GS Paper 3

Declining cotton production in India

Context: The farmers from Maharashtra have decided to cut the cotton crop area in the coming Kharif season and divert it to tur/arhar(pigeon pea).

Production and yield of cotton for the last 5 years

Year	Acreage (in lakh hectares)	Yield (Lint in Kg/ha)
2016-17	108.26	542
2017-18	125.86	500
2018-19	126.14	449
2019-20	134.77	460
2020-21 (P)	130.07	462
2021-22 (P)	120.69	510

Data Source: Ministry of Textiles

About Cotton

Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus Gossypium.
The fiber is almost pure cellulose and can contain minor percentages of waxes, fats, pectins, and water.

It is native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world.
It is one of the largest users of water among all agricultural commodities.
It is a Kharif crop that is largely dependent on rainfall patterns and grows in the months of April to May.

Geographical Conditions Required for Cotton Cultivation

1. Temperature

Warm climate (25 or more).
Plenty of sunshine during growing seasons cooler during harvest therefore cultivated between 30-30 N-S.
Long growing periods of at least 200 frost-free days are necessary for plants to grow.
Extremely sensitive to frost

2. Rainfall

Moderate to light (51 to 110 cm) without irrigation.
Better quality fiber can be obtained in semi-arid and even arid conditions with irrigation facilities. Because a dry environment inhibits the spread of pests and irrigation provides a controlled supply of water.
Cotton needs a minimum of 5-6 irrigations, especially during the flowering, bud, and boll formation stages.

3. Soils

Medium loam with good drainage which gives good support in windy or stormy weather.
Mineral nutrient requirements are high.
Very exhaustive of soil. Therefore, high demand for fertilizer and manures.

4. Land

Best grown on flat (no flooding) or undulating lands which facilitate the use of machinery.
The United States and developed regions have highly mechanized farms -> economies of scale.
Flat and gently sloping land is best for irrigation.

5. Labour

Highly labour intensive, except in the developed world.
In the USA, there was slavery in the cotton industry before mechanization.

Cotton Producing Country

Luxury in Europe until the 18th Century. (Before the Industrial revolution mechanized spinning and weaving started)
Major crop of Americas, Africa, Egypt, India, and China for centuries.
In the 19th century, US and UK became major centers of textile manufacturing.
Currently, five countries make up around 75% of global cotton production: China, India, the United States, Brazil, and Australia with China being the world’s biggest producer.

Cotton Producing States

India produces all four types of cotton:

(a) American cotton,

(b) Asian cotton,

(d) African cotton.

Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Telangana are the major cotton-producing states which produce about 65% of cotton production in the country.

Reason for declining cotton production in India

This is because of:

Relative Price: The disappointment with prices of kapas (raw un-ginned cotton) has crashed from the heady highs in past years.
Crop Duration: Kapas is a long-duration crop harvested over 4-5 pickings. The first picking itself takes 100-120 days, with subsequent ones following every 15-20 days. That makes it a 160-200 days crop, as against 100-120 days of other crops. Farmers sowing the latter have more flexibility, therefore, to take a second crop during the rabi (winter-spring) season.
Monsoon uncertainties: Cotton needs a minimum of 5-6 irrigations, especially during the flowering, bud, and boll formation stages and other crops like tur don’t need more than 2-3 irrigations. The reduction could be more if rainfall isn’t good. Only a third of India’s cotton area is under irrigation. The rest is entirely rainfed.

Impact of declining cotton production

Economic Impact: India is one of the largest cotton producers and exporters globally. A decline in cotton production can lead to reduced exports, resulting in a negative impact on foreign exchange earnings.
Employment: The cotton sector is labour-intensive, providing employment opportunities for millions of people and affecting both rural and urban populations employed in activities like farming, harvesting, ginning, textile production, and related industries.
Textile Industry: India's textile industry heavily depends on cotton as a raw material. Shrinking cotton production can result in a scarcity of domestically sourced cotton, leading to increased import dependency and potentially higher raw material costs for textile manufacturers. This can impact the competitiveness of Indian textiles in the global market.
Input Industries: Cotton production requires various inputs, such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery and affects the agricultural input industry.

Scientists X-ray a single atom for the first time

Context: Scientists, for the first time, have identified an element by X-raying a single atom of a material.

The experiment

X-rays are an important way to identify the type of material. Until the recent experiment, the minimum sample size required was roughly 10,000 atoms.
- The minimum amount of material was required as an atom’s response to being hit by X-rays can be very weak. Hence, the more atoms, the better detectors can pick up on their response.
For the experiment, the scientists used a method called synchrotron X-ray scanning tunnelling microscopy or SX-STM. The scientists modified a conventional X-ray detector to add a sharp metal tip that would be moved to be extremely close to a sample (as close as 0.5 nanometres from the atom). This is to improve the detector’s ability to record any signals from the atom.
The sample’s atom was hit with X-ray photons. The electrons in the atom absorbed only photons of certain frequencies. Using a spectroscope, the team determined which frequencies had been absorbed and hence, identified the element. (Every element has a unique absorption spectrum which can be used to identify it).

