GS Paper 3

Manufacturing sector in India

Context: The debate over whether manufacturing or services should drive India's economy resurfaces periodically. While India's software exports were booming, there were arguments for the services sector to surpass manufacturing in propelling economic growth.

Status of Manufacturing sector in India:

First advance estimates of manufacturing for 2022-23 is 1.3%.
India’s manufacturing exports for FY22 reached an unprecedented US$ 418 billion, an overall growth of more than 40% compared to the US$ 290 billion from the previous year.
The Indian manufacturing industry generated 16-17% of India’s GDP.
It employs around 27 million workers of Indian labour force.

Significance of Manufacturing sector:

Employment Generation: The manufacturing sector is a significant source of employment, particularly for semi-skilled and skilled workers. It provides opportunities for income generation, reduces unemployment, and contributes to poverty reduction. E.g., the automotive industry in India has created millions of direct and indirect jobs, offering employment to a diverse workforce.
Economic Growth: Manufacturing plays a vital role in driving economic growth and contributing to the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). A robust manufacturing sector stimulates other sectors of the economy, such as agriculture and services, through forward and backward linkages.
Export Promotion: Manufacturing contributes significantly to India's export earnings, bringing in foreign exchange and improving the country's trade balance. Industries such as pharmaceuticals, textiles, and engineering goods have a strong presence in global markets. E.g., India is one of the world's largest exporters of generic drugs, contributing to affordable healthcare globally.
Technological Advancements and Innovation: The manufacturing sector promotes technological advancements and innovation, driving productivity and competitiveness. The adoption of advanced manufacturing technologies and processes enhances efficiency, quality, and product development. The electronics manufacturing sector, including the production of smartphones and consumer electronics, has witnessed significant technological advancements and innovation in India.
Value Addition and Supply Chain Development: Manufacturing adds value to raw materials and transforms them into finished products. This value addition contributes to increased income and improved living standards. Additionally, the manufacturing sector stimulates the development of supply chains, involving suppliers, distributors, and service providers, which creates additional employment and business opportunities.
Infrastructure Development: Manufacturing necessitates the development of infrastructure, such as transportation networks, power supply, and logistics. This leads to improvements in overall infrastructure, benefiting various sectors and regions. For instance, the construction of industrial parks and special economic zones (SEZs) for manufacturing purposes has led to infrastructure development in previously underdeveloped areas.
Attracting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): A vibrant manufacturing sector attracts foreign investment, which brings in capital, technology, and expertise. Foreign companies establish manufacturing facilities in India to tap into the domestic market and utilize the country's skilled labor force. Examples include global automotive manufacturers like Suzuki, Hyundai, and Honda, which have set up production facilities in India.

Initiatives by Government to Manufacturing Sector:

Economic reforms of 1991 were undertaken in order to raise the presence of manufacturing sector in Indian economy.
In 2014, government came up with ‘Make in India’ programme to push manufacturing growth with emphasis on foreign direct investment.
In 2019, Union Government has lowered the tax on corporates and brought measures to improve the ease of doing business in India (like single window clearances).
Government launched ‘Production linked incentive (PLI) scheme’, to incentivize companies on incremental sales from products manufactured in domestic units.

Issues plaguing Manufacturing Sector:

Policy level:

Complex Taxation System: The introduction of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) has improved the overall taxation ecosystem in the country, but it is facing multiple challenges including frequent changes in tax rates and compliance procedures, which caused confusion and disrupted business operations.
Labor Laws: The lack of flexibility in labor laws can discourage companies from expanding their manufacturing operations or adopting new technologies. In 2020, the Indian government introduced four Labour codes to address some of these concerns, but they are not implemented yet.
Land Acquisition: Land acquisition for manufacturing projects has often faced challenges due to complex regulations, unclear ownership, and resistance from local communities. This has led to delays and increased costs for setting up manufacturing facilities.
Limited Investment in Research and Development (R&D): India's manufacturing sector has historically underinvested in research and development, leading to a lack of innovation and technological advancement. Limited R&D spending hampers the development of new products, processes, and technologies, reducing the sector's competitiveness.

Structural level:

Inadequate Infrastructure: India's manufacturing sector has been hindered by inadequate infrastructure, such as poor transportation networks, inadequate power supply, and congested ports. These issues affect the efficient movement of goods, increase costs, and hamper productivity. E.g., the lack of modernized ports and congested road networks have resulted in high logistics costs, making Indian products less competitive in the global market.
Access to Finance: Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the manufacturing sector often struggle to access affordable financing options. Limited availability of credit and high interest rates act as barriers to investment and growth. The lack of access to finance disproportionately affects smaller manufacturers, preventing them from scaling up and adopting advanced technologies.
Problem of Missing Middle: The Manufacturing sector is basically dominated by a large number of small enterprises and a relatively less number of large-scale manufacturing enterprises. There is almost near absence of mid-sized firms. Such a peculiar scenario is referred to as "Problem of Missing Middle". This is basically attributed
Technology adoption: The adoption of new technologies like artificial intelligence, data analytics, machine-to-machine communications, robotics and related technologies, collectively called “Industry 4.0”, are a bigger challenge for SMEs than for organized large-scale manufacturing.

