Modern Indian History

Port Blair renamed as Sri Vijaya Puram

Context: Port Blair has been renamed ‘Sri Vijaya Puram’ by the Government of India in an effort to move beyond its colonial legacy. The new name pays tribute to the region’s historical ties with the Srivijaya Empire. This renaming also symbolizes the triumph of India's freedom struggle, recognizing the unique and vital role the Andaman and Nicobar Islands played in that historic fight for independence.

Introduction:

Port Blair, the gateway to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, was named after Archibald Blair, a naval surveyor and lieutenant in the Bombay Marine.
Blair was the first to conduct a detailed survey of the Andaman Islands, a crucial factor in the city’s establishment.

Archibald Blair’s early career and survey missions:

Blair began his service in the Bombay Marine in 1771, embarking on numerous survey missions across the coasts of India, Iran, and Arabia.
His work extended into various regions, including the Chagos Archipelago, Diamond Harbour near Calcutta, and along the Hooghly River.
These early missions earned him a reputation as a skilled surveyor, leading to his involvement in a mission to the Andaman Islands.

Survey of the Andaman Islands and naming of Port Cornwallis:

In December 1778, Blair departed from Calcutta with two ships, the Elizabeth and the Viper, to explore the Andaman Islands.
His expedition, lasting until April 1779, navigated the west coast and subsequently the east coast of the islands.
During this survey, Blair discovered a natural harbour, which he initially named Port Cornwallis, after William Cornwallis, then Commander-in-Chief of the British Indian Army.
Later the island was renamed after him.
Recognizing the strategic importance of this harbour, Blair reported his findings to the East India Company (EIC), who were impressed by the potential of the location.
Colonization of the Andaman Islands:
- Following Blair’s discovery, the EIC decided to colonize the islands to establish a safe harbour to monitor and counter Malay pirate activities.
- Port Cornwallis would also serve as a refuge for shipwrecked sailors and as a shelter for British officers during hostilities with other powers.
- As part of the colonization process, several convicts were transported to the islands to perform unpaid labor, and the region became a penal colony.
Decline of the first colony:
- In December 1792, for strategic reasons, the colony was shifted to the northeast part of the Andaman Islands, and the new settlement was named Port Cornwallis.
- However, this new colony did not last long, as the settlers faced severe disease outbreaks, resulting in numerous deaths.
- By 1796, the East India Company ceased operations on the island due to the unsustainable living conditions.

Port Blair and the revival of penal colony post-1857 revolt:

The Revolt of 1857 changed the course of Port Blair's history.
The British, now burdened with a large number of Indian prisoners, decided to renovate and resettle Port Blair as a penal colony.
Many of these prisoners were given life sentences, with some being hanged, and others succumbing to disease and the harsh conditions of the settlement.
With the rise of the Indian Independence Movement, the British constructed a vast cellular jail in 1906, now infamously known as Kaala Paani.
This jail housed numerous Indian freedom fighters, including Veer Damodar Savarkar, becoming a symbol of British colonial oppression.

Blair’s exploration and discovery were instrumental in shaping the colonial history of the Andaman Islands.

Certain facts about Port Blair

Port Blair, now officially known as Sri Vijaya Puram, serves as the capital of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a union territory of India situated in the Bay of Bengal.
It functions as the headquarters of the South Andaman district.
Port Blair is home to several strategic military installations. Indian Navy's major naval base, INS Jarawa, is located here, along with air and sea bases operated by Indian Coast Guard, Andaman and Nicobar Police, and Andaman and Nicobar Command-the first integrated tri-command of the Indian Armed Forces, comprising the Army, Navy, and Air Force.

In Indian freedom struggle movement:

Netaji Subas Chandra Bose escaped British surveillance in Calcutta on January 16, 1941, and returned to Indian soil nearly three years later, arriving at Port Blair Aerodrome on December 29, 1943.
On 30 December 1943, Netaji hoisted the national flag for the first time on Indian soil, at Port Blair, symbolizing the fulfilment of his promise that the Indian National Army (INA) would stand on Indian land by the end of 1943. This momentous visit also marked the declaration of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as the ‘first liberated territory of India.’
To commemorate this significant event, a Sankalp Smarak (Memorial of Resolve) was dedicated to the nation on December 29, 2021 (78 years after Bose's historic arrival in the Andamans).

From 1943 to 44 during World War II, this territory served as the headquarters of the Azad Hind government under Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. The island at the time was liberated from British rule by Japan which captured it during World War II. British forces eventually regained control of the islands in October 1945.

History of Engagement of Imperial Chola with Andaman Islands and Srivijaya:

During the 11th century, the powerful Chola emperor, Rajendra I, used the Andaman Islands as a naval base to launch a significant military campaign against the Srivijaya Empire (southern Sumatra), located in present-day Indonesia.
Strategic importance:
- According to inscriptions found at Thanjavur dated to 1050 CE, the Cholas referred to the Andaman Islands as Ma-Nakkavaram (great open or naked land), which is believed to have contributed to the modern name of Nicobar under British rule.
- The islands’ geographic location made them an ideal staging ground for naval expeditions aimed at Southeast Asia.
- His attack on Srivijaya was a remarkable event, reflecting the Chola Empire’s strength and its influence in the region.
Invasion of Srivijaya:
- The Chola invasion of Srivijaya was unique in India’s otherwise peaceful interactions with Southeast Asia.
- For nearly a millennium, Southeast Asian states had come under the strong cultural influence of India, but this military campaign marked a rare instance of direct conflict.
Reasons for invasion:
- The Srivijaya Empire may have attempted to disrupt Chola trade routes with the East, which prompted Rajendra I’s military response.
- It is also believed that Rajendra I sought to extend his digvijaya (conquest of all directions) to Southeast Asia, thereby enhancing his imperial glory.
- The attack on Srivijaya was also part of the Chola’s broader expansionist ambitions, which also included conflicts with other South Indian empires and Sri Lanka.

Outcome:

Rajendra I’s naval campaign against Srivijaya resulted in significant victories.
According to inscriptional records, he captured Srivijaya’s king, Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, and seized valuable treasures from the Buddhist empire, including the Vidhyadara Torana, a jewelled war gate of Srivijaya.
The control over the Srivijaya Empire in Southeast Asia gave access to a major commercial hub.
The conquest gave the Cholas control over important maritime trade routes.
This victory not only marked the height of Chola naval power but also demonstrated the empire’s capacity to influence events far beyond the Indian subcontinent.

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, through their association with Rajendra I’s naval expeditions, gained a significant role in India’s maritime strategy and historical narratives.

About Rajendra Chola I (reigned from 1014 and 1044 CE):

Introduction:

Rajaraja I appointed his son, Rajendra I, as his heir apparent, marking the continuation of the Chola dynasty.
For two years, they ruled jointly, with Rajendra actively participating in campaigns, especially against the Western Chalukyas.
These efforts extended the Chola Empire's boundaries to the Tungabhadra River, securing its northern frontier.