Significance:

Identification of a material using only one atom can revolutionise research in material science, quantum mechanics, and other areas.
The study also characterised the chemical states of the atoms and will help understand their properties better, which would help researchers manipulate the atoms to greater precision.

About X-rays

X-Rays or X-radiation is a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation. They have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometres, frequencies in the range 3 × 10^19 Hz to 3×10^16 Hz and energies in the range of 100 eV to 100 keV.
X-rays are generated when high-energy electrons interact with matter. X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds.
A very high radiation dose of X-ray over a short period causes radiation sickness, while lower doses can give an increased risk of radiation-induced cancer.

Applications:

X-rays are used in checking for fractures (broken bones), spotting pneumonia (chest X-rays), spotting cancer (Mammograms) and detecting tumours.
Ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in cancer treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy.
X-rays have much shorter wavelengths than visible light, which makes it possible to probe structures much smaller than can be seen using a normal microscope. This property is used in X-ray microscopy to acquire high-resolution images, and also in X-ray crystallography to determine the positions of atoms in crystals.
X-rays are also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy.
X-rays can travel through a vacuum (propagate through empty space without requiring a medium). This property allows X-rays to be used in space exploration and research conducted in vacuum chambers.
X-rays are used in security systems, such as airport scanners, to detect objects hidden within luggage or on a person's body.

Will the WHO’s ‘pandemic treaty’ leave out antimicrobial resistance?

Context: Recently, the latest version of the draft Pandemic Instrument or the pandemic treaty was shared with member states at the World Health Assembly. While earlier drafts of the Pandemic Instrument drew on guidance from Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) policy researchers and civil society organizations, but after the closed-door negotiations by member states, these insertions are at risk for removal.

Anti-Microbial Resistance:

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is the process by which infections caused by microbes become resistant to medicines/antimicrobial treatments (such as antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antimalarials, and anthelmintics) developed to treat them.
- Microbes include bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites.
As a result, traditional therapies are rendered ineffective, illnesses persist, and the risk of spreading the infection to others increases. Antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms are frequently referred to as "superbugs."

Factors contributing to AMR:

Misuse of antibiotics by buying over-the-counter/wrong prescription. Widespread use of antibiotics over the last years due to COVID-19.
Rampant use of antibiotics in agriculture and farming sector. E.g., Streptomycin used for treating Tuberculosis is used indiscriminately to grow fruits & vegetables, Colistin is mixed in poultry feed to make chickens grow faster.
Untreated waste from pharmaceutical manufacturing sites and hospitals releases large amounts of active antimicrobials into the environment.
Incomplete course of antimicrobial drugs may develop drug resistance. E.g., MDR-Tuberculosis.
Lack of hygiene and sanitation, infrastructural standards such as quality of drinking water and sanitation levels also contribute to AMR.

Rising Risk due to AMR:

AMR is fueling the rise of drug-resistant infections, including:
- drug-resistant tuberculosis
- drug-resistant pneumonia
- drug-resistant Staph infections such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).

AMR has made it harder to treat such infections and also, adds to the burden of communicable diseases and strains the health systems of a country.

AMR has been named one of the top ten global health hazards by the World Health Organisation (WHO).
- In 2019, AMR was associated with an estimated 4.95 million human deaths.
- A 2018 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) warned of a phenomenal increase in resistance to backup antibiotics (second and third-line) by 2030.

AMR imposes a huge health cost on the patient in the form of longer hospitalisation, health complications and delayed recovery. It puts patients undergoing major surgeries and treatments, such as chemotherapy, at a greater risk.

The Pandemic Instrument:

In December 2021, the 194 World Health Organization (WHO) Member States agreed to draft and negotiate an international pandemic instrument/treaty.
Aim: To strengthen and coordinate national and international efforts to prevent, prepare for, and respond to future pandemic emergencies.

Concern:

However, the draft Pandemic Instrument is overly focused on viral threats and has ignored the “silent” pandemic of antimicrobial resistance and bacterial threats.
But, it is a cause of concern as not all pandemics in the past have been caused by viruses and not all pandemics in the future will be caused by viruses. E.g., Plague and cholera have been devastating past pandemics due to bacteria.
- Even in the case of a viral pandemic, secondary bacterial infections will be a serious issue. E.g., COVID-19 patients were associated with pneumonia — a secondary bacterial infection that must be treated with antibiotics.

Way Forward:

The “pandemic treaty” must plan, prepare and develop effective tools to respond to a wider range of pandemic threats, not solely viruses. Hence, there is a need to include bacterial pathogens in the definition of “pandemics”.
AMR exceeds the capacity of any single country or sector to solve. Global political action is needed to ensure the international community works together to collectively mitigate AMR and support the conservation, development and equitable distribution of safe and effective antimicrobials.
Treating bacterial infections requires effective antibiotics, and with AMR increasing, effective antibiotics are becoming a scarce resource. Hence, more government investment in research and innovation is needed to develop new antibiotics.

Malware Attack

Context: Recently a malware attack was detected by the cyber security team of the All India Institute of Medical Science (AIIMS), and was later thwarted and neutralised by the team.