Roadmap for future:

Boosting Innovation through Start-Ups: Conducive ecosystem for nurturing and promoting start-ups through access to finance, handholding, tax incentives, access to market etc. E.g., Startup India.
Focus on Sunrise Sectors based on new-age technologies such as blockchain, robotics, machine learning, big data, AI etc. to leverage opportunities created by Industrial Revolution 4.0.
Plug and Play Model: Under the plug-and-play model, the investors are provided with land at affordable cost with all the necessary pre-clearances including Environmental clearances. It would provide in-built office spaces and all the basic facilities such as Electricity, water etc. Some of the States such as Maharashtra, Haryana etc. have decided to adopt such a model to boost foreign Investment.

Capacity building: Greater connect between government-industry-academia is required to identify the changing requirements in manufacturing and prepare an employable workforce. In the context of employability of engineers, there is a need for thorough review of standards of engineering education and its linkages with industry.

Visit of Nepal's PM to India

Context: During Nepal’s PM visit to India, both countries signed series of agreements to strengthen their bilateral relations.

Outcomes of the visit:

A Transit Agreement signed between two countries, which will help Nepal’s population to access India’s inland waterways.
A long-term Power Trade Agreement has signed to take forward India – Nepal vision document for cooperation 2022. Under this, target has been set for import of 10,000 MW of electricity from Nepal.
A proposal to build new pipeline from Siliguri to Jhapa in easter Nepal.
A MoU is signed for the development of Phukot Karnali Hydroelectric Project.
Both countries agreed to achieve the time bound progress on the Pancheshwar multipurpose project.
Both Prime Minister’s participated in a ceremony of Gorakhpur – Bhutwal Transmission line.
Inauguration of cargo train from Bathnaha in India to Nepal Customs Yard.
Two integrated check posts (ICPs) have been inaugurated at Nepalgunj in Nepal and Rupaidhia on India side.
Both countries calls for fast track completion of projects related to Ramayana Circuit.

India Nepal Relations background:

India and Nepal share close and friendly relations characterized by age-old historical and cultural linkages, open border and deep-rooted people-to-people contacts. The multifaceted relations between the two countries have been given a renewed momentum in the last few years through intensified high-level political exchanges, regular meetings of bilateral mechanisms across diverse sectors of cooperation, expanding economic and development partnership, boosting connectivity and cooperative initiatives in water resources and hydro-power sectors, defense and security. The India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1950 forms the bedrock of the special relations that exist between India and Nepal. Nepalese citizens avail facilities and opportunities on par with Indian citizens in accordance with the provisions of the Treaty. Nearly 8 million Nepalese citizens live and work in India.

Areas of Cooperation:

Defence Cooperation: India and Nepal have a significant defense cooperation, with India assisting the modernization of the Nepal Army through equipment supply and training. Nepal Army personnel attend training courses in Indian Army institutions. The Indian Embassy in Kathmandu facilitates pension disbursement and welfare programs for ex-Gorkha soldiers and their families. They also conduct joint military exercises like Surya Kiran.
Connectivity & Development Partnership: India provides comprehensive development assistance to Nepal, with a focus on grassroots infrastructure, health, water resources, education, and rural development. Additionally, India has extended Lines of Credit worth USD 1.65 billion for infrastructure projects and launched the "India-Nepal New Partnership in Agriculture" for collaborative projects in agricultural research and development.
Water resources Cooperation: Water resources cooperation, particularly regarding shared rivers, is a crucial aspect of India-Nepal relations. Numerous rivers flow from Nepal to India, forming a significant part of the Ganges river basins. These rivers hold the potential for irrigation and power generation. A three-tier bilateral mechanism established in 2008 effectively addresses water resource-related issues, flood management, inundation, and hydropower cooperation between the two countries.
Energy Cooperation: India and Nepal have a Power Exchange Agreement since 1971, utilizing each other's transmission infrastructure for power supply in border areas. Several transmission interconnections enable power exchange and trade. High-capacity cross-border transmission lines and agreements facilitate enhanced electricity transmission and grid connectivity. Additionally, South Asia's first cross-border petroleum products pipeline was inaugurated in 2019, connecting Motihari in India to Amlekhgunj in Nepal.
Economic Cooperation: India is Nepal's largest trading partner, with bilateral trade more than $8.5 billion. Nepal mainly exports petroleum products, vehicles, and agricultural products to India, while importing items such as petroleum, machinery, medicine, and electrical equipment. Indian firms contribute over 30% of Nepal's foreign direct investment and operate in sectors like manufacturing, banking, insurance, power, and tourism.
Education: India offers approximately 3,000 scholarships each year to Nepalese students for various academic levels and disciplines, both in India and Nepal, including fields like engineering, medicine, agriculture, and fine arts.
Cultural Cooperation: Both countries have signed several agreements and memoranda of understanding (MoUs) in fields such as literature, broadcasting, journalism, fine arts, youth affairs, and twinning of sister cities. Additionally, India is establishing an e-library system in Nepal. The Swami Vivekananda Centre for Indian Culture and the Nepal-Bharat Library are notable institutions promoting Indian culture in Nepal.

Issues between two India & Nepal:

SLOW PROGRESS ON DEVELOPMENTAL PROJECT:

There has been no progress on the 5000 MW Pancheshwar multipurpose project on Mahakali River because of Nepal's reluctance.
Progress has also not been witnessed on the dam on Kosi River which would prevent flooding in both India and Nepal because of lack of willingness on the part of Nepal.
India announced Rupees 100 crore grant for the development of Janakpur in 2018, but no proposal has been received from the Nepalese side.