Conquest of the Pandyas and Sri Lanka:

One of the major achievements during Rajaraja’s reign was the attack on Madurai, forcing the Pandya rulers to flee to Sri Lanka.
Rajendra I continued this campaign, successfully conquering Sri Lanka and reclaiming the Pandya crown and jewels.
This victory further solidified Chola dominance over the Pandyas and Sri Lanka.

Northern expeditions:

After ascending the throne in 1014 CE, Rajendra launched a significant campaign into northern India, extending the Chola influence beyond the Godavari River.
His forces secured key victories, leading to the construction of the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple, commemorating the northern conquests.

Western Chalukya campaigns:

Rajendra I continued his father’s campaigns against the Western Chalukyas, successfully sacking their capital, Kalayani.
The dwarapala statue from Kalayani, installed at the Darasuram temple, is a lasting symbol of these victories.

Rajendra I assumed titles such as Mudikonda Cholan, Gangaikondan, and Kadaramkondan to reflect his military triumphs and scholarly achievements. His reign marked the zenith of Chola power, extending from South India to Southeast Asia, cementing the Chola Empire as one of the most powerful in Indian history.

History of Emergency Imposed by Prime Ministry Indira Gandhi (1975-1977)

Context: The new session of the Lok Sabha (18^th) started with an intriguing development when the newly-elected Speaker initiated a motion to condemn the Emergency imposed in 1975.

Introduction: In 1975, India experienced its greatest political crisis since independence when Internal Emergency was declared on 26 June. The Emergency was a 21-month period from 1975 to 1977.

Crisis in the Pre-Emergency period:

By the beginning of 1973 popularity of the Government led by Indira Gandhi began to decline.
Little dent was being made in rural or urban poverty or economic inequality, nor was there any lessening of caste and class oppression in the countryside.
The immediate provocation for the rising discontent was the marked deterioration in the economic situation. A combination of recession, growing unemployment, rampant inflation and scarcity of foodstuffs created a serious crisis.
The burden of feeding and sheltering nearly 10 million refugees from Bangladesh during 1971 had depleted the grain reserves and, combined with the cost of the Bangladesh war, had led to a large budgetary deficit. The war had also drained foreign exchange reserves.
Monsoon rains failed for two years in succession during 1972 and 1973, leading to a terrible drought in most parts of the country and a massive shortage of foodgrains, and fuelling their prices.
The year 1973 also witnessed the notorious oil shock when world prices of crude oil increased fourfold, leading to massive increase in the prices of petroleum products and fertilizers. This drained foreign reserves, further increased the budgetary deficit and deepened economic recession.
Economic recession, unemployment, price rise and scarcity of goods led to large-scale industrial unrest and a wave of strikes in different parts of the country during 1972 and 1973, culminating in an all-India railway strike in May 1974. The railway strike lasted twenty-two days but was broken in the end.
In May 1973, there was a mutiny in Uttar Pradesh by the Provincial Armed Constabulary , which clashed with the army sent to discipline it, leading to the death of over thirty-five constables and soldiers.
To tackle the deteriorating economic, political and law and order situation firm and clear leadership was needed, as exhibited during the Bangladesh crisis and in the handling of foreign affairs.

The Emergency:

The then President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed proclaimed Emergency under Article 352 of the Constitution because of prevailing "internal disturbance".
The proclamation suspended the federal provisions of the constitution and Fundamental Rights and civil liberties.
The government imposed strict censorship on the Press and stifled all protest and opposition to the government.
The main leaders of the Opposition were arrested under the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA), 1971. Among those arrested were Jay Prakash Narayan, Morarji Desai, and Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Congress dissidents such as Chandra Shekhar.
A series of decrees, laws and constitutional amendments reduced the powers of the judiciary to check the functioning of the executive.
The Defence of India Act and MISA were amended in 1975 to the detriment of the citizens’ liberties.
Another law, Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act passed in 1974, was also frequently used to target political opponents
In 1976, an effort was made to change the basic civil libertarian structure of the constitution through its 42nd Amendment.
Popular hopes were raised and in 1975, Twenty-Point Programme by Indira Gandhi was announced. Its aim was the socio- economic upliftment of the vast mass of the rural poor.
- The programme promised to liquidate the existing debt of landless labourers, small farmers and rural artisans and extend alternative credit to them, abolish bonded labour.
- It aimed to implement the existing agricultural land ceiling laws and distribute surplus land to the landless, provide house sites to landless labourers and weaker sections, revise upwards minimum wages of agricultural labour, provide special help to the handloom industry, prevent tax evasion and smuggling.
- Three million house sites were provided to the landless and the Dalits.
- About 1.1 million acres of surplus land was distributed to the landless; this was, however, less than 10 percent of the surplus land.
- The Bonded Labour System stands abolished throughout the country with the enactment of the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976.

Discontentment among people:

Within a few months, however, the people started getting disillusioned with the Emergency.
Popular discontent from mid-1976 reached its zenith six months later.
Relief to the people did not last long. Economic growth of the first year of the Emergency was not sustained.
Agricultural output declined; prices rose by 10 per cent by the end of 1976.
The corrupt, black marketeers and smugglers resumed their activities as the shock of the Emergency wore off.
The poor were disenchanted with the slow progress in their welfare and workers were unhappy because of limits on wages, bonus and dearness allowance and restrictions on the right to strike
Government servants and teachers became discontented because they were being disciplined in their workplaces and in many cases were being forced to fulfil sterilization quotas.
So far as the common people were concerned, matters took a turn for the worse, for there were no avenues of protest or any other mechanism for the voicing and redressal of their grievances. Even common people and not merely intellectuals and political workers lived in an atmosphere of fear and insecurity .
The bureaucracy and the police now have increased power that ‘was unchecked by criticism and exposure from the Press’.
A major reason for the growing unpopularity of the Emergency regime was, however, the development of an extra-constitutional centre of power associated with the rise to political power of Sanjay Gandhi, who held no office in the government or Congress.
Pushed by Sanjay Gandhi, the government decided to promote family planning more vigorously and even in an arbitrary, illegitimate and authoritarian manner. Incentives and persuasion were increasingly replaced by compulsion and coercion and above all by compulsory sterilization.
Thus, the climate of fear and repression, corruption and abuse of authority and excesses committed by the authorities prevailed.

Swami Vivekananda

Context: The Prime Minister engaged in meditation at the Vivekananda Rock Memorial in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu.

About Swamiji

Spiritual significance of Vivekananda rock:

Located near Kanyakumari’s Vanathurai beach, at the southernmost tip of mainland India where the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, and Bay of Bengal converge, Vivekananda Rock holds profound historical and spiritual importance.
In 1892, according to the disciples of Swami Vivekananda, it was at this place, he ultimately achieved enlightenment.