What is a Malware Attack?

A malware attack is a common cyberattack where malware (normally malicious software) executes unauthorized actions on the victim’s system. Malicious software (a.k.a. viruses) encompasses many specific types of attacks such as ransomware, spyware, command and control, and more.

Criminal organizations, state actors, and even well-known businesses have been accused of (and, in some cases, caught) deploying malware. Like other types of cyber attacks, some malware attacks end up with mainstream news coverage due to their severe impact. An example of a famous malware attack is the WannaCry ransomware attack.

Malware Attacks Examined

Malware discussion typically encompasses three main aspects:

Objective: What the malware is designed to achieve
Delivery: How the malware is delivered to the target
Concealment: How the malware avoids detection (this item is beyond the scope of this discussion)

Here’s a breakdown of some of the objectives and delivery mechanisms observed in malware.

Objectives

Malware is created with an objective in mind. While it could be said that the objective is “limited only to the imagination of its creator,” this will focus on some of the most common objectives observed in malware.

Exfiltrate Information: Stealing data, credentials, payment information, etc. is a recurring theme in the realm of cybercrime. Malware focused on this type of theft can be extremely costly to a person, company, or government target that falls victim.
Disrupt Operations: Actively working to “cause problems” for a target’s operation is another objective seen in malware. From a virus on a single computer corrupting critical OS files (making that one system unusable) to an orchestrated, physical self-destruction of many systems in an installation, the level of “disruption” can vary. And there’s also the scenario where infected systems are directed to carry out large-scale distributed denial of service (DDOS) attacks.
Demand Payment: Some malware is focused on directly extorting money from the target. Scareware uses empty threats (ones that are unsubstantiated and/or couldn’t be carried out) to “scare” the target into paying some money. Ransomware is a type of malware that attempts to prevent a target from accessing their data (usually by encrypting files on the target) until the target “pays up.” While there is debate over whether victims of ransomware should or should not pay, it has become enough of a threat that some companies have preemptively purchased Bitcoin just in case they get hit with ransomware and decide to pay the ransom.

Types of Malware Attack Vectors

There are three main types of malware attack vectors:

Trojan Horse: This is a program that appears to be one thing (e.g. a game, a useful application, etc.) but is a delivery mechanism for malware. A trojan horse relies on the user to download it (usually from the internet or via email attachment) and run it on the target.
Virus: A virus is a type of self-propagating malware that infects other programs/files (or even parts of the operating system and/or hard drive) of a target via code injection. This behaviour of malware propagation through injecting itself into existing software/data is a differentiator between a virus and a trojan horse (which has purposely built malware into one specific application and does not make attempts to infect others).
Worm: Malware designed to propagate itself into other systems is a worm. While virus and trojan horse malware are localized to one infected target system, a worm actively works to infect other targets (sometimes without any interaction on the user’s behalf).

Over the years, malware has been observed to use a variety of different delivery mechanisms, or attack vectors. While a few are admittedly academic, many attack vectors are effective at compromising their targets. These attack vectors generally occur over electronic communications such as email, text, vulnerable network service, or compromised website, malware delivery can also be achieved via physical media (e.g. USB thumb drive, CD/DVD, etc.).

Best Practices Against Malware Attacks

The following best practices can help prevent a malware attack from succeeding and/or mitigate the damage done by a malware attack.

Continuous User Education: Training users on best practices for avoiding malware (i.e. don’t download and run unknown software, don’t blindly insert “found media” into your computer), as well as how to identify potential malware (i.e. phishing emails, unexpected applications/processes running on a system) can go a long way in protecting an organization. Periodic, unannounced exercises, such as intentional phishing campaigns, can help keep users aware and observant. Learn more about security awareness training.
Use Reputable A/V Software: When installed, a suitable A/V solution will detect (and remove) any existing malware on a system, as well as monitor for and mitigate potential malware installation or activity while the system is running. It’ll be important to keep it up-to-date with the vendor’s latest definitions/signatures.
Ensure Your Network is Secure: Controlling access to systems on your organization’s network is a great idea for many reasons. The use of proven technology and methodologies—such as using a firewall, IPS, IDS, and remote access only through VPN—will help minimize the attack “surface” your organization exposes. Physical system isolation is usually considered an extreme measure for most organizations and is still vulnerable to some attack vectors.
Perform Regular Website Security Audits: Scanning your organization’s websites regularly for vulnerabilities (i.e. software with known bugs, server/service/application misconfiguration) and detecting if known malware has been installed can keep your organization secure, protect your users, and protect customers and visitors for public-facing sites.
Create Regular, Verified Backups: Having a regular (i.e. current and automated) offline backup can be the difference between smoothly recovering from a destructive virus or ransomware attack and stressful, frantic scrambling with costly downtime/data loss. The key here is to have regular backups that are verified to be happening on the expected regular basis and are usable for restoration operations. Old, outdated backups are less valuable than recent ones, and backups that don’t restore properly are of no value.

DNA Sampling

Context: In the tragic railway accident that took place in Balasore in Odisha, the administration is facing a challenge of identifying people. In order to identify people, A DNA testing centre has been created at AIIMS to identify people and give the bodies to respective family members.

