Indian Music

Sufi Music and Amir Khusrau

Context: Indian Prime Minister recently attended Sufi festival Jahan-e-Khusrau Festival and underscored the role of Sufi tradition in sustaining the country’s pluralistic culture.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Important facts about Sufi Music; Hindustani Classical Music; Amir Khusrau.

About Sufi Music (Sub-part of Hindustani Music)

Sufi Music is a devotional music of the Sufis, inspired by the works of Sufi poets like Rumi, Hafiz, Bulleh Shah, Amir Khusrau, and Khwaja Ghulam Farid.
Delhi Sultanate, 13th Century onwards, witnessed the rise of Sufi music, which later began to spread across the north Indian subcontinent.
The ancient spiritual practice of Sufism incorporates all kinds of activities to achieve a state in which the practitioner loses the ego and experiences God through singing, chanting, reciting, whirling and music.

Qawwali

Qawwali (way of rendering Sufi verses) is the best-known form of Sufi music and is most commonly found in the Sufi culture in South Asia. It was popularised by Amir Khusrau ( a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya). So, it is of Indian origin.
The term Qawawali comes from the Qawwal who is a singer singing the verses of a Sufi saint.
The singer is often accompanied by harmoniums, tabla, and dholak. The lyrics typically draw from Sufi poetry, expressing devotion, love for God, and spiritual yearning.
Tempo (pace of singing) is a bit faster in Qawwali and rhythmic clapping throughout the song is important.

Ghazal

It originated in the Arabic world and later came to India under Persian influence.
Ghazal may be a poetry (unsung) or a song.
It is a poetic form that consists of rhyming couplets (not more than 12) and a refrain, with each line sharing the same meter.
Most of the ghazals are now sung in styles that are not limited to khyal, thumri and other classical and light classical genres.
Each couplet can stand alone as a complete thought, but they are usually connected by a common emotional thread.
Some of the famous persons associated with Ghazal are Muhammad Iqbal, Mirza Ghalib, Rumi (13th century), Hafez (14th century), Kazi Nazrul Islam, etc.
The tempo of a Ghazal is slow.

About Hindustani Classical Music

Hindustani Classical Music draws inspiration from Rigveda, Yajurvedic chants and Natya Shastra (gives information on scales, melodic forms, tala and musical instruments).
Key texts in Hindustani Music:
- Brihaddesi by Matanga compiled between 8th-9th century AD.
- Sangeeta Ratankara written by Sarangadeva (13^th century AD)
Tala System: Tala is the cyclic arrangement of time units which is central to Hindustani Classical Music.
Two broad categories of Musical forms:
- Anibaddha Sangeet: Free-flowing music, not restricted by meaningful words and tala. Its finest form is the alap.
- Nibaddha Sangeet: Structured compositions with tala and lyrics, such as Dhrupad and Khayal. Prabhandha is a specific type of Nibaddha.
  - Of all known prabandhas, Jayadeva’s (12th century) compositions are best known. His significant work was Gita Govinda, and his songs are ashtapadis (each song has eight couplets).

Main styles of singing in Hindustani Music:

There are 10 main styles of singing in Hindustani music like the Dhrupad, Dhamar, Hori, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturang, Ragasagar, Tarana, Sargam and Thumri.

Dhrupad: Oldest surviving classical style of Hindustani vocal music. It refers to both the poetry's verse structure and the manner in which it is sung. In the mediaeval era, dhrupad rose to prominence as the primary singing style.
- Baba Gopal Das, Swami Haridas, and Tansen (who was regarded as one of the Navaratna or nine gems of the Mughal court) were supported by Akbar.
- Man Singh Tomar, the Maharaja of Gwalior was responsible for the enormous vogue of Dhrupad. Bean and Pakhwaj were associated with Dhrupad.
Khyal: It means the idea or imagination is a Persian term. As it allows for more improvisation, this style is well-liked by artists. It is built on a collection of brief songs with two to eight lines. Khyal composition is typically also referred to as a Bandish.
- The origin of this style was accredited to Amir Khusaru (13th century). It attained its maturity at the hands of Niyamat Khan Sadarang and Adarang of the 18th century.
  - Amir Khusrau is believed to have invented the sitar and the tabla and is said to have introduced new ragas.
  - There are Gharanas in Khayal which are schools of singing founded or developed by various individuals or patrons such as king or nobility.
  - Important gharanas are Gwalior gharana (oldest), Agra gharana (founded by Khuda Baksh) and Jaipur gharana (directly took off from Dhrupad), Rampur Saheswan gharana (Uttar Pradesh).
Thumri and Tappa: Thumri is a love song whereas Tappa consists of the song uttered in a fast note pattern.
Tarana Style: In this style, the rhythm plays a very crucial role and uses many words that are sung at a fast tempo. The origin of this style was also accredited to Amir Khusaru.

About Amir Khusrau

Early Life & Background

Born in 1253 CE in Patiyali (modern-day Uttar Pradesh, India) in a Turkish family.
His father, Amir Saifuddin Mahmud, was a Turkish officer in the army of Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish.
His mother was of Indian origin, which influenced his appreciation of Indian culture.
He was highly talented in literature and music from a young age.

Career & Association with Delhi Sultanate

Served in the royal courts of multiple Delhi Sultans, including:
- Balban (1266–1287)
- Khilji rulers: Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji & Alauddin Khilji (1296–1316)
- Tughlaq rulers: Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq & Muhammad bin Tughlaq
He was a court poet, chronicler, and musician, composing many historical and literary works.
A disciple of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya, with whom he shared a deep spiritual bond.