About Swami Vivekananda (1862-1902):

Swami Vivekananda (original name was Narendranath Datta), emerged as a prominent advocate of Ramakrishna's teachings, adapting them to contemporary Indian society and becoming a significant figure in the propagation of neo-Hinduism.
His ideology drew from the spiritual experiences of Ramakrishna, the teachings of the Upanishads and the Gita, as well as the examples set by Buddha and Jesus, all forming the foundation of his message on human values.
Central to Vivekananda's philosophy was Vedanta, which he viewed as a rational and superior approach to spirituality.
His mission aimed to bridge the gap between spiritual pursuits and practical life, advocating for a holistic approach to human existence encompassing both paramartha (spiritual service) and vyavahara (daily conduct).
Vivekananda stressed the unity of God and humanity, advocating for the integration of Hinduism and Islam in India for the nation's well-being.
He emphasized the importance of combining knowledge with action, criticizing the neglect of social issues by religious institutions and urging Hindus to engage actively in social reform.
At the 1893 Parliament of Religions in Chicago, Vivekananda highlighted the need for a balanced synthesis of Eastern spiritualism and Western materialism to foster global happiness and progress.
In 1897 to inspire pride in Indian culture and foster social reform, he founded the Ramakrishna Mission, which has since become a global organization dedicated to humanitarian relief, education, and social service, guided by the principle that service to humanity is akin to worship.
The Ramakrishna Mission, though deeply religious, does not seek to convert; instead, it embraces universal spiritual values and respects diverse religious practices.
In 1898, Vivekananda established the Ramakrishna Math in Belur (Karnataka). It was open to all regardless of caste or creed, symbolizing his vision of an inclusive spiritual community committed to service and enlightenment.
In 1887, Narendra compiled a Bengali song anthology named Sangeet Kalpataru with Vaishnav Charan Basak.
He also composed ‘Khandana Bhava Bandhana’, a prayer song dedicated to Ramakrishna, in 1898.

Birsa Munda

Context: Ulihatu, the birthplace of Birsa Munda and a village in Jharkhand, has seen noticeable development in recent years. The Prime Minister launched the Rs 24,000 crore Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) Development Mission from this place. The Central government has designated Birsa Munda’s birth anniversary on November 15 as ‘Janjatiya Gaurav Diwas’.

Who was Birsa Munda?

Born in 1875.
Between 1886 and 1890, Birsa spent time at a place which was near the centre of the Sardari agitation, a peaceful movement led by the Oraon and Munda tribes against British rule. This experience inspired him to join the anti-missionary and anti-colonial cause.
By 1890, Birsa was deeply involved in the movement against British oppression of tribal communities.
He emerged as a prominent tribal leader, uniting people to fight for their rights. He founded the Birsait faith and became a God-like figure to his followers.
His movement attracted members from the Munda and Oraon communities, challenging British conversion efforts and reinforcing tribal unity and resistance.
The Mundas, a tribe of former nomadic hunters turned farmers in the Chota-nagpur region of present-day Jharkhand, faced significant challenges due to adverse policies and events.
- Before colonial rule, they practiced 'khuntkatti’, a land ownership system based on customary rights that excluded landlords.
- However, the Permanent Settlement Act of 1793 ended this system, enabling colonial exploitation.
- The East India Company introduced the zamindari system for land revenue collection, creating a dual class system of land-owning zamindars, viewed as outsiders or ‘dikus’ by the indigenous people, and tenant farmers or ‘ryots’.
- This Act allowed the dikus to claim ownership through deeds specifying precise areas, displacing the indigenous inhabitants from their ancestral lands.
- Additionally, the community suffered from exploitative practices like the ‘begar’ system of forced labor, dependence on moneylenders for credit, and the replacement of traditional clan councils with colonial courts.
- Famines in 1896-97 and 1899-1900 further exacerbated their plight, leading to mass starvation.

The Ulgulan movement (1899-1900) and aftermath:

The Munda Ulgulan (rebellion) stands as one of the most notable tribal revolts in the history of Indian Independence.
The main cause of the Munda revolt was the 'unfair land grabbing practices’ by colonial and local authorities that demolished the tribal conventional land system.
Their exploitation included high-interest loans and withheld receipts, leading to conflict with the dikus (outsiders).
Additionally, large forest areas were declared protected, stripping the Mundas of their rights.
The Mundas desperately needed a leader to guide their struggle for justice.
Course of the rebellion:
- Birsa Munda emerged as a leader of the tribal movement.
- Birsa aimed for both religious and political independence, advocating for the Mundas' rights as the true landowners and visioned an agrarian order free from European influence.
- Birsa called on the Mundas to reject superstitions, abandon animal sacrifice, abstain from intoxicants, wear the sacred thread, and maintain traditional worship in the sarna (sacred grove).
- He wanted Munda society to get rid of foreign elements and restore its original character.
- By the 1890s, Birsa had mobilized the tribes, inciting rebellion.
- In 1894, he declared a revolt against the British and the dikus, aiming to establish a 'Munda Raj'.
- Under his leadership, villagers attacked police stations, churches, and government properties in 1899.
- However, in 1900, the rebels were defeated.
- Birsa was captured and died in jail, while nearly 350 Mundas were tried.
Aftermath:
- Demonstrated the tribal people's ability to protest against injustice and colonial rule.
- The British enacted the Chota-nagpur Tenancy Act of 1908, which restricted the transfer of tribal land to non-tribal people, recognized Khuntkatti rights, and banned begari.
- Consequently, tribals gained legal protection for their land rights.

Satnami Community

Context: Satnami community in Chhattisgarh violently protested against the desecration of a Jaitkhamb (a structure of sacred importance). The protesters were not satisfied with the way police handled the case.

Satnami sect:

The earliest Satnamis were a sect of mendicants founded by Birbhan (in Narnaul in eastern Punjab) in 1657. Birbhan’s guru was Udhodas, the pupil of Saint Ravidas and therefore, the sect is believed to be an offshoot of the Ravidassia sect.
Historically, Satnamis are also known as ‘Bairagis’.
In 1672 they defied the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb and were crushed by his army.

Two broad categories of Bhakti traditions:

Saguna (with attributes): Focused on the worship of specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and his avatars (incarnations) and forms of the goddess or Devi, all often conceptualised in anthropomorphic forms.
Nirguna (without attributes): Nirguna bhakti on the other hand was worship of an abstract form of God.