What is DNA Sampling?

DNA sampling refers to the collection and analysis of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) samples from individuals. DNA is the genetic material that carries the instructions for the development and functioning of living organisms.

What are the ways to collect DNA Sample?

Following are the ways to collect DNA sample:

By collecting cheek swab
By drawing blood
By taking saliva sample
In new born, through heel prick
Amniocentesis for pregnant women
Chorionic villus sampling for 10-13 week old featus
Fine needle aspiration

For forensic studies, DNA is collected from following sources:

DNA sampling is used in various contexts, including forensic investigations, paternity testing, and medical research. Here's how it is commonly used to identify people:

Forensic DNA Sampling: In criminal investigations, DNA sampling plays a crucial role in identifying suspects and linking them to crime scenes. Investigators collect DNA samples from various sources such as blood, saliva, hair, or skin cells left at the scene. These samples are then sent to a laboratory for analysis.

DNA Profiling: The collected DNA samples are subjected to a process called DNA profiling or DNA fingerprinting. This process involves analyzing specific regions of the DNA sequence that exhibit variations between individuals, known as polymorphic regions or genetic markers.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): PCR is a technique used to amplify specific DNA regions in the collected samples. This amplification process generates sufficient DNA material for further analysis.

Short Tandem Repeat (STR) Analysis: STR analysis is commonly used in forensic DNA profiling. It involves identifying and comparing the lengths of short repeated sequences of DNA at specific loci. These repetitive sequences vary among individuals, making them useful for distinguishing between people.

DNA Database Comparison: Once the DNA profile is obtained, it can be compared to profiles stored in DNA databases. These databases contain DNA profiles from known individuals, such as convicted criminals or missing persons. If a match is found, it can provide important investigative leads or help confirm a person's identity.

Paternity Testing: DNA sampling is also used in paternity testing to determine biological relationships between individuals. The DNA profiles of the child and potential parents are compared, and the likelihood of paternity is assessed based on the degree of similarity.

It's important to note that DNA sampling and analysis require careful handling and adherence to strict protocols to ensure accuracy and avoid contamination. The results obtained from DNA testing can provide strong evidence in various legal, medical, and identity-related situations.

Balasore train accident: What and Why

Context: The Balasore accident was an exception in recent years, but it also reflects the declining focus on safety measures by the Indian Railways.

What happened in Balasore

At least 288 people have been killed and over 1000 were injured in a horrific three-train collision. The crash involved the Bengaluru-Howrah Superfast Express, the Shalimar-Chennai Central Coromandel Express, and a goods train.
The accident saw one train ram so hard into the other that carriages were lifted high into the air, twisting and then smashing off the tracks. Another carriage had been tossed entirely onto its roof, crushing the passenger section.

Why the train accident happened

Railway officials indicated that possible “sabotage” and tampering with the electronic interlocking system, which detects the presence of trains.

Trends in rail accidents

Chart 1 shows that year-wise number of accidents have decreased sharply between 1990 to 2021. The main contributor in this regard was in the case of derailment. Similarly there was decline in the collisions and level crossing. However, number of fires in the trains (despite being the least in numbers) has remained consistent.

Chart 2 shows the number of killed passenger over last three decades. Numbers have been very fluctuating all these years. But it has reached the minimum in last two years (except current Balasore accident).

Chart 3 clearly proves that majority of the accidents have been due to failure on part of railway staff followed by non-railway persons. Equipment failure, sabotage and other incidents have remained the least.

Chart 4 shows the budgetary allocation over modernisation and ensuring safer railway travel. There was a sudden jump in the allocation in the 2020-21, however it came down in later years. It is visible that higher priority has been given the renewal of track rather than the signalling and telecommunication system. Signalling is as important as the safety of the tracks as many collision have taken place due to misleading signalling.

Chart 5 shows the performaces of the government with regards to the achievements on the track renewal. Through this chart we can easily deduce that achievements have been repeated in majority of the cases. In last three financial years, success of the railway in the achievement on track renewal outnumbered the targets.

Initiative taken towards safe railway travel

1. Rashtriya Rail Sanraksha Kosh (RRSK) was created in the year 2017-18 with a corpus of Rs 1 lakh crore for a period of 5 years (i.e. 2017-2022) for critical safety related works. It is for Safety related works like track renewal, bridge rehabilitation, vehicular ultrasound testing for rail/welds, weld quality improvements, elimination of level crossings with ROB/RUB, electronic interlocking system, block proving through axle counter, interlocking of LC gates etc.

2. Elimination of unmanned level crossing: decision was taken to eliminate all unmanned level crossings either by way of closure, merger etc. or by manning these level crossings along with provision of lifting barrier. All Unmanned level crossings have been eliminated on Broad Gauge.

3. Provision of LBH coaches: to switch over completely to LHB (Linke Hofmann Busch) type coaches into the IR system which are of a superior design that have superior body-bogie and wheel bogie connections, anti-climbing features, tight lock coupling, provision of bump stop, superior braking, provision of yaw dampers to ensure smooth transfer of forces between body and bogie, etc.

