. However, Shamsuddin Kayumars was later deposed by his guardian, Jalal-ud din Firoz Khalji, in 1290, marking the end of the Slave dynasty.
Tomb of Balban
Balban's Tomb is housed within the archaeological park, and it was originally constructed by the Sultan himself, known as the Dar-ul-Amaan or the Haven of Safety.
This tomb is historically significant as it represents the earliest example of Indo-Islamic architectural style in India, although its existence was only unearthed in the mid-20th century.
Near Balban's tomb lies the resting place of his son, Khan Shahid or Mahmud, who died in 1285 AD while battling the Mongols. Mahmud's tomb is adorned with exquisite Persian calligraphy.
Balban's tomb is noteworthy for being the first structure in India to feature true arches, constructed using a circular arrangement of stones.
This architectural innovation was novel in Indian architecture at the time.
The tomb was built using rubble masonry and it also demonstrates a fusion of Hindu and Islamic art in its construction.
Context: The passing of the Women’s Reservation Bill coincided with the 125th birth (October 17) anniversary of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, known for propagating social reforms among the Muslim community.
The evolution of Muslim political thought unfolded in a multifaceted historical context marked by interactions with colonial rule and the complexities of social, cultural, and political life among the Muslim communities in India. The relative backwardness of the Muslim population gave rise to competitive tendencies, intensifying the debate about accommodating diverse social groups within existing and future power structures and institutions.
Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898)
1. Educational and Political engagement
Syed Ahmad Khan, a prominent figure of the 19th century, received education in both religious Scripture, the Quran, and Western sciences.
His booklet, "Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind" (Reasons for the Indian Revolt of 1857), highlighted British ignorance, their aggressive expansionary policies, and the exclusion of Indians from the Legislative Council of India as major causes for growing antagonism.
Interestingly, non-official Indian members were included in the Viceroy's Council from 1861, and Syed Ahmad Khan was nominated to the Viceroy's Legislative Council in 1878.
He supported the efforts of Dadabhai Naoroji and Surendra Nath Banerjee in securing Indian representation in the government and civil services.
2. Educational and Socio-religious reforms
Syed Ahmad Khan emphasized interfaith understanding, exemplified by his work, "Commentary on the Holy Bible."
He advocated modern scientific education for Muslims, criticizing the prevailing superstitions and regressive customs of society.
He founded the Scientific Society of Aligarh in 1863, modelling it after the Royal Society of England. This society organized annual conferences and disseminated scientific material in English and Urdu.
He established various educational institutes to promote education, most notably the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (MAOC) in 1875, later evolving into Aligarh Muslim University.
The MAOC played a pivotal role in the Aligarh Movement of the 19th century, fostering a renaissance among Indian Muslims. While founded primarily for Muslims, MAOC's doors were open to all, emphasizing inclusivity.
Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental (MAO) College, aimed to provide modern education while preserving cultural heritage.
The Aligarh Institute Gazette, initiated by him, campaigned against practices such as female infanticide, polygamy, child marriage, sati, segregation of widows, and poverty-induced marriages of young girls to older men.
His progressive social ideas were disseminated through his magazine, "Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq" (Improvement of Manners and Morals).
Views of Syed Ahmad Khan on Women Education
Despite showing inclination for liberal values and rationality, his views on education to be imparted to women had been controversial.
Syed Ahmad Khan, believed the ultimate goal for women is marriage and therefore, training for them should focus on familial duties. For women’s education he believed in a “Disorganised home-based tutor education”.
However, later he was convinced that the “rejection of women’s education by Muslims played a big role in the decline of the community” in comparison to others.
Muhammadan Educational Conference:
To propagate the ideas of Anglo-oriental College across India, Syed Khan established the All-India Muhammadan Educational Congress in Aligarh, U.P.
The first session of the congress was held in 1886 in Aligarh and was presided by Maulvi Samiullah Khan.
The organisation aimed to promote educational development among Muslims through conferences and also to gain University status for the Anglo-Oriental College.
3. Aligarh movement
The Aligarh Movement, the first national awakening among Muslims, began at Aligarh under the leadership of Syed Ahmad Khan.
It was furthered by individuals like Khwaja Altaf Hussain Ali, Maulvi Wazir Ahmed, and Maulvi Shibli Numani.
It sought to introduce social reforms within the Indian Muslim community, challenging practices such as polygamy and the ban on widow remarriage.
The Aligarh Movement was rooted in a liberal interpretation of the Quran and aimed to harmonize Islam with modern, liberal culture.
4. Evolution of Syed Ahmad Khan's political thought
(a) First Phase (Up to 1887)
Syed Ahmad Khan advocated for Hindu-Muslim unity, emphasizing their shared history and common interests.
He advocated for the separation of religious and political matters, believing that religious and spiritual issues should not impede nationalist objectives.
In his role on the Viceroy's Legislative Council, he actively worked for the welfare of both Hindus and Muslims.
Cooperation between the two communities was evident in the scientific society and the Aligarh British India Association.
Syed Ahmad Khan even supported the ban on cow slaughter within the MAOC.
(b) Second Phase (After 1887)
His perspective on the applicability of Western democracy and nationalism in India underwent a significant shift.
He argued that the complex, diverse nature of Indian society, with its diverse castes, religions, and races, made representative government impractical and could lead to Hindu dominance over Muslims.
This argument laid the foundation for the two-nation theory, which claimed that Hindus and Muslims were separate nations with distinct interests.
He aimed to establish an Anglo-Muslim alliance to counter the influence of the Congress, influenced by British officials and the need for their support for his college.
Syed Ahmad Khan's influence initiated social and educational reforms among certain sections of Muslims, reflecting the dynamism of India's diverse religious communities and their multifaceted options. It is essential to note that his major concerns were to advance the interests of the Muslim community, especially the established groups, rather than promoting hatred or division among communities.