The sect was revived under the leadership of Jagjivandas (near Lucknow).
- He projected an image of God as ‘Nirguna’(God do not exist in a particular form or have particular properties).
- He promoted worship through a regimen of self-discipline.
- However, the elimination of caste, a central part of the Satnami creed, was not part of his message.
In 1820 in the Chhattisgarh region, Ghasidas, added significant elements to the sect and founded his own offshoot-Satnami sect. He advocated for social equality.
- His Satnam Panth succeeded in providing a religious and social identity for large numbers of lower castes people and defied the derogatory treatment by upper-caste Hindus.
- The community under the leadership of Ghasidas also defied exclusion from Hindu temple worship.
About Jaitkhamb:
- Giraudpuri is a village in the Baloda Bazar district of Chhattisgarh, which is located near the Jonk River (a tributary of Mahanadi River).
- It is the birthplace of the Ghasidas, and is a pilgrimage centre for the Satnamis
- The main landmark of the village is Guru Ghasidas Jaitkhamb, a 77-metre-high tower used as a pilgrimage centre by the Satnamis.
- A Jaitkhamb (victory pillar) is a Satnami object of worship, and a symbol of their distinct sectarian identity.
The Satnamis of Chhattisgarh also became a permanent subdivision of the Hindus in the Central Provinces, during the British period.
Presently, Satnamis live mainly in Chhattisgarh, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh.

Note:

The Ravidassia sect emerged as a distinct faith separate from Sikhism, shaped by the followers of Guru Ravidas’s teachings. It was established following an event in 2009, when Sikh militants attacked a Ravidas temple, in Vienna, Austria.

Satnami Revolt:

The Satnamis revolted during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.
Reasons:
- Many Hindus resented Aurangzeb’s strict Islamic policies, which included revival of Islamic Jizya tax (poll tax on non-Muslim subjects), banning music and art, and destroying Hindu temples.
Course of the revolt:
- Began in 1672 when a Mughal soldier killed a Satnami.
- Other Satnamis took revenge on the Mughal soldiers, and in turn the Mughal soldiers repressed the Satnamis.
- In turn, 5,000 Satnamis took up arms against the Mughals.
- The Satnamis plundered many villages and seized the town of Narnaul. They even set up their own administration. Next, they marched towards Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi).
- The uprising gained the enthusiasm of Hindus in Agra and Ajmer also.
- It was only when Aurangzeb himself took personal command and sent 10,000 troops with artillery that the Satnamis were suppressed.

Santhal Rebellion (1855-56)

Context: In the last phase of Lok Sabha elections (2024), the Santhal region in Jharkhand is in the light. The region has a rich history and most notably is known for the Santhal rebellion which challenged the colonial authorities and those exploiting the tribal community.

About Santhals

Introduction:

Following the Battles of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764), the British East India Company gained control over Indian provinces, including Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha.
In 1793, Governor-General Lord Cornwallis implemented the Permanent Settlement System in Bengal and Bihar.
The Permanent Settlement granted hereditary and lifelong rights to zamindars, who paid a fixed amount to the British government annually.
It resulted in widespread dissatisfaction among the local population and the exploitation of peasants.

Factors responsible:

The uprising was fuelled by a multitude of factors that pushed the Santhals to their breaking point.

Forced relocation and exploitation:
- The Santhals, an agrarian tribal community dependent on forests for their livelihood, were encouraged to settle in the Damin-i-Koh region (now part of Jharkhand) established by the East India Company in 1832.
- They soon discovered that the area was ruled by zamindars, who were tax-collection agents with significant economic power.
- The motive behind this relocation was to meet the demand for agricultural labor in areas where the population had significantly declined due to the devastating Bengal Famine of 1770.
Exploitation by merchants and moneylenders:
- Exploitative practices such as false measurements, usury, and fraudulent lawsuits perpetuated their subjugation and kept them trapped in cycles of debt bondage.
- The exploitative systems of bonded labor, known as “kamioti” and “harwahi,” made it practically impossible for the Santhals to repay their debts.
Tyranny of zamindars and capitalist agriculture:
- Extraction of exorbitant rents from their meagre earnings.
- Those employed in indigo plantations faced gruelling labour for meagre wages.
- The oppressive economic conditions disrupted their traditional way of life and further plunged them into poverty.
Ineffectual redress and neglect by British administration:
- The Santhals sought redressal through petitions to the British government and recourse to the courts, hoping for relief from their dire circumstances.
- However, they were met with disappointment and indifference at every turn.
Eruption of popular uprising:
- As a result of extreme oppression and neglect, social banditry emerged in 1854.
- Led by figures such as Bir Singh Manjhi, a group of Santhals targeted moneylenders and zamindars, redistributing their spoils among the impoverished Santhals.

Course of the Rebellion:

The ‘Hul,’ as this momentous insurrection was known, was led by four brothers from Bhagnadihi village: Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand, and Bhairav Murmu.
Under their leadership, around 60,000 Santhals mobilized with traditional weapons.
Despite the rebellion primarily being associated with opposition against the British, it actually originated as a revolt against the exploitation perpetrated by Indian ‘upper’ caste zamindars, moneylenders, merchants, and darogas (police officials), collectively referred to as ‘diku,’ who had established dominance over the economic aspects of Santhal life.

Impact of the Rebellion

The uprising prompted the British government to pass the Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act in 1876, providing some protection to tribal members against exploitation.
The region between Bhagalpur and the Rajmahal hills in Singhbhum district was separated and designated as Santhal Pargana which was declared a non-regulation district.
The Santhal Rebellion shed light on the harshness of the zamindari system imposed by the British East India Company on the local indigenous populations.
It also exposed the exploitative practices of moneylenders, who took advantage of the Santhals’ unfamiliarity with monetary systems and charged exorbitant interest rates on loans.
The rebellion had a profound impact on the Santhali identity and resistance against persecution, contributing to the establishment of the state of Jharkhand in 2000.

The Santhal community:

Origin and Migration: The Santhals are believed to have originated from the Champa Kingdom in northern Cambodia. They led a nomadic life in the past but eventually settled in the Chota Nagpur Plateau. Towards the late 18th century, they migrated to the Santhal Parganas of Bihar and later expanded into Odisha.
The third largest Scheduled Tribe in India after the Gond and Bhil and primarily consists of agricultural people. They are predominantly located in Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, and West Bengal.
Compared to other tribal groups in these states, the Santhal population has a relatively high literacy rate. They speak the Santhali language, which has its own script called Ol Chiki, recognized in the Eighth Schedule of the constitution.

History of Sulthan Bathery

Context: Sulthan Bathery in Wayanad, Kerala, is home to a temple that was partly destroyed by Tipu Sultan and used as a store for arms in the 1700s. There have been political debates going on regarding the question of changing its name to Ganapathyvattam.

About Ganapathyvattam temple:

Sulthan Bathery has a Jain stone temple that was once known as Ganapathyvattam.
- Built in the Vijayanagara architectural style was constructed by Jains who migrated to Wayanad from areas in present-day Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the 13th century.
- The temple was partly destroyed during the invasions of Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore in the second half of the 18th century.
- The temple is part of the Jain circuit of Kerala.
- Presently, it is under Archaeological Survey of India as a monument of national importance.

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The erstwhile Hindu temple:
- During the time of Kulashekara (an Indian dynasty ruling over parts of Kerala from 9th to 12th century), the Ganapathyvattam temple was situated here.
- There are beliefs that the kings of Purakizha completed the construction of the temple.
- Later, the temple came under the rulers of Kottayam.
- Tipu destroyed the Temple and used the stones for building a Fort.
- The remains or site of this fort does not exist now.
- Chief deity: Ganapathi (Lord Ganesh)
- Other deities: Baghavathi, Ayyappan, Nagaraja and Shiva.