4. Track renewal and modernisation of track: track renewal has been doubled from 2,424 Kms in 2014-15 to 4,500 Kms in 2019-20.

5. Automatic train protection (ATP) systems: Indian Railway has developed its own Indigenous Automatic Train Protection (ATP) Systems for enhancing safety of running trains. The System is known as Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS). TCAS will not only aid Loco Pilot to avoid Signal Passing At Danger (SPAD) and over speeding but also help in train running during inclement weather such as dense fog. TCAS is adopted as our National Automatic Train Protection (ATP) System.

Trend of Import of Oilseeds and Pulses

Context: There are two agricultural commodities in which India is significantly import-dependent: Edible oil and pulses. Imports of oilseeds has soared, while imports of pulses has reduced to a greater extend.

Current status of oilseeds and pulses imports:

Above charts show that imports of vegetable oil has soared three times in last decade while in case of imports of pulses it has half in last five years (both in quantity and value terms).

Why this trend?

The reduction in pulses imports have come essentially on the back of higher domestic production. According to the Agriculture Ministry, India’s pulses output has increased from 19.26 mt in 2013-14 to 27.50 mt in 2022-23.
Aatmanirbharta (self-sufficiency) on pulses imports has reached at 90% while on oilseeds it has remained at 40%.

3. It can be seen that imports of two items have recorded dramatic drops: Yellow/white peas (matar) and chickpea (chana). At their height, yearly imports of the former topped 3 mt and the latter one mt. Those have since plunged to negligible levels. This is due to falling imports from Ukraine, Russia and Canada.

4. The boost to chana production came from two key government measures, incentivizing Indian farmers to expand area under the pulses crop grown during the rabi (winter-spring) season. The first is the levy of a 60% import duty on chana since March 2018. The second intervention has been government procurement at minimum support prices (MSP).

Concerns ahead:

The erratic production of most non-chana pulses has meant no let up in their imports. Arhar imports – from Mozambique, Myanmar, Tanzania, Malawi and Sudan – hit a record 0.9 mt in 2022-23.
Equally interesting is masoor (red lentil), whose imports from Canada and Australia have crossed 1.1-1.2 mt in some years.
Looking ahead, a subnormal monsoon can potentially lead to inflation in pulses.

Strategies to raise pulses production further

1. Increasing Area under Pulses: The total area under pulses in India is very small and there is an urgent need to increase it. In recent years, a number of minor and medium irrigation projects are coming up in the region and irrigation facilities are becoming increasingly available.

2. Balance Fertilization: The sloppy undulating land and heavy precipitation receiving area in India, during the kharif season, the clay particles of the soil have been washed out and the soils have been rendered poor in fertility. Therefore, for getting economic yields, the pulse crops also need manure and fertilizers in adequate quantity.

3. Developing High Yielding Varieties: Because of the peculiar agro-climatic conditions in the country, cultivation of pulses is done on a limited scale using traditional pulse varieties. The production of pulses could be increased, if high yielding, superior varieties are made available to the farmers. The moisture retention capacity of the soil, in general is very low and since rainy days are limited the varieties maturing in less than 120 days would be essential.

4. Use of Specific Rhizobium Culture: Pulses in general, have an ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil with the help of nodule forming rhizobium bacteria in their roots. The lateritic soils are more or less of acidic in nature.

5. Timely Plant Protection Measures: Pulses mostly grown by farmers are without any plant protection measures. Therefore the yields are very low. Crops like horse gram and cowpea suffers from yellow mosaic which is a virus disease and also attacked by leaf eating caterpillars. All the pest and diseases greatly reduce pulses yields. Therefore, it is very essential to provide need based plant protection measures in order to obtain higher yields.

6. Mixed Cropping with Other Crops: Inter cropping of pulses with other crops helps to increase net income per season from the same piece of land by increasing the total production and also provide insurance against failure of the main crop. Beside, pulses crop fixed the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil and build up nitrogen status of the soil at no extra cost. This nitrogen is available to other non-leguminous crop.

7. Grazing Management: During rabi hot weather season the farmers face the problem of stray cattle in cultivating pulses crops. To overcome this problem it is suggested to encourage the farmers in taking up collective growing of pulses in bigger blocks. This enables the farmers to reduce the cost on providing protection to the crop from stray cattle either by watching or by fencing the block area.

8. Supply of Good Quality Seeds: Supply of pure and good quality seed of different varieties is another constraint that is observed in pulses cultivation .Therefore, arrangements need to be made for production of quality seed in sufficient quantities by the agriculture universities and other seed producing agencies.

9. Financial Help: The per hectare grain yields of pulses being low, their cultivation was not very remunerative and therefore, it was not given a serious thought, so for. Thus in the past, cultivation of pulses suffered to a considerable extent.

10. Educating Farmers in Modern Technology of Pulse Production: In order to boost up the production of pulses in the India, extensive participation of the farmers in the cultivation of different pulses by adopting improved technology is very essential.