BORDER ISSUE:

Nepal’s parliament gave approval to second constitutional amendment which gave legal status to the new political map of Nepal and its boundaries with India near the Lipu-Lekh pass.
For Nepal, the Kali River originates from Limpiyadhura in the higher Himalayas, giving it access to a triangular-shaped land defined by Limpiyadhura-Lipulekh and Kalapani. (Originating from Treaty of Sugauli, (1814).

TILT TOWARDS CHINA:

Nepal shares a border of 1400 km with China in the Tibet region. China is Nepal's second largest trading partner. It has undertaken various projects including the development of airports, hydropower etc.
Nepal has been using the China card in its dealing with India under the pretext of balancing its relation between the two big neighbors.
With increasing economic influence of China, Nepal does not want to be left out of this success story. It signed a MoU with China on the BRI in 2017.
China has also started to intrude in the affairs of Nepal Army by providing training and supply of equipment. This is one of the biggest causes of concern for India because of Indian army's links with the Nepal army.
China is leveraging ties with the Maoist parties of Nepal and occasionally using the cheque book diplomacy to increase its influence.

Way Forward

Treaty of Peace and Friendship, 1950 should be replaced with a more balanced and democratic treaty.
A regulatory regime needs to be introduced by making people produce identity cards while crossing over to either side.
Jointly tackling common challenges in areas of combating terrorism, extremism and all kinds of trafficking.
Our engagement with Nepal must find a prominent place for Nepali citizens who are our immediate neighbors. The engagement should not just be limited to the political elites.
India needs to appreciate that the people-to-people links between our two countries have an unmatched density and no other country, including China, enjoys this asset.
To counter the Chinese influence, India needs to speed up unfinished projects that India has committed and create conditions of mutual trust which makes it difficult for China to leverage any dispute that arises in future.
India needs to understand that the Nascent Nepalese democracy will assert independence in its Foreign Policy. But it important for India to create conditions which makes it a go to country for Nepal in times of need.
India also needs to work on its perception in the hill population of Nepal.

Electronics Repair Services Outsourcing Pilot Initiative (ERSO)

Context: Ministry of Electronics & IT has launched ERSO Pilot initiative to validate transformational policy & process changes to make India the repair capital of the world. The pilot will run for a period of three months in Bengaluru. Five companies namely, Flex, Lenovo, CTDI, R-Logic & Aforeserve have volunteered for the pilot.

Electronics Repair Services Outsourcing

Currently, India lacks a robust electronics repair outsourcing industry.
Globally, outsourced electronics repair services outsourcing industry is estimated to be worth more than $100 bn.
China & Malaysia are major players in this industry.
Flex, Lenovo & Cisco are currently major players of Electronics Repair Services Outsourcing Industry.

Significance of Electronics Repair Service Outsourcing Industry for India

High repair costs in advanced countries like Europe and USA forces companies to send goods overseas to countries like India with cheaper labour costs like China, Malaysia and potentially in India.
Revenue potential: The policy changes are expected to create a robust domestic ERSO industry in India and create an annual revenue of $20 bn and generate millions of jobs.
Extension of device life: ERSO initiative will enable extension of electronics device life globally by providing cheap and reliable repair of ICT products for the globe. According to Ministry of Electronics & IT, India generated more than 16 lakh tonnes (Third largest in the world) of e-Waste of which only 33% was processed. Thus, 67% of E-waste goes into landfills and remains unprocessed. Even majority of e-waste processing takes place in the informal sector.
Promote circularity: A robust ERSO industry will support Mission LIFE and will be gamechanger for Global environmental sustainability and circular economy.
Employment intensity: A repair based economic system has higher employment intensity as compared to a manufacturing-based ecosystem as product manufacturing is increasingly being mechanised due to technologies like additive manufacturing, robotics etc.
Boosting domestic manufacturing: Repair outsourcing will incentivise electronic manufacturers to expand production capabilities in India. It has potential to boost manufacturing of components of spare parts and ensuring resilience to supply chain shocks.

Bottlenecks in developing Electronics Repair Services Hub

E-Waste rules: E-waste rules dealing with electronics goods bans companies from disposing of non-repairable products locally. This adds to the logistics costs as these electronic goods need to be sent back to countries from where they brought.

Import-Export rules: Currently, permissions for imports & exports of faulty electronics products takes a long time. There is a need to ease the approval process for timely clearances so that devices can easily enter India for repairs and then be shipped back quickly.

Policy changes required to establish India as an Electronics Repair Services Hub

Increasing consumerism and difficulty in accessing repair of devices have pushed consumers to give priority to replacement over repair whenever products become defective.
Current legislative framework makes it difficult for consumers to repair their goods when legal guarantee for their products expires.
Relaxing import-export rules for making it easy for companies to import-export repaired products.
Grant permission for re-export of imported electronics goods to countries different from the one it was imported.
Relaxing E-waste rules: Government should allow recycling of 5% of imported goods domestically.