Contributions to Literature

Wrote in Persian, Arabic, and Hindavi (early Hindi-Urdu dialects).
His poetry reflected themes of Sufism, love, devotion, and patriotism.
Famous works include:
- "Tuhfat-us-Sighr" (The Gift of Childhood) – his first collection of poems.
- "Qiran-us-Sa’dain" – a historical work describing the meeting of Sultan Kaiqubad and his father Nasiruddin Bughra Khan.
- "Khazain-ul-Futuh" (Treasure of Victories) – chronicling Alauddin Khilji's reign.
- "Nuh Sipihr" (Nine Skies) – describing India’s beauty and diversity.
- "Masnavi Duval Rani Khizr Khan" – a romantic poem.
- "Ghazals and Qasidas" – lyrical and devotional poetry, many of which are still recited.

Musical Contributions

Credited with the invention of Qawwali, a Sufi devotional music genre.
Contributed to the evolution of Hindustani classical music, particularly in Khyal and Tarana styles.
Often credited (though debated) with the invention of Sitar and introduction of Persian elements into Indian music.

Influence on Indian Culture

Often called "Tuti-e-Hind" (Parrot of India) for his eloquence in poetry.
Promoted Hindavi (early Hindi-Urdu) as a literary language.
His works laid the foundation for later Urdu poetry and Indo-Persian traditions.

Death & Legacy

He died in 1325 CE in Delhi, soon after his spiritual mentor Nizamuddin Auliya.
Buried near Nizamuddin Auliya's Dargah in Delhi.
His poetry, music, and literary style continue to inspire artists, poets, and musicians in India, Pakistan, and beyond.

Mridangam virtuoso Karaikudi Mani takes the final bow

Context: Mridangam player Karaikudi R. Mani passed away. Through his group Sruthilaya, he popularised South Indian percussion instruments all over the world. He pioneered the Thala Vadya (percussion ensembles) performances in Carnatic music, which feature two percussion instruments performing solos without the use of vocals, veena, or violin.

Mridangam

A percussion instrument of ancient origin.
It serves as the main source of rhythmic accompaniment in a Carnatic music ensemble.
The pakhawaj, a modified version of mridangam, is the main percussion instrument in Dhrupad.
It is a complex instrument to tune and involves a lot of mathematics to construct korvais.
The mridangam is played during a percussion ensemble (Thala vadya).
The mridangam body is formed from a single piece of wood. The wood of the morgosa tree, the core of the coconut tree, and the palm tree are also utilised by manufacturers, but jackwood or redwood is their preferred material.
The right head of the drum is made up of three concentric layers of skin.

Indian Musical Instruments

Musical instruments like seven-holed flute and Ravanahatha, have been recovered from the sites of Indus Valley Civilization.

Four major traditional categories of musical instruments

Avanaddha Vadya/Percussion Instruments: These are known as membranophone as they have an exterior membrane that can be beaten to extract specific musical tones. One or two faces are covered with skin or hide. Examples: Tabla, Drum, Dhol, Congo, Mridangam, etc.

2. Sushira Vadya/Aerophones: Includes all the wind instruments. Examples: Bansuri (flute), Shehnai, Pungi, Ninkirns, etc.

Shehnai: It is a double reeded wind instrument with a widening tube towards the end. The exalted title of the ‘Shehnai King’ has been given to the legendary Ustad Bismillah Khan, who took the Shehnai to its zenith through his soulful play.
Flute: It has been in use since the Vedic period. It was initially called Nadi or Tunava.

3. Ghana Vadya/Idiophone: It is the genre of the solid instruments that do not require any tuning. Examples: Manjira, Jaltarang, Kanch tarang, Jhanj, Khartal, etc.

Manjira: A small brass cymbal that is generally used in temples. Archaeological excavations have dated Manjira to be as old as the Harappan civilisation.

4. Tata Vadya /Chordophones: String instruments that function best when their sound is modified by hand.

Three major types of Tata instruments:

Bowed: The instruments where the sound is drawn from drawing a bow across the strings. Example: Sarangi, Esraj and Violin.
Plectral: The instruments where the strings are plucked by the fingers or by a plectrum of wire or horn. Example: Sitar, Veena and Tamboora.
Those instruments that are struck by small hammer or a pair of sticks. Example: Gotuvadyam and Swaramandal.

Classical Music

Two distinct schools of Indian classical music evolved

Hindustani music:

Practiced in the northern parts of India.
This branch of music places more emphasis on the structure of the song as well as its improvisational potential.
The Shudha Swara Saptaka, also known as the "Octave of Natural Notes," scale was adopted by the Hindustani branch.

Ten main styles: Dhrupad, Dhamar, Hori, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturang, Ragasaga, Tarana, Sargam and Thumri.
Dhrupad:

One of the oldest forms of Hindustani classical music. It is also mentioned in Natyashastra (200 BC–200 AD).
Consolidated its position as a classical form of music in the 13th century but reached its zenith in the court of emperor Akbar.
Akbar employed and patronised musical masters like Baba Gopal Das, Swami Haridas and Tansen.
Singers who mastered Dhrupad were also patronised in the court of Raja Man Singh Tomar situated in Gwalior.
It became the major form of singing in the medieval period but fell in a state of decline in the 18th century.
Khyal:

The origin of this style was attributed to Amir Khusrau.
This form is popular amongst the artists as this provides greater scope for improvisation.
A Khyal composition is also referred to as a ‘Bandish’.

Carnatic music

Practiced in the southern parts of India.
The music is based on kriti and emphasises the saahitya, or lyrical aspect, of the musical piece.
The Kriti is a highly developed musical composition with a definite tala or rhythmic cycle and a certain raga.
Mridangam is frequently used to perform Carnatic music.
"Thanam" is the name of the melodic improvisation in unstructured rhythm with mridangam.
The term "Ragam" is used to describe those pieces without a mridangam.
Less improvisation is allowed than in Hindustani music.