History of Sultan Bathery:

930 AD: ruler Erayappa of the Ganga dynasty led his troops to the south-west of Mysore and, after conquering it, called it Bayalnad, meaning the land of swamps.
12th century AD: The Ganga dynasty was dethroned by the Kadamba dynasty of North Canara.
1104 AD: Vishnuvardhana of Hoysala invaded Bayalnad followed by the Vijayanagara dynasty in the 16th century.
1610 AD: Udaiyar Raja Wadiyar of Mysore drove out Vijayanagara and became the ruler of Bayalnad.
Under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan:
- Between 1750 and 1790, northern Kerala was invaded several times by the rulers of Mysore, Hyder Ali and Tipu.
- The armies of Tipu destroyed temples and churches.
- Tipu Sultan used the Maha Ganapathy temple in Sulthan Bathery as a battery or store for weapons for his army in the Malabar region.
- This led to the British recording Ganapathyvattam as Tipu Sultan’s Battery, and the name survived as Sulthan Bathery.
Under British rule:
- East India Company (EIC) seized Wayanad from Pazhassi Raja.
- EIC administered the district until it was superseded by the British Raj in 1858.

About Mysore Kingdom:

Independent state created as a result of the Mughal Empire’s fall.
Wadiyars were in charge of this region.
Became a never-ending battleground as a result of several powers’ interest in this land.
Haider Ali gained control over the state.

Haider Ali:

Nanjaraj (the sarvadhikari) and Devaraj Dulwai), reduced Krishnaraja Wadiyar to the status of a puppet.
Under the leadership of the ministers Nanjaraj and Devaraj, Haidar Ali began his career in the Mysore army.
Introduced Western training techniques for his army.
Enlisted assistance from the French to establish a weapons factory in Dindigul (now in Tamil Nadu).
Involved in the First and Second Carnatic Wars in South India.
Mysore sided with the French in the Carnatic Wars.
Nizam of Hyderabad, the Marathas, and the English formed an alliance against Haider Ali, the king of Mysore, in the first Anglo-Mysore war (1767–69). English had to sign the humiliating Treaty of Madras in 1769.
Treaty of Mangalore, signed in 1784: ended the Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–1784).
Tipu Sultan succeeded his father Haider Ali after his death.

About Tipu Sultan:

Last Muslim ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore.
Navy:
- Defeat in the Third Anglo-Mysore War convinced Tipu to take measures to build a navy.
- Issued a Hukmnanah (ordinance) in 1796 for a strong naval force.
- The Navy was put under command of 11 Mir Yam (Lords of Admiralty), with headquarters at Seringapatam.
- Naval divisions or Kachehris at Jamalabad (Mangalore), Wajidabad and Majidabad.
Ammunitions: munitions industry in Nagar, which were regarded as equal in quality to those produced in Europe.
Rocket technology: Pioneer of rocket technology; expanded iron cased Mysorean rockets; commissioned a military manual Fathul Mujahidin.
Economy:
- Attempted to revive commerce and forged commercial linkages with other parts of India and West Asia
- Built a public sector company with state finance.
- He introduced sericulture.
- Member of the Jacobin club; planted a liberty tree at Seringapatam.
Agriculture and Revenue Settlement:
- Modified land revenue management.
- Laid down rules for distribution of arable land among old and new ryots;
- Preference given to hereditary ownership of land and rent was fixed.
- These became the basis for the Ryotwari Settlement introduced by the East India Company in South India.
- Captain Alexander Read first introduced Ryotwari Settlement in Baramahal district surrendered by Tipu after his defeat in 1792.

Calendar: Introduced a new calendar in 1784; known as Mauludi Era and had 354 days; first year from the year of birth of Prophet Muhammad.
Administrative innovations: a new coinage system.
Deployed rockets during Anglo-Mysore Wars, including the Battle of Pollilur and Siege of Seringapatam.
Third Anglo Mysore war (1790-92): Defeated by EIC and the Treaty Seringapatam was concluded. Under the treaty, Tipu lost half of Mysore’s territory.
Fourth Anglo-Mysore war (1799): conclusive; led to the fall of Seringapatam. English chose a Hindu boy from the earlier ruling royal family i.e., Wadiyars, as the Maharaja and imposed subsidiary alliance on him.

Bose, Barkatullah, a history of Indian governments before freedom

Context: Recent political discussions have focused on the establishment of the Provisional Government in 1943 by Subash Chandra Bose, which marked a significant moment in India's political history.

Azad Hind government:

Subhas Chandra Bose proclaimed the formation of the Provisional Government of Azad Hind (Free India) in Singapore on October 21, 1943.
- Bose was the Head of State of this provisional government, and held the foreign affairs and war portfolios.
- A. C. Chatterjee was in charge of finance, S. A. Ayer became minister of publicity and propaganda, and Lakshmi Swaminathan was given the ministry of women’s affairs.
A number of officers from Bose’s Azad Hind Fauj were also given cabinet posts.
The Azad Hind government claimed authority over all Indian civilian and military personnel in Britain’s Southeast Asian colonies (primarily Burma, Singapore, and Malaya) which had fallen into Japanese hands during World War II.
To give legitimacy to his government, Bose chose the Andamans. The Azad Hind government obtained de jure control over a piece of Indian territory when the Japanese handed over the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in 1943, though de facto military control was not relinquished by the Japanese admiralty.
The government also handed out citizenship to Indians living in Southeast Asia, and 30,000 expatriates pledged allegiance to it in Malaya alone.
Diplomatically, Bose’s government was recognised by the Axis powers and their satellites: Germany, Japan, and Italy, as well as Nazi and Japanese puppet states in Croatia, China, Thailand, Burma, Manchuria, and the Philippines.
Immediately after its formation, the Azad Hind government declared war on Britain and the United States.

Other provisional governments:

In 1915, the Provisional Government of India was formed in Kabul by a group known as the Indian Independence Committee (IIC).

Note:

The Berlin Committee, later known as the Indian Independence Committee after 1915, was an organisation formed in Germany in 1914 during World War I by Indian students and political activists residing in the country.
The purpose of the committee was to promote the cause of Indian Independence.
Members: Virendranath Chattopadhyaya,Chempakaraman Pillai, Jnanendra Das Gupta, and Abinash Bhattacharya.

During World War I, Indian nationalists abroad (mostly in Germany and the US), as well as revolutionaries, attempted to further the cause of Indian independence with aid from the Central Powers.
The IIC, with the help of the Ottoman Caliph and the Germans, tried to bring insurrection in India, mainly among Muslim tribes in Kashmir and the British India’s northwestern frontier.
IIC established a government-in-exile in Kabul under the presidency of Raja Mahendra Pratap, and prime minister ship of Maulana Barkatullah, revolutionary freedom fighters.