Right to Repair Framework

Right to repair refers to the right of end users to repair devices they own or service without any manufacturer or technical restrictions. The idea is promote repair as an alternative to replacement of devices.
Department of Consumer Affairs has set up a committee for developing Right to Repair framework under Nidhi Khare (Additional Secretary of Department of Consumer Affairs).
Right to Repair will give consumers a chance to repair their products at an optimal cost instead of buying new products altogether.
Forbid manufacturers from impose barriers that deny consumers the ability to repair consumer products like monopolisation and difficulty in access to components, difficulty access to product manuals and prohibition of third-party repairs.
Department of Consumer Affairs has launched Right to Repair portal where companies will provide information on self-repair manuals, authorised & third-party repairers for companies and products.

Challenges for operationalising Right to Repair

Concerns of manufacturers: Manufacturers have raised concerns over data security & intellectual property and safety issues arising out of unauthorised repairs.

Monopolistic policies of OEMs:

Companies avoid publication of manuals which makes it difficult for customers to repair the products.
Companies have proprietary control over spare parts (regarding design for screws & other components)
Companies have monopoly on repair processes which infringes customer’s right to choose. For ex. Digital Warranty cards ensure that by getting a product repaired from a ‘non-recognised’ outfit, a customer loses the right to claim warranty.
Culture of planned obsolescence: Products are designed in such a way that any gadget lasts a particular time only and after that period it has to be mandatorily replaced.
Making products repair friendly will pose technical & practical challenges for manufacturers.
Mandating right to repair can raise products of electronics products.

Global Initiatives toward Right to Repair

Europe: EU has passed legislation mandating manufacturers to supply parts of products to professional repair professionals for a period of 10 years.
UK: A legislation which mandates all electronic appliance manufacturers to provide consumers with spare parts for getting repair done either by themselves or by local repair shops.
Australia: Australia has repair cafes that are free meeting places where volunteer repairmen gather to share their repairing skills.
USA: President Biden has passed a presidential directive encouraging Federal Trade Commission to introduce right to repair. Some US states like New York & Colorado have already introduced legislation mandating Right to Repair.
Similar laws have been passed in many other countries like South Africa, France, Canada etc.

Salient features of Right to Repair framework

Framework for right to repair will break monopoly of manufacturers on repair and spare parts and benefit consumers.
Mandatory for manufacturers of equipments to share product details with customers so that they can either repair them by self or by third parties, rather than only depending on original manufacturers.
Harmonize trade between original equipment manufacturers, third party buyers and sellers.
Manufacturers of end products to provide access to complete documentation, manuals, schematic and software updates to consumers.
Focus sectors of Right to Repair framework: Farming equipment, mobile phones & tablets, consumer durables, automobiles & automobile equipment.
Boost local business and create employment for small repair shops & businesses.
Reducing electronic waste generation.
Potential for India to emerge as a global electronics repair outsourcing hub.

Way Forward

Enacting Right to Repair Legislation: Department of Consumer Affairs has set up Nidhi Khare Committee to develop a comprehensive right to repair legislation in India. This law should be enacted to provide rights of consumers to access cheap, affordable
Taking manufacturers on board: Right to repair cannot materialise on ground if government fails to win confidence of manufacturers. Thus, constant dialogue and engagement needs to be done on this issue between government & industry. Companies should realise the ease of repair will increase demand for their products among consumers.

Adopt a phased approach: All products cannot be repaired with equal ease. For ex. It is difficult to repair complex products like earphones as compared to tablet & PC.

India seeks leeway to plan shift to sustainable aviation fuel

Context: The 41st International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) Assembly adopted a long-term global aspirational goal (LTAG) for international aviation of net-zero carbon emissions by 2050 in support of the UNFCCC Paris Agreement goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 degree Celsius and reach net zero by 2050.

What is sustainable aviation fuel (SAF)?

SAF is a liquid fuel currently used in commercial aviation which reduces CO2 emissions by up to 80%. It can be produced from a number of sources (feedstock) including waste oil and fats, green and municipal waste and non-food crops.
It can also be produced synthetically via a process that captures carbon directly from the air. It is ‘sustainable’ because the raw feedstock does not compete with food crops or water supplies, or is responsible for forest degradation.
Whereas fossil fuels add to the overall level of CO2 by emitting carbon that had been previously locked away, SAF recycles the CO2 which has been absorbed by the biomass used in the feedstock during the course of its life.
Seven biofuel production pathways are certified to produce SAF, which perform at operationally equivalent levels to Jet A1 fuel. By design, these SAFs are drop-in solutions, which can be directly blended into existing fuel infrastructure at airports and are fully compatible with modern aircraft.

Need for SAF:

International Air Transport Association (IATA) estimates that Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) could contribute around 65% of the reduction in emissions needed by aviation to reach net-zero in 2050.
This will require a massive increase in production in order to meet demand. The largest acceleration is expected in the 2030s as policy support becomes global, SAF becomes competitive with fossil kerosene, and credible offsets become scarcer.

What is India’s stand?

India asserted that global mandates for Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) with 2050 as the target year was ‘too early’ and each country must be allowed to develop its strategy according to its national plans.
It also sought the support of UN Aviation watchdog ICAO to achieve carbon net-zero goals alongside other priorities in the aviation sector.
Any global mandates for SAF with milestones to 2050 are too early as each State must be allowed time to develop its own strategy for reaching LTAG as per its national plans,” said Secretary, Ministry of Civil Aviation, Rajiv Bansal at ICAO Global Implementation Support Symposium 2023.

India’s Toy exports

Context: India turning a net exporter of toys is mainly due to rising protectionism and less, perhaps, on account of expanding domestic capabilities.