Oilseeds in India

Oilseed crops are the second most important determinant of agricultural economy, next only to cereals within the segment of field crops. The self-sufficiency in oilseeds attained through “Yellow Revolution” during early 1990’s, could not be sustained beyond a short period.Despite being the fifth largest oilseed crop producing country in the world, India is also one of the largest importers of vegetable oils today.

There is a spurt in the vegetable oil consumption in recent years in respect of both edible as well as industrial usages. The demand-supply gap in the edible oils has necessitated huge imports accounting for 60 per cent of the country’s requirement (2016-17: import 14.01 million tonnes; cost Rs. 73,048 crore).

Despite commendable performance of domestic oilseeds production of the nine annual crops (Compound Annual Growth Rate of 3.89%), it could not match with the galloping rate of per capita demand (~6%) due to enhanced per capita consumption (18 kg oil per annum) driven by increase in population and enhanced per capita income.

Sources of vegetable oils

1. Primary sources of vegetable oil:

Nine oilseeds are the primary source of vegetable oils in the country, which are largely grown under rainfed condition over an area of about 26 million ha. Among these, soybean (34%), groundnut (27%), rapeseed & mustard (27%) contributes to more than 88% of total oilseeds production and >80% of vegetable oil with major share of mustard (35%), soybean (23%) and groundnut (25%).

Andhra Pradesh (groundnut) & Gujarat (groundnut), Haryana(Mustard), Karnataka(G.nut), M.P(Soybean), Maharashtra(Soybean), Rajasthan (Mustard & Soybean), Tamil Nadu(G. nut), U.P(Mustard), West Bengal(Mustard) contributing more than 95% of total oilseed production in the country. India is producing about 7-8 million tonnes of vegetable oils from primary sources

2. Secondary sources of vegetable oil: In addition to nine oilseeds, 03 million tonnes of vegetable oil is being harnessed from secondary sources like cottonseed, rice bran, coconut, Tree Borne Oilseeds (TBOs) and Oil Palm. Oil palm which is categorized as secondary sources of oils should be included as primary source as it gives the highest per ha oil yield (4-5t/ha).

Area, Production and Yield of Oilseed Crops in India

In India, annual oilseeds are cultivated over 26.67 million hectares of area producing. Majority of the oilseeds are cultivated under rainfed ecosystem (70%). The area under oilseeds has experienced a deceleration in general, and this is due to their relative lower profitability against competing crops like maize, cotton, chickpea etc., under the prevailing crop growing and marketing situations.

India is heavily dependent on imports to meet its edible oil requirements and largest importer of vegetable oils in the world (15% share) followed by China & USA. Of imported edible oils , share of palm oil is about 60% followed by soybean oil with a share of 25% and sunflower (12%).

m-RNA Vaccine for Cancer

Context: An experimental mRNA-based vaccine from Moderna Inc and Merck & Co reduced the risk of melanoma spread by 65% when compared with immunotherapy alone in a mid-stage trial the results, presented at the American Society of Clinical Oncology meeting in Chicago.

About m-RNA

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of single-stranded RNA involved in protein synthesis.
It is made from a DNA template during the process of transcription.
The role of mRNA is gene expression and to carry protein information from the DNA in a cell’s nucleus to the cell’s cytoplasm (watery interior).
It carries the genetic information from DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized.
DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is then translated into proteins. mRNA acts as an intermediary between DNA and proteins, carrying the genetic instructions encoded in the DNA to the protein-making machinery of the cell.

m-RNA Vaccine

Vaccines help prevent infection by preparing the body to fight foreign invaders (such as bacteria, viruses, or other pathogens).
m-RNA vaccine delivers molecules of antigen-encoding mRNA into immune cells, which use designed mRNA as a blueprint to build foreign protein that would normally be produced by a pathogen (such as a virus) or by a cancer cell.
These protein molecules stimulate an adaptive immune response that teaches the body to identify and destroy the corresponding pathogen or cancer cells.

How does it work?

An mRNA vaccine uses a copy of mRNA to produce an immune response.
The vaccines target neoantigens, new mutations only present on tumors.
Aiming at these proteins allows the immune system to kill cancer cells while leaving healthy tissue unscathed. The trick is determining which of many mutations is driving the cancer.
To accomplish this, tumors are removed and their genetic makeup is mapped using DNA sequencing.
Companies use artificial intelligence to predict which mutations will be effective targets. These are used to build an individualised vaccine targeting only mutations in the patient's tumor.

Benefits

mRNA vaccines are not constructed from an active pathogen (or even an inactivated pathogen), they are non-infectious. In contrast, traditional vaccines require the production of pathogens, which, if done at high volumes, could increase the risks of localized outbreaks of the virus at the production facility.
mRNA vaccines could trigger the innate immune system (the immunity we’re born with), providing an extra layer of defence.
mRNA vaccines can be developed and manufactured quickly compared to traditional vaccines. Once the genetic sequence of a target antigen is known, the production of mRNA can be initiated promptly.
mRNA vaccines are highly versatile. They can be designed to target various pathogens by simply changing the mRNA sequence to encode the desired antigen.