For more information, follow the links:

Matua Mahasangha & Harichand Thakur

Context: Matua Community, who have migrated from Bangladesh to India over the years, possess Aadhaar cards and voter identity cards and believe that the Citizenship (Amendment) Rules are necessary.

Matua Mahasangha:

A religious reform movement that originated, around 1860 AD, in modern-day Bangladesh.
A sect of depressed class ‘AVARNA; Hindus who are Namasudras, a Scheduled Caste group.
Launched as a reformation by the followers of Harichand Thakur.

Harichand Thakur (1812-1878):

Worked among the untouchable people of Bengal Presidency.
Formed the Matua sect of Hindus along with his son Guruchand Thakur and organized downtrodden peoples of his own community under the banner of ‘Matua religion’.
They considered him as God (Param Brahma) Harichand.
Based on only three basic principles: Truth, Love, and Sanity.
After experiencing Atma darshan or self-revelation, he began to preach his own religious realization which is only based on Bhakti philosophy.
This sect opposed caste oppression and later drew members from other communities, including Malis and Telis, that was ostracised by the upper castes.
Doctrine:
- All traditional rituals, except devotion to God, faith in mankind, and love for living beings, are meaningless.
- It also emphasised on reforming Vaishnava devotionalism.
Matua-Namasudras in 1915, built the 'Sri Sri Harichand Mission', Orakandi in Faridpur, Bengal Presidency (now in Bangladesh).
In the early 1930s, Pramatha Ranjan Thakur, great-grandson of Harichand Thakur, rejuvenated the organization. He founded the town of Thakurnagar, which became the new headquarters of the Matua Mahasangha in 1947.

Remembering the Vaikom Satyagraha

Context: The Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu and Kerala will inaugurate the centenary celebrations of the Vaikom Satyagraha. On March 30^th, 1924, in the princely state of Travancore, a non-violent agitation started, which marked the beginning of ‘temple entry movements’ across the country.

Introduction

Widespread caste discrimination and untouchability across Travancore.
Lower castes like the Ezhavas and Pulayas were considered polluting and various rules were in place to distance them from upper castes.
- Idea of caste pollution worked not only on the basis of touch but also sight.
- This was documented by travellers such as Portuguese Duarte Barbosa who wrote in his memoirs, “When (upper caste Nairs) walk along a street, they shout to the low caste folk to get out of their way … this they do and if one will not, the Nayre may kill him.”
- They were prohibited not just on temple entry, but even on walking on the roads surrounding temples.

Social context of Travancore at the dawn of the 20th century

A number of social and political developments were leading to social change.
Christian missionaries, supported by the East India Company, had expanded their reach and many lower castes converted to Christianity to escape the oppressive system.
With pressure from the British Resident as well as the accession to the throne of Maharaja Ayilyam Thirunal, brought many progressive reforms.
Example: Introduction of a modern education system with free primary education for all, including lower castes.
Forces of capitalism and western education created new social hierarchies. Certain sections among the Ezhavas emerged as an educated class, and now they were fighting for rights of their community.
Ezhavas emerged as the most educated and organised untouchable community in Travancore. The government’s education policies were significant in this regard.
Some Ezhavas successfully pursued education as a portal to advancement, however, due to the reservation of posts for members of the upper castes, they were not able to get the jobs at upper levels.
- Example: In 1918, out of 4000 jobs in the revenue department, 3800 were held by caste Hindus, a numerical minority in the population.

While a small Ezhava elite had begun to emerge, ritual discrimination was still prevalent. Continued discrimination sowed the seeds for agitations to come.

Vaikom Satyagraha

Vaikom:
- Religious town located inside the Kingdom of Travancore.
- The town is famous for Vaikom Shiva Temple.
- City was known as Varanasi of the South.
- The temple did not permit lower castes to enter it and even the roads around the Vaikom Shiva temple were closed to the polluting castes.
The issue of temple entry was first raised by Ezhava leader TK Madhavan in a 1917 editorial in his paper Deshabhimani.
Till 1917, the Indian National Congress refused to take up social reform, but with the rise of Gandhi and increased activism within lower caste communities and untouchables, social reform soon found itself front and centre of Congress’s and Gandhi’s politics.
In 1921, T K Madhavan met with Mahatma Gandhi at Tirunelveli to seek his advice and support for launching an agitation.
Gandhi’s involvement in the struggle proved crucial as it mobilised the educated upper-caste Hindu opinion in favour of temple entry.
Madhavan joined the Congress and participated in the party’s Kakinada session in 1923, where a resolution was passed for the eradication of untouchability.
- The resolution also stated that temple entry was the birth-right of all Hindus and authorised the state Congress to take charge of the struggle.
- Following which Kerala Congress formed an untouchability eradication council under the leadership of K Kelappan.
- The council arrived in Vaikom in February 1924 to take out a procession through the prohibited roads.
March 30, 1924:
- Two untouchables and an upper caste Nair community person took the road around Vaikom Shiva temple that was closed to ‘polluting castes’.
- They were arrested and sentenced to six months’ imprisonment.
- Gandhi approved the agitation and suggested civil disobedience and non-violent satyagraha.
Between April and September, protests reached their peak. Protestors sat in front of the barricades, undertaking rigorous fasts and singing patriotic songs.
Leaders such as Periyar, who was arrested multiple times, and C Rajagopalachari came to Vaikom to offer support and lead the protesters.
Contribution of Periyar: Social reformer and President of Madras Congress Committee E V Ramaswamy Naicker arrived at Vaikom when some leaders of the Satyagraha leaders were jailed.
Cross religious support: Even Christians and Sikhs supported the Vaikom Satyagraha. A group of 15 Akalis led by Lala Lal Singh and Kripal Singh opened a vegetarian mess for anyone who visited the Ashram where Satyagrahis stayed.
Ashram of Sree Narayana Guru: Functioned as the camp for the satyagrahis.
As volunteers and prominent leaders tried to walk through the prohibited roads, they were arrested. The arrested leaders did not seek a bail.
On the other hand, counter-agitations raged on and protesters were often met with violence and intimidation from conservative caste Hindus.
In August, 1924, the Maharaja of Travancore died, following which, the young Maharani Regent, Queen Sethulakshmi Bai, released all prisoners.
But when a large group of protesters marched to the royal palace in Trivandrum, she refused to allow all castes access to temples.
In March 1925, Gandhi began his tour of Travancore and was able to iron out a compromise:
- Gandhi organised a peaceful jatha of Hindus from Vaikom to Thiruvananthapuram and back. This jatha helped raise social consciousness against untouchability.
- Three out of the four roads surrounding the temples were opened up for everyone but the fourth, eastern road, was kept reserved for brahmins.
- This was finally implemented in November 1925, when the government completed diversionary roads that could be used by the low castes without polluting the temple.
- On November 23, 1925, the last satyagrahi was recalled from Vaikom.