Observations

India has recently turned a net exporter of toys, during 2020-21 and 2021-22, ending decades of import dominance. Between 2018-19 and 2021-22, toy exports increased from $109 million (₹812 crore) to $177 million (₹1,237 crore); imports declined from $371 million (₹2,593 crore) to $110 million (₹819 crore).

About the toy industry:

In 2015-16, the industry had about 15,000 enterprises or establishments, producing toys valued at ₹1,688 crore using fixed capital of ₹626 crore at current prices and employing 35,000 workers.
Registered factories — those employing 10 or more workers on a regular basis — accounted for 1% of the number of factories and enterprises, employed 20% of workers, used 63% of fixed capital, and produced 77% of the value of output.
Global share of Indian toys is less than half a percent.

Why such a trend?

Due to Make in India initiative since 2014, toy industry has registered high annual growth rates.
Imports contracted as the basic custom duty on toys (HS Code-9503) tripled from 20% to 60% in February, 2020.
Numerous non-tariff barriers were imposed as well such as production registration orders and safety regulation codes.
COVID-19 created a new demand for Indian toy exports.

52% of cultivated land has access to irrigation for first time: NITI Aayog

Context: For the first time, more than half of India’s cultivated land now has access to assured irrigation led by an expansion in micro projects, which have higher water-use efficiency, official data for 2022-23 show.

Irrigation in India

According to NITI Aayog, in 2022-23, of the 141 million hectares of gross sown area in the country, nearly 73 million hectares, or 52%, had irrigation access, up from 41% in 2016.
8 out of 73 million hectares have the micro irrigation facility
40% of the total irrigated area are watered through canal networks, the remaining through groundwater.
The total potential for micro-irrigation in the country is estimated to be 60 million hectares.
Conventional surface irrigation provides only 60% efficiency but drip irrigation has nearly 90% efficiency.
The country can create irrigation potential in about 60% of its arable land and 40% of the cultivable area will remain dependent on rains because it is not possible to create irrigation networks in certain regions due to hydrological and geographical reasons.

Related concepts and definitions:

Net Area Sown: This represents the total area sown with crops and orchards. Area sown more than once in the same year is counted only once.
Gross Cropped Area: This represents the total area sown once and/or more than once in a particular year, i.e. the area is counted as many times as there are sowings in a year. This total area is also known as total cropped area or total area sown.
Area Sown more than once: This represents the areas on which crops are cultivated more than once during the agricultural year. This is obtained by deducting Net Area Sown from Gross Cropped Area.
Irrigated Area: The area is assumed to be irrigated for cultivation through such sources as canals (Govt. & Private), tanks, tube-wells, other wells and other sources. It is divided into two categories:
- Net Irrigated Area: It is the area irrigated through any source once in a year for a particular crop.
- Total Net Un-irrigated Area: It is the area arrived at by deducting the net irrigated area from net sown area.
- Total/Gross Irrigated Area: It is the total area under crops, irrigated once and/or more than once in a year. It is counted as many times as the number of times the areas are cropped and irrigated in a year.
- Total/Gross Un-Irrigated Area: It is the area arrived at by deducting the gross irrigated area from the gross sown area.

Cropping Intensity: It is the ratio of Net Area Sown to the Total Cropped Area.

Cabinet approves City Investments to Innovate, Integrate and Sustain 2.0 (CITIIS 2.0) from 2023 to 2027

Context: Recently, Union Cabinet at a meeting chaired by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, approved the City Investments to Innovate, Integrate and Sustain (CITIIS) 2.0, a programme under the ambit of the Smart Cities Mission, which aims to promote integrated waste management and climate-oriented reform actions.

About City Investments to Innovate, Integrate and Sustain 2.0 (CITIIS 2.0)

It aims to leverage and scale up the learnings and successes of CITIIS 1.0 which was launched in 2018.

Vision

The programme envisages to support competitively selected projects promoting a circular economy with focus on
- Integrated waste management at the city level
- Climate-oriented reform actions at the state level
- Institutional strengthening and knowledge dissemination at the national level.

Duration and Participants

Programme will run for four years from 2023 till 2027, in partnership with the French Development Agency (AFD), Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW), the European Union (EU), and the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA).

Components

The programme has three components
- firstly, financial and technical support for developing projects focused on building climate resilience, adaptation and mitigation in up to 18 smart cities.
- Secondly, all states and Union Territories will be eligible for support on-demandbasis. The states will be provided support to
  - (a) set up/strengthen their existing state climate centres/ climate cells/ equivalents
  - (b) create state and city-level climate data observatories
  - (c) facilitate climate-data-driven planning, develop climate action plans and (d) build capacities of municipal functionaries. To achieve these objectives, the Program Management Unit (PMU) at NIUA will coordinate the provision of technical assistance and strategic support to state governments.
- And thirdly, interventions at all three levels– Centre, State and City– to further climate governance in urban India through institutional strengthening, knowledge dissemination, partnerships, building capacity, research and development to support scale-up across all States and Cities.

CITIIS 2.0 will supplement the climate actions of Government of India through its ongoing National programs (National Mission on Sustainable Habitat, AMRUT 2.0, Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0 and Smart Cities Mission), as well as contributing positively to India’s Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) and Conference of the Parties (COP26) commitments.