Challenges

Storage: Because mRNA is fragile, some vaccines must be kept at very low temperatures to avoid degrading and thus giving little effective immunity to the recipient.
Adverse reaction: Excessive immunological responses and associated signs and symptoms, including fever and sore arm at the injection site are associated with mRNA vaccine.
Manufacturing Scalability: The manufacturing processes, including the production and purification of mRNA molecules, require sophisticated technology and expertise.

Transcription

The process by which a cell makes an RNA copy of a piece of DNA. This RNA copy, called messenger RNA (mRNA), carries the genetic information needed to make proteins in a cell.

Gene expression

The process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein or a non-coding RNA molecule.

Pricing of Oil products in India

Context: Recently OPEC+ agreed to extend the ongoing oil production cuts into 2024 as it seeks to keep oil prices from falling in the wake of concerns about a global economic slowdown. For India, which imports more than 80% of its crude oil requirements, the combined OPEC+ announcements of supply curtailment are a cause for some concern given the potential they have in pushing up global oil prices.

Though the crude oil prices softened towards the end of FY22-23, Pump prices of petrol and diesel have remained unchanged since May 22, 2022, with the governments at the Centre and the States, and the oil marketing companies unwilling to reduce the taxes and revenues in order to insulate themselves from any rise in the cost in future.

Breakup of Prices of Petrol & Diesel:

Public sector Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) revise the retail prices of petrol and diesel in India on a daily basis, according to changes in the price of global crude oil. The retail price charged to consumer includes the following components:

Base price set by OMCs

Several parameters like global crude prices, expected future crude prices, local taxes, Shipping costs, apart from the cost of refining are considered while fixing the rates which may be different for different OMC.

Freight price includes the cost of transporting to dealers across India.
Dealer commissions
Taxes and Surcharges of centre includes

Basic Excise Duty
Agriculture Infrastructure and development cess
Road & Infrastructure cess
Taxes of State governments includes Sales tax/ VAT

The prices of Petrol & Diesel vary from city to city depending upon the taxes charged by the state governments. Usually, the share of tax component in the retail price is above 40%. SO any reluctance by the centre or state governments to decrease their taxes will not result in transmission of softening of global crude oil prices to the ultimate consumer.

Petrol & Diesel under GST?

There has been growing demand to include petrol products under GST mechanism as it may reduce the ultimate price paid by the consumer because:

Even if petroleum is charged at the current maximum tax slab of 28%, consumers will be paying a lesser price than they are presently paying for it.
GST, being a value added tax mechanism, ensures that there is no cascading effect (tax on taxation).

However, most of the states are unwilling to this proposal as states generate a considerable amount of revenue from taxing petroleum products. Each state has its own taxation structure for petrol and diesel. Under GST, even under the 28 per cent tax slab, states will earn a lot less compared to what they currently earn from petrol and diesel sales as value-added tax (VAT). Few States are demanding that if petrol and diesel are brought under the GST, then the Central Government must compensate all the States of their deficit revenue. However, there has been no such commitment given by the centre.

Will inclusion of Petroleum under GST solve the problem?

In the short run, lowering the prices of petrol and diesel due to GST may prove helpful but ultimately, all the consumers will have to start shifting towards renewable energy sources for sustainable growth and development and insulate Indian economy from any geo-political shocks.

Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve

Context: Ending an operation that lasted over five days, the Tamil Nadu Forest Department officials successfully tranquillised wild elephant, Arikompan in the Chinna Ovulapuram reserve forest in Theni district, early on Monday, June 5, 2023. Sources said Arikomban will be released at Muththukuzhivayal beyond Upper Gothaiyar area in Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR).

Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve

Location:
- It is located in the South Western Ghats montane rain forests in Tirunelveli district and Kanyakumari district in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu.
- It includes three sanctuaries, viz. Kalakad, Mundanthurai and part of Kanyakumari Sanctuary, with portions of Tirunelveli forest division of the State.
- It is the second-largest protected area in Tamil Nadu.
- It is part of the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve.
- Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary together with the Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary has been notified as the 17th Project Tiger Reserve in 1988.
- The topography of Kalakad is rugged with numerous perennial hill streams originating from the rainforest areas on the upper slopes and they confluence to form the rivers of Tamirabarani, Manimuthar and Ramanadhi.

Flora: The vegetation types ranges from forests of tropical West Coast Tropical Wet Ever Green forest to Tropical Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest and Thorn Forest makes it one of the richest biodiversity areas in the world.

The forests are categorized as below:

West Coast tropical evergreen forests
Southern dry mixed deciduous forests
Ochlandra Reed Brakes
Tropical riparian fringing forests
Dry teak forests
Southern moist mixed deciduous forests
Southern montane wet grass land
Southern hilltop evergreen forests
Carnatic umbrella thorn forests
Tirunelveli Semi evergreen forests
Grass lands.

Fauna: The faunal diversity is tremendous and around 84 threatened species have been reported (4 critical, 24 endangered and 56 vulnerable). Tiger and elephant are the charismatic mammals, besides a large array of co-predators (leopard, small carnivores), ungulates (sambar, spotted deer), birds, reptiles (crocodile) and fishes.
Tiger Status: The reserve has a comparatively low tiger status and the 2010 country level tiger assessment has estimated around 15-18 tigers.