The legacy and the aftermath

Vaikom satyagraha saw previously unseen unity across caste lines.
In November 1936, almost a decade after the conclusion of the Satyagraha, the historic Temple Entry Proclamation was signed by the Maharaja of Travancore which removed the age-old ban on the entry of marginalised castes into the temples of Travancore.
It showed the effectiveness of Gandhian civil disobedience as a tool for protest.
The satyagraha brought untouchability to the forefront of political issues in India.

About T. K. Madhavan:

Madhavan was an Indian social reformer, journalist and revolutionary. He was involved with the Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana (SNDP).

About E V Ramaswamy Naicker ‘Periyar’:

Considered to be the most distinguished leader of Dravidian movement and anti-brahmin movement in South India.
His sharp speeches in Vaikom and other parts of Vaikom against untouchability created a big impact. Thus, he was conferred the title of ‘Hero of Vaikom’.
He was with Justice Party of Madras.
He led the Self-Respect Movement (opposed dominance of Brahmins in social life, especially bureaucracy) to redeem the identity and self-respect of Tamils.

About K. Kelappan (1889-1971):

He was the lead figure the Congress during India’s Independence Movement in Kerala was known as ‘Kerala Gandhi’.
Was the founding member & President of Nair Service Society & Kerala Kshetra Samrakshana Samiti.
He was an important figure in lower caste struggle particularly Vaikom Satyagraha and Guruvayur Temple Entry Movement.
Kelappan led the Guruvayur Satyagraha which was an effort for temple entry for untouchables into Guruvayur Temple. Kelappan undertook a hunger strike for 12 days when it was abandoned at the request of Mahatma Gandhi.
He led the Salt Satyagraha in Kerala. He led a batch of Congress workers on foot from Kozhikode to the beaches of Payyanur and broke the salt laws.

Demand to officially list Bengali as a ‘classical language’

Context: West Bengal Chief Minister has formally requested the Prime Minister to designate Bengali as a ‘classical language’.

More about the news:

The Chief Minister has highlighted the historical roots of Bengali, citing scientific research conducted by the state team, which traces the language's origins back 2,500 years.
Documents from the research demonstrate the existence of written Bengali as early as the 3rd-4th BCE.
Bengali, as the official language of West Bengal and the second most spoken language in India, holds the seventh position globally in terms of speakers.
The language maintains its fundamental syntactic structure, distinct morphological and phonological patterns, and has evolved consistently since the 3rd BCE

Classical Language Status:

The term ‘Indian classical languages,’ or Shastriya Bhasha, encompasses languages in India with a rich history, significant antiquity, and a distinct literary heritage.
The Republic of India officially designated six languages as Classical languages.
The Indian government established criteria for conferring the status of a ‘Classical Language,’ a decision implemented by the Ministry of Culture in collaboration with the Linguistic Experts' Committee. This committee, formed by the government, evaluates requests for classifying languages as Classical Languages.
All the Classical Languages are listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution.

To be recognized as a ‘Classical Language,’ a language must satisfy the following criteria:

Demonstrated high antiquity of its early texts or a recorded history spanning 1500–2000 years.
Possession of a body of ancient literature or texts considered valuable heritage by successive generations of speakers.
Originality of the literary tradition, not borrowed from another speech community.
Distinctiveness between the classical language and literature from its modern counterparts, potentially involving a discontinuity.

Languages granted Classical Language status:

Tamil:
- Tamil is predominantly spoken in the southern part of India.
- Recognized as a classical language in 2004, Tamil boasts a vibrant literary tradition spanning over two millennia, with Sangam literature being a notable collection of ancient Tamil works
Sanskrit:
- An ancient classical language in India, Sanskrit originated in the Vedic era.
- Officially recognized as a classical language on January 26, 2005, it holds sacred status in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.Sanskrit is characterized by well-defined grammar, an extensive vocabulary, and has significantly influenced various Indian languages.
Telugu:
- Widely spoken in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, Telugu achieved official recognition as a classical language in India in 2008.
- With ancient origins, Telugu poetry is renowned for its lyrical beauty, and its script is considered one of the oldest writing systems globally.
Kannada:
- Serving as the official language of Karnataka, Kannada has a history spanning over 2,000years.
- Officially recognized as a classical language in India in 2008, Kannada has been shaped by ancient poets like Pampa, Ranna, and Harihara, contributing significantly to its cultural heritage.
- The Kannada script, derived from the ancient Brahmi script, features unique characters.
Malayalam:
- Primarily used in the state of Kerala in southern India, Malayalam's history dates back to the ninth century.
- Recognized as a classical language in 2013, it is believed to have evolved from Proto-Tamil-Malayalam and has made significant contributions to literature, art, and music.
Odia:
- Spoken primarily in the state of Odisha, Odia has origins dating back over 2,500 years, evolving from Prakrit and Sanskrit.
- Officially recognized as a classical language on February 20, 2014, the Indian Government acknowledged its historical, literary, and cultural importance.

Benefits of Classical Status:

Two major international awards annually for distinguished scholars in Classical Indian Languages.
Establishment of a 'Centre of Excellence for Studies in Classical Languages.'
Requesting the University Grants Commission to initiate, initially in Central Universities, a designated number of Professional Chairs for Classical Languages for eminent scholars in Classical Indian Languages.

Paleolithic tool discovery in Mulugu district of Telangana

Context: The recent floods in Telangana's Mulugu district have unveiled a significant discovery of Paleolithic quartzite tools, specifically hand axes. The find, dating back approximately 30 lakh years to the Lower Paleolithic period, challenges existing knowledge about human habitation in Telangana and central India.

Findings at Mulugu district of Telangana

The identified tools were characterized by their chipping style, material, and size, consistent with the methods of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers.
These stone tools belong to the Lower Palaeolithic period about 30 lakh years ago. The Lower Palaeolithic Age is also known as the Old Stone Age or Early Stone Age. The Lower Palaeolithic Age lasted about 10,000 years.
The tools have been identified with the Lower Palaeolithic Age based on their chipping style, material and size of tools. Palaeolithic hunter gatherers used heavy quartzite and large tools. These tools were used cutting wood and killing animals for food. These tools are similar to the tools discovered at other Lower Palaeolithic Period sites across the world.
The historical context includes the 1863 discovery by the East India Company's Geological Survey team at Attirampakkam near Madras (present-day Chennai), revealing bifacial hand-axes dating back 15 lakh years. This Paleolithic culture has been termed the Madras Hand-Axe Industry or Madrasian Culture, contributing to our understanding of early human activities.

Stone tools:

Stone tools serve as the primary archaeological evidence that allows us to gain insights into the lifeways of prehistoric peoples.
When a sizable rock is intentionally fractured into two or more pieces, the largest fragment is termed the core, and the resulting tool is referred to as a core tool.
The smaller fragments detached from the original rock are known as flakes, and tools crafted from these flakes are termed flake tools.