The first phase of CITIIS was launched in July 2018 with projects in 12 cities namely Agartala, Amaravati, Amritsar, Bhubaneshwar, Chennai, Dehradun, Hubbali-Dharwad, Kochi, Puducherry, Surat, Ujjain and Visakhapatnam.

Graphene - the new wonder material

Context: Artificial Intelligence (AI), quantum computing and graphene, these three emerging technologies are poised to revolutionize the human-machine interface in the coming decades. While India holds a leading position in AI and shows promise in quantum computing, it must strive to bridge the gap in research and production of graphene, the revolutionary material that defines the current era.

More about the news

According to Grand View Research, the global graphene market size reached $175.9 million in 2022, with an expected compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 46.6% from 2023 to 2030.
Leading countries in graphene research include China, the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, South Korea, Russia, and Singapore.
After 2017, China surged ahead, filing 218 patents in 2018.
China and Brazil are at the forefront of commercial graphene production, with the Beijing Graphene Institute, established in 2018, hosting several companies that produce industrial-grade graphene products.
India, on the other hand, had only eight filings. India's production of graphene is approximately one-twentieth of China's and one-third of Brazil's output.

Graphene, the revolutionary material transforming industries

Graphene is a one-atom-thick layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice. As the building block of graphite, graphene possesses remarkable characteristics that make it a potential game-changer in various industries.
In 2004, Russian scientists, Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov, along with others, published the first electronic measurements proving they had isolated graphene. They had removed carbon flakes from graphite using bits of sticky tape – which ultimately led to them winning a Nobel prize for physics in 2010.

Properties

It surpasses copper in electrical conductivity, being 200 times stronger than steel yet six times lighter.
With an exceptional transparency of absorbing only 2% of light, it also exhibits im-permeability to gases, including hydrogen and helium.
The high surface-area-to-volume ratio of graphene, stemming from its thinness, makes it a promising candidate for energy storage.

Applications and Potentials

One of its ground breaking applications lies in the potential to replace indium, a scarce and expensive resource, in the production of OLED screens for smartphones. Studies have shown that integrating graphene into these screens could significantly reduce costs without compromising quality.

Application of Graphene composites:

It has been proven that even a minuscule amount of graphene added to plastics, metals, or other materials can significantly enhance their strength.
These graphene composites find applications in aerospace, automotive, sports equipment, construction, high-performance batteries, conductive inks, water purification, desalination, and even in the production of graphene-based masks during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Its capability to absorb and dissipate electromagnetic waves positions it as a valuable component for stealth coatings and materials that reduce radar signatures and electromagnetic interference.
Graphene's sensitivity to environmental changes makes it an excellent candidate for sensing chemical and biological agents, explosives, radiation, and other hazardous substances.
It also holds promise in numerous applications: efficient and precise sensors, faster and more efficient electronics, efficient solar panels, accelerated DNA sequencing, and drug delivery systems.

India’s progress

Centre for Nano Science and Engineering at IISc Bangalore, in collaboration with KAS Tech, developed a graphene-based system, known as ‘Ocean’. The system is a chemical vapour depositor that can produce various two-dimensional materials including graphene.
India's specialization lies in leveraging graphene for innovation. For instance, it has discovered that graphene oxide-based wrappers loaded with preservatives can enhance the shelf life of fruits and vegetables.
However, the current trickle of such initiatives needs to transform into a torrent.

A commendable step in this direction is the establishment of the India Innovation Centre for Graphene in Kerala, implemented by the Digital University Kerala in collaboration with Tata Steel and C-MET, Thrissur.
It is essential to entrust a nodal Ministry with this responsibility, otherwise, the subject may be neglected.
Given the high cost-to-volume ratio for high-grade graphene, its production may become concentrated in a few global locations, akin to the semiconductor industry.
India missed the semiconductor bus in the mid-1990s, and now is the opportune time to prioritize graphene.

Geomagnetic storms and magnetosphere

Context: Researchers have traced a very significant increase in special continuous oscillations with pearl-type structures called Geomagnetic Pc1 pearl oscillations on the surface of the Earth in the recovery phase of geomagnetic storms. This study is significant for investigating of precipitation particles during geomagnetic storms and can help us understand the radiation hazard to satellites and astronauts.

What are geomagnetic storms?

A geomagnetic storm is a major disturbance of Earth's magnetosphere that occurs when there is a very efficient exchange of energy from the solar wind into the space environment surrounding Earth.
These storms result from variations in the solar wind that produces major changes in the currents, plasmas, and fields in Earth’s magnetosphere.
The solar wind conditions that are effective for creating geomagnetic storms:
- Sustained (for several to many hours) periods of high-speed solar wind.
- Southward directed solar wind magnetic field (opposite the direction of Earth’s field) at the dayside of the magnetosphere. This condition is effective for transferring energy from the solar wind into Earth’s magnetosphere.
- High-speed solar wind stream (HSS).
The largest storms that result from these conditions are associated with solar coronal mass ejections (CMEs) where a billion tons or so of plasma from the sun arrives at Earth.
Storms also result in intense currents in the magnetosphere, changes in the radiation belts, and changes in the ionosphere, including heating the ionosphere and upper atmosphere region called the thermosphere.

How Solar flares are formed?

Impacts of such storms:

Increase in the density in the upper atmosphere, causing extra drag on satellites in low-earth orbit.
Horizontal variations in the in the ionospheric density that can modify the path of radio signals and create errors in the positioning information provided by GPS.
Storms create beautiful aurora.
They also can disrupt navigation systems such as the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS).
They can create harmful geomagnetic induced currents (GICs) in the power grid and pipelines.

What is Magnetosphere?

It is the region around a planet dominated by the planet's magnetic field. Other planets in our solar system have magnetospheres, but Earth has the strongest one of all the rocky planets.
Earth's magnetosphere is a vast, comet-shaped bubble, which shields our home planet from solar and cosmic particle radiation, as well as erosion of the atmosphere by the solar wind - the constant flow of charged particles streaming off the sun.
It is generated by the convective motion of charged, molten iron, far below the surface in Earth's outer core.
Constant bombardment by the solar wind compresses the sun-facing side of our magnetic field. The sun-facing side, or dayside, extends a distance of about six to 10 times the radius of the Earth. The side of the magnetosphere facing away from the sun - the nightside - stretches out into an immense magnetotail, which fluctuates in length and can measure hundreds of Earth radii, far past the moon's orbit at 60 Earth radii.

Difference between Ionosphere and Magnetosphere?

The ionosphere is a region within the upper mesosphere and thermosphere where solar radiation and particles in the "solar wind" strip electrons from atoms in the atmosphere and create an electrically charged zone of ions. It is used to communicate long distances by radio. Radio waves bounce off the ionosphere in much the same way that light is reflected by a mirror. The ionosphere changes its position from day to night, rising in the night and lowering in the day. This is why radio signals from far off places can be detected at night, while only close by transmissions are detectable during the day.
The magnetosphere is Contained within the Earth's thermosphere and is the region where the Earth’s magnetic field interacts with the charged particles coming from the Sun in the solar wind. These particles become trapped in the magnetic field of the Earth and circulate around the Earth following the Earth’s magnetic field. Large bombardments of these charged particles cause the auroras in the ionosphere as they follow the Earth’s magnetic field through the upper atmosphere towards the magnetic poles.

What are Van Allen radiation belts?

The Van Allen radiation belt is a zone of energetic charged particles, most of which originate from the solar wind. The particles are captured by and held around a planet by that planet’s magnetic field. It surrounds Earth, containing a nearly impenetrable barrier that prevents the fastest, most energetic electrons from reaching Earth.
The outer belt is made up of billions of high-energy particles that originate from the Sun and become trapped in Earth’s magnetic field, an area known as the magnetosphere. The inner belt results from interactions of cosmic rays with Earth’s atmosphere.

What is Hysterectomy?

Context: The Union Health Ministry recently urged State governments to audit hysterectomy trends in public and private hospitals, in response to a Supreme Court petition arguing that women from marginalised locations are at risk of unjustified hysterectomies for economic gains and exploitation. The Court also gave a three-month deadline to States, directing them to implement the guidelines previously issued by the Centre.

What is hysterectomy?

Hysterectomy is the partial or total surgical removal of a woman's uterus. It may also involve the removal of the cervix, ovaries, fallopian tubes, and other surrounding structures. After a hysterectomy, a woman no longer menstruates and is unable to conceive.
According to NFHS-5 data, the highest percentage of hysterectomies were to treat excessive menstrual bleeding or pain (51.8%) followed by treatment for fibroids, cysts and uterine disorder or rupture. Studies have shown that many of these causes were considered to be treatable and surgery could be avoided.

Measures taken by the government:

The Union Health Ministry in 2022 issued guidelines to prevent unnecessary hysterectomies — listing possible indications of when a hysterectomy may be required and alternative clinical treatments for gynaecological issues.
It recommended setting up district, State-level and national hysterectomy monitoring committees to monitor and collect data on age, mortality, and occupations, among other details.
The monitoring committees are also tasked with creating awareness, among both practitioners and patients, about bodily anatomy, the role of the uterus and when hysterectomies are actually indicated.
The government’s flagship health insurance programme, the Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana provides health cover of ₹5 lakh for 1,949 procedures, including hysterectomies. The government has authorised 45,434 hospitals to conduct these operations.

Concerns:

Lack of awareness: There is a dearth of awareness and informed consent in the absence of sexual and reproductive health education. Most women assumed that the uterus served no role outside of pregnancy and that removing the uterus would solve their health issues.
- A majority of hysterectomies were reported among socially and economically disadvantaged women.
- Women from rural areas look at hysterectomies as a way of increasing days of productive work and earning more wages, as it eliminates the need for menstrual care and hygiene among workers.
Misuse by private clinics: Private clinics engage in unethical practices, and unnecessary procedures and did not inform women of side effects to earn profits (from insurance money) by quick surgery, turning healthcare into a business.
Long-term health consequences: Hysterectomies may cause long-term injuries and disabilities, requiring follow-up and post-operative care in some cases like additional surgery or hormone replacement therapies. But these interventions are limited to private hospitals and remain unaffordable for low-income groups.

Role of Salt in Non -Communicable Diseases

Context: Salt reduction in the diet is the most cost-effective measure to control non-communicable diseases. The World Health Organization had previously cautioned that the world is off track to achieve its global target of reducing salt intake by 30% by 2025.

The ill effects of excess salt

A recent study from Sweden has shown a connection between salt consumption and atherosclerosis, even in the absence of hypertension.
Atherosclerosis is a disease that blocks the blood vessels which can lead to heart attack.
Every gram of extra sodium was associated with a 9% occurrence of plaques in the carotid arteries which supply blood to the brain; and a 17% increase in coronary artery plaques.
According to a Cochrane review, higher salt in the diet in diabetic patients is associated with faster progression of kidney disease.
A higher amount of salt intake can lead to hypertension.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, notable studies from China and Germany pointed out the association between high salt intake and decreased immunity in the body.
Salt reduction in the diet is the most cost-effective measure to control non-communicable diseases.

Efforts to reduce salt consumption

The World Health Organization cautioned a couple of months ago that the world is off track to achieve its global target of reducing salt intake by 30% by 2025.
The report shows that only 5% of the WHO member states have mandatory and comprehensive sodium-reducing policies.
Additionally, seventy-three per cent of the WHO member states lack the full range implementation of the policies.
The U.K. has been the leading country in the world to have reduced salt consumption in the population. Over the last decade, the salt content of bread has been brought down by 30%, without people being aware.
The WHO has also established a scorecard for various countries. According to that card, India does not have a national policy but it does have voluntary measures to reduce sodium.
Only persons with hypertension or kidney disease are advised by their physicians to reduce salt in their diet.
The population is still unaware of the danger of hidden salt — salt present in ready-made and packed foods.

Also: UPSC Prelims 2023 Answer Key

ISRO launches advanced navigation satellite NVS-01

Context: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully launched NVS-01 (a second-generation navigation satellite) on board the Geosynchronous Launch Vehicle from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.

What is new in the second-generation NavIC satellite?

NVS-01 is the first of the second-generation navigation satellites designed to sustain and augment the NavIC constellation with enhanced features. The 2232 kg satellite carries navigation payloads L1, L5, and S bands and an indigenously developed rubidium atomic clock to determine date and location.
L1 signals for better use in wearable devices: The second-generation satellites will send signals in a third frequency, L1, besides the L5 and S frequency signals that the existing satellites provide, increasing interoperability with other satellite-based navigation systems.
- NavIC system operates in the L5 band, which is a protected frequency specifically assigned to the Indian system. This dedicated frequency enhances the system's robustness and ensures minimal interference from other signals.
- NVS-1 incorporates L1 band signalsadditionally to widen the services.
  - The L1 frequency is among the most commonly used in the Global Positioning System (GPS) and will increase the use of the regional navigation system in wearable devices and personal trackers that use low-power, single-frequency chips.
Atomic Clock: The satellite will have a Rubidium atomic clock onboard, indigenously developed by Space Application Centre-Ahmedabad. Satellite-based positioning systems determine the location of objects by accurately measuring the time it takes for a signal to travel to and back from it using the atomic clocks on board.
Longer mission life: The second-generation satellites will also have a longer mission life of more than 12 years. The existing satellites have a mission life of 10 years.

About NavIC:

Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC), earlier known as Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System, is a satellite navigation system developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).

Objective:

To provide independent satellite navigation services to the Indian region, reducing dependence on other global navigation systems like the Global Positioning System (GPS) or the Russian GLONASS.
To enhance the accuracy and reliability of positioning and timing services in various sectors, including transportation, disaster management, surveying, and agriculture.

Features:

NavIC consists of a constellation of seven satellites in geostationary and geosynchronous orbits around the Earth, namely, IRNSS-1A, IRNSS-1B, IRNSS-1C, IRNSS-1D, IRNSS-1E, IRNSS-1F, and IRNSS-1G.
- NVS-01 will replace IRNSS-1G.
It is designed to provide positioning, navigation, and timing services to users across India and the region extending up to 1,500 km around the country, with position accuracy of better than 20 meters, and timing accuracy of better than 50 nanoseconds.

NavIC offers two types of services:

Standard Positioning Service (SPS): Available to all users and provides positioning accuracy of around 20 meters throughout the Indian region and within the primary service area.
Restricted Service (RS): Encrypted service primarily intended for authorised users such as the military, government agencies, and other security-sensitive applications. It provides higher accuracy and additional features compared to the SPS.

Applications:

Terrestrial, aerial, and marine navigation
Location-based services in mobile devices and marine fisheries
Disaster management
Vehicle tracking and fleet management
Precise timing
Mapping and geodetic data capture
Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travellers
Visual and voice navigation for drivers
Precision agriculture

Advantages of having a regional navigation system:

NavIC provides coverage over the Indian landmass and up to a radius of 1,500 km around it. Unlike GPS, NavIC uses satellites in high geo-stationery orbit — the satellites move at a constant speed relative to Earth, so they are always looking over the same region on Earth.
NavIC signals come to India at a 90-degree angle, making it easier for them to reach devices located even in hard-to-reach areas like congested areas, dense forests, or mountains. GPS signals are received over India at an angle.
With the use of NavIC picking up, the government has been looking at the possibility of increasing the coverage area of the system.
- Work is underway to set up ground stations in Japan, France, and Russia.
- Once fully operational — with ground stations outside India for better triangulation of signals — NavIC open signals will be accurate up to 5 metres and restricted signals will be even more accurate.

Satellite navigation systems of other countries:

There are four global satellite-based navigation systems.
- United States: Global Position System (GPS)
- Russia: GLONASS
- China: BeiDou
- European Union: Galileo

Japan has a four-satellite regional navigation system (Quasi-Zenith Satellite System).