Paleo Diet

Context: A recent review found that studies examining the paleo diet’s impact on type 2 diabetes have been inconclusive

a03e22b3 9afc 4d48 a09f c16d464f88dd

About Paleo Diet

The Palaeolithic diet, commonly known as the Paleo diet, caveman, or Stone-Age diet.
It is a dietary approach that aims to mimic the eating patterns of our Palaeolithic ancestors because our bodies are better adapted to the types of foods our hunter-gatherer ancestors consumed, and by returning to a similar diet, we can improve our health and well-being.
Proponents of the diet emphasize choosing low-glycemic fruits and vegetables.

Foods included in the Paleo diet

The Paleo diet typically includes the following food groups:

Meat and fish: Lean meats, such as beef, pork, and poultry, as well as fish and seafood, are central to the Paleo diet.
Fruits and vegetables: These provide essential vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Non-starchy vegetables are particularly emphasized.
Nuts and seeds: Nuts and seeds are nutrient-dense foods that are rich in healthy fats, protein, and fiber.
Healthy fats: Healthy fats from sources like avocados, coconut oil, olive oil, and ghee (clarified butter) are included.
Eggs: Eggs are a good source of protein and healthy fats and are often consumed on the Paleo diet.

Foods excluded from the Paleo diet:

Grains: Wheat, rice, oats, and corn, are avoided in the Paleo diet. This means no bread, pasta, or cereals.
Legumes: Such as beans, lentils, peanuts, and soybeans are not typically included due to their higher carbohydrate and anti-nutrient content.

Dairy products: Milk, cheese, and yogurt, are often eliminated because lactose (milk sugar) and casein (milk protein) may be poorly tolerated by some individuals.
Processed and refined foods: Sugary snacks, soft drinks, and other highly processed and refined products are not considered.

Potential Benefits of the Paleo Diet

Overall, the diet is high in protein, moderate in fat (mainly from unsaturated fats), low-moderate in carbohydrates (specifically restricting high glycemic index carbohydrates), high in fiber, and low in sodium and refined sugars
Some studies suggest potential benefits such as weight loss, improved blood sugar control, and reduced inflammation.

Challenges to the Paleo Diet

Higher cost. Fresh meats, fish, and produce tend to be pricier than processed versions such as frozen or canned.
Excluding foods. The exclusion of foods like whole grains and dairy may also increase the risk of deficiencies such as calcium, vitamin D, and B vitamins.
Health concerns of a high meat intake. Several studies have shown that a high intake of red meat is linked to a higher risk of death, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes

It is a chronic metabolic disorder characterised by high blood sugar levels resulting from the body's inability to properly use insulin or to produce enough insulin.
Insulin is a hormone that regulates the absorption and utilization of glucose (sugar) by the cells in the body.

Use of Artificial Intelligence against the Superbug

Context: Scientists from the United States and Canada have found a new antibiotic abaucin powerful enough to kill a superbug Acinetobacter baumannii using artificial intelligence(AI).

What are Superbugs?

Superbugs are bacteria that are resistant to several types of antibiotics.
Acinetobacter baumannii: The World Health Organization (WHO) identified this bacterium as one of the world’s most dangerous antibiotic-resistant bacteria and difficult to eradicate.

It can cause pneumonia, meningitis and infect wounds, all of which can lead to death.
It is usually found in hospital settings, where it can survive on surfaces for long periods.
Each year these drug-resistant bacteria infect more than 2 million people in the US and kill at least 23,000, according to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

How do bacteria become resistant to drugs?

Antibiotics are medicines used to prevent and treat bacterial infections. Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in response that is genetic changes or acquires resistance genes to the use of these medicines. This ultimately threatens the ability of medicines to treat common infectious diseases.
There are several ways in which bacteria can acquire resistance like overuse and misuse of antibiotics, gene transfer, mutation, etc.
Microbial resistance to antibiotics has made it harder to treat infections such as pneumonia, tuberculosis (TB), blood poisoning (septicaemia), and several food-borne diseases.
AMR also imposes a huge health cost on the patient in the form of longer hospitalisation, health complications, and delayed recovery.

How did researchers use AI against the superbug?

Narrowing down the right antibacterial chemicals against bacteria can be a long, difficult process. This is where algorithms come in because the concept of AI is based on the process of machines being given large amounts of data and training themselves on identifying patterns and solutions based on them.
The researchers tested about 7,500 different chemical compounds on A. baumannii which was cultivated in a lab dish to determine which ones could slow the bacterium's development.
Then they fed the structure of each molecule into the machine-learning model. They also told the model whether each structure could prevent bacterial growth or not. This allowed the algorithm to learn chemical features associated with growth inhibition.
Once the model was trained, the researchers used it to analyse the compounds. This analysis took less than two hours and yielded a few hundred results.
The researchers chose a few compounds with structures that were different from those of existing antibiotics for the experiment.

Nine antibiotics were discovered as a result of those investigations, one of which was extremely strong and successful at eliminating A. baumannii. Abaucin is the name given to the antibiotic.