Prehistory:

In 1859, primitive stone implements were discovered alongside fossilized bones of extinct wild cattle and other large mammals in northern Europe.
This revelation indicated that humans had inhabited northern Europe long before its landscape assumed its current configuration, leading to an extended period preceding recorded human history.
Sir John Lubbock, in his 1865 book ‘Prehistoric Times,’ formally announced the birth of a new scientific discipline known as Prehistory. He categorized the Stone Age into the Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age).
By the late 19th century, an intermediate stage, Mesolithic, was introduced between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic.
Additionally, the cultural sequence derived from cave and open-air sites in France led to the recognition of three phases within the Palaeolithic phase: Lower, Middle, and Upper.

Geographical settings in Indian subcontinent:

The Indian landscape possessed all the essential conditions for a successful hunting-gathering lifestyle:
- diverse landforms facilitating the movement of such groups,
- Presence of various basic rocks and siliceous stones suitable for toolmaking,
- Perennial water bodies in the form of streams and springs, and a rich variety of wild plant and animal foods.
- Except for the Himalayan tract and the Indo-Gangetic alluvial tracts, Stone Age groups occupied the entire Indian landmass.

Paleolithic phase in India:

Indian Paleolithic is categorized into three distinct developmental stages:
- Lower Paleolithic: 600,000 years BP to 150,000 years BP
- Middle Paleolithic: 165,000 BP to 31,000 years BP
- Upper Paleolithic: 40,000 years BP to 12,000 years BP
- Lower Paleolithic practices involve the utilization of large pebbles or flakes for crafting tools such as choppers, chopping tools, hand-axes, cleavers, knives, and more.
Middle Paleolithic: the focus shifted to the use of a diverse range of flakes struck from cores to create tools like scrapers, points, borers, and others.
Upper Paleolithic stage introduced further advancements, with implement types like blunted and pen knife blades, blades featuring serrated edges, and arrow points crafted on long parallel-sided blades struck in a series from cylindrical cores using the punch technique.

Lower Paleolithic phase

Comprises two primary tool-making or cultural traditions

1. Soanian tradition:

Part of the East and Southeast Asian chopper-chopping tool tradition.
Through field studies, they identified a series of five terraces on the Soan River, part of the Indus drainage system.
Tools from this tradition include pebbles with working edges on their sides or ends, obtained by flaking from one or both surfaces, producing choppers or chopping tools.
Pebble tool assemblages were found on the Indian side of the border in Sirsa and Ghaggar valleys of Haryana, Beas and Banganga valleys of Himachal Pradesh, and the Hoshiarpur-Chandigarh sector of the Siwalik Frontal Range.

2.Acheulian Cultural tradition:

Hand-axes and cleavers, represented advanced and increasingly symmetrical shapes.
Quartzite was the preferred rock for tool-making, but in areas where it was not naturally available, Acheulian groups utilized other rocks such as limestone in the Bhima basin, dolerite and basalt in Maharashtra, and fossil wood in Bihar and Bengal.
Techniques like stone hammer, soft hammer, and prepared core methods were employed to detach flakes and shape them into implements.

Key Lower Paleolithic sites

Singi Talav in western Rajasthan
Rock shelter III F-23 at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, providing Acheulian, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic, and Mesolithic levels.
Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh
Paisra in Munger district, Bihar: The excavation exposed hut-like dwelling structures and a circular arrangement of stone blocks.
Chirki-Nevasa in Maharashtra, yielding dolerite artifacts along with fossil bones of wild cattle and other animals.
Morgaon, a site in the Deccan basalt landscape in the Bhima drainage basin
Hunsgi in north Karnataka.
Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu, an in situ Acheulian site recently dated to 1.5 million years BP by advanced scientific techniques.

Middle Paleolithic phase:

Middle Paleolithic culture encompasses a diverse array of tools crafted from flakes, produced through specialized techniques, earning it the designation of a flake tool industry.
In Africa, Europe, South-West Asia and Russia, this culture is associated with the extinct Homo neanderthalensis, commonly known as Neanderthal man, who lived during the Upper Pleistocene period.
Middle Paleolithic tools in India are fashioned from flakes and flake-blades.
Tool types include various scrapers, awls, borers, unilateral or bilateral points, miniature handaxes and cleavers, and utilized flakes.
Stone types employed: Fine grained rocks like chert, jasper, chalcedony, agate etc.
Technique of making stone tools: Levallois technique, retouching etc.
Manufacturing sites also reveal the presence of hammers.
Middle Paleolithic Culture in India was first recorded in Pravara at Nevasa (Maharashtra) and then later in Godavari Valley in Karnataka by H. D. Sankalia. Sankalia named this culture Nevasian.
Middle Paleolithic sites are distributed across the Indian subcontinent.
Notable sites include: Didwana in Rajasthan, Hiran valley in Gujarat, Potwar Plateau between the Indus and Jhelum rivers, Budha Pushkar in Rajasthan, Luni river system (indicating tool industries west of the Aravallis), Chirki Nevasa in Maharashtra, and Kalpi in Uttar Pradesh.

Upper Palaeolithic phase:

Upper Palaeolithic marks the final phase of Palaeolithic era and stands out as a period of significant human achievements.
Upper Palaeolithic cultures flourished in Europe, South-West Asia, Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia during the later stages of Upper Pleistocene, often referred to as Late Pleistocene falling between 40,000 to 10,000 years ago.
The Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens (AMHS), the only surviving human species, is associated with this cultural phase, encompassing our own species.
Technologically, the Upper Palaeolithic is characterized by advancements in stone tool manufacture, particularly the production of parallel-sided blades.
- These blades, refined and elongated in shape with parallel sides, are created through the prismatic-core technique or fluted-core technique.
- Blades are produced by striking along the circumference of the core, resulting in a series of blades removed by indirect percussion.
- Subsequently, these blades are further worked and finished through a process known as backing, resulting in tools termed backed blade tools.
In the Indian context, Upper Palaeolithic cultural relics are primarily stone tools based on blade-tool technology.
As most of these sites are open-air occupations, tools made of organic materials like bone are scarce due to disintegration in open-air conditions.
Bone tools, however, were discovered in the Kurnool caves (Andhra Pradesh), where favourable preservation conditions existed.

Bone tool industries of the Upper Palaeolithic phase:

These are known from the Kurnool cave sites in Andhra Pradesh, revealing a variety of tools such as awls, barbed and un-barbed arrowheads, daggers, scraper-knives, scrapers, chisels, gouges, wedges, axe heads, and sockets
These bone tools exhibit crude technology, reflecting the short-term nature of cave occupations.
Subsequent excavations in the Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi cave have revealed blade tools and bone tools, showcasing the technological diversity of this cultural phase.
Prominent Upper Palaeolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent include Chopani Mando in Belan valley, Baghor in Madhya Pradesh, Paisra in Munger district of Bihar, Haora and Khowai river valleys in western Tripura, Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh, Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi in Andhra Pradesh, and Renugunta in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh.