GS Paper 3

PM KISAN

Context: Prime Minister has released the 15th instalment of the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN) scheme on 15^th of November,2023.

PM KISAN SCHEME

It is a centrally sponsored scheme under which an input support of 6,000/- per year in 3 equal instalments will be provided to all land holding farmer families.
The fund will be directly transferred to the bank accounts of the beneficiaries.
Exclusions: Farmer families who pay income tax, with government employees and professionals like doctors etc. are excluded.

Need for PM KISAN:

Lack of access to Institutional credit: According to RBI’s financial inclusion report more than 60% of marginal farmer’s credit is from informal sources.
More effective than debt waiver: Unlike debt waiver schemes, Input support schemes don’t hamper credit culture.
Crop neutral: unlike MSP support, this is crop neutral

(MSP mechanism favoured cereal crops like Rice and Wheat over other crops)

WTO subsidy limit: Income support schemes like PM KISAN do not come under Amber box of WTO subsidies and hence don’t cross the AoA (Agreement in Agriculture) limit.
Better price realisation for the farmers: Farmers are still preferring to sell their produce to the trader or commission agent in the local mandi even after the advent of e-NAM. This is primarily due to the input credit support extended by the traders to the farmers. As a result, farmers often do not realise the prices.

However, the scheme has its own limitations

Issues with Agricultural input support scheme:

Insufficient support: The financial support given under the scheme are often insufficient to meet the input costs of the farmers.
Identification of beneficiaries is a challenge because of lack of proper digitalisation of land records.
Tenants and Sharecroppers are not covered.
Inefficient disbursement: Banks often adjust these deposits (the money deposited to the beneficiary by the govt under the scheme) against the past liabilities.
Inefficient use of Inputs (fertilizers and water) increases the input costs and render input support scheme by the govt ineffective in helping the farmer reducing the input cost burden.
Misuse of Input money: Often money credited as part of DBT is not used for the intended objective.

Ex: Using the money for Alcohol consumption

Not a permanent solution: Input support through DBT is not going to address the fundamental issues that are responsible for farming crisis in India.

Way forward:

Digitalisation of land records to identify beneficiaries properly and avoid exclusion errors.
Implement Model Tenancy act: In India land tenancy is often informal. This makes it challenging for these input support schemes to identify and include tenants under the benefits. So, implementation of Model tenancy act (2021) will help in addressing this challenge.
Provide input support in kind rather than cash.
Input support should be supplemented by Improvement in Agricultural Infrastructure, undertaking marketing reforms and providing agricultural insurance to every farm.
Improve input use efficiency through Micro irrigation technologies, Neem coating of Urea etc. to reduce input costs.

What are Dark Matter and Dark Energy?

Context: The European Space Agency (ESA) has unveiled the first images captured by the Euclid space telescope designed to unlock the secrets of dark matter and dark energy. The primary objective of the telescope is to create the largest cosmic 3D map of the universe to better understand the distribution of dark matter and influence of dark energy in the early universe.

Dark Matter and Dark Energy:

Dark matter and dark energy together make up 95% of the universe. Around 68% of the Universe is made of dark energy while dark matter makes up 27%.
Only the remainder (5%) is composed of fermionic matter, i.e., things on the Earth, planets, stars, etc.

Dark Matter:

Dark matter is completely invisible and has not yet been observed directly. It does not interact with matter, emits no light or energy and thus cannot be detected directly by conventional sensors and detectors.
Scientists are confident it exists because of the gravitational effects it has on galaxies and galaxy clusters.

Dark Energy:

The existence of dark energy was theorised 25 years ago, when a team of researchers found that the expansion of the Universe was speeding up or accelerating, instead of slowing down due to gravity (inwards pulling force). Scientists have hypothesised that this is happening due to a mysterious form of energy called dark energy.

Characteristics of dark energy:

Dark energy has been hypothesised as a repulsive force or anti-gravity, i.e. while gravity tends to make objects attract, dark energy would pull them apart by increasing the space between them. Thus, dark energy has an expansionary effect. As our universe is expanding, it indicates that dark energy has a greater abundance than dark matter.
Dark energy is a property of space, so it does not get diluted as space expands.
- Normally, as the universe expands the density of mass and radiation in it decreases.
- However, the density of dark energy remains constant throughout. This means the dark energy in the universe is ever increasing, in order to keep the energy-density constant. Thus, dark energy should be energy inherent in the fabric of space itself.

Euclid Space Telescope: First images revealed from 'dark Universe' mission

Context: The European Space Agency (ESA) has unveiled the first images captured by the Euclid space telescope.

Euclid Space Telescope

Euclid Space Telescope was launched on July 1, 2023 from Cape Canaveral in Florida on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket by the European Space Agency (ESA).
The telescope is stationed 1.5 million km away from the Earth at the Lagrangian Point 2.
It will observe the shapes, distances, and motions of billions of galaxies spanning over 10 billion light-years over the next six years.

Objective:

To create the largest cosmic 3D map of the universe to better understand the distribution of dark matter and reveal the influence of dark energy in the early universe.
- Dark matter and dark energy together make up 95% of the universe.
To understand the evolution of the Universe by looking at the light emitted from galaxies 10 billion years ago.

Euclid is a 1.2 metre-wide telescope with a 600-megapixel camera to record visible light and a near-infrared spectrometer/camera and photometer to determine the redshift of detected galaxies.

Dark Energy

Around 68% of the Universe is made of dark energy while dark matter makes up 27%. Only the remainder is composed of fermionic matter, i.e., things on the Earth, planets, stars, etc.
Scientists theorised the existence of dark energy 25 years ago when a team of researchers found that instead of slowing down due to gravity (inwards pulling force), the expansion of the Universe was speeding up. Scientists hypothesised that this was happening due to a mysterious form of energy called dark energy.
- The expansion of the universe is accelerating. Previously, it was thought that the pull of gravity will either slow down or even retract the expansion.
- Dark energy has been hypothesised as a repulsive force — a sort of anti-gravity. As our universe is expanding, it indicates that Dark energy has a greater abundance than Dark matter.

Dark energy is a property of space so it does not get diluted as space expands. As more space comes into existence, more of this energy-of-space appears. As a result, dark energy causes the universe to expand faster and faster.
While Dark matter exerts a “pull” on the universe, Dark Energy has a contrasting expansionary effect.

Dark Matter

Dark matter has not yet been observed directly. It does not interact with matter and is completely invisible to light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation making it impossible to detect.
Scientists are confident it exists because of the gravitational effects it has on galaxies and galaxy clusters.

Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution

Context: The surge in nitrogen dioxide levels witnessed in certain areas of Delhi might be attributed to the increased Diwali-related traffic, exacerbating the city's air pollution challenges. The recorded levels were four times higher than the National Ambient Air Quality Standards recommended 24-hour limit and exceeded the World Health Organisation's guidelines by over 13 times.

More about the news:

In South Delhi, the Delhi Pollution Control Committee's data reveals a concerning NO2 level of 329.7 µg/m3 at 5 pm. To put this in perspective, the national 24-hour standard is 80 µg/m3, while the WHO recommends a stricter guideline of 25 µg/m3.
Despite the implementation of all four stages of the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) in Delhi, including restrictions on transport like a ban on diesel medium and heavy goods vehicles, NO2 levels remain high.
TERI and the Automotive Research Association of India's 2018 emissions inventory indicates that the transport sector is a major contributor, accounting for 81% of NOx emissions among local sources in Delhi.
The National Capital Region faces NOx from various sources, including power plants, diesel generators, and industries.
During this period, pollutant spikes, including gases like nitrogen dioxide, can occur due to the trapping of pollutants in cool, calm conditions.

What is Nitrogen Dioxide?

Nitrogen dioxide, or NO2, belongs to the nitrogen oxides (NOx) group—a collection of gases formed when fossil fuels like coal, oil, natural gas, or diesel undergo combustion at high temperatures.
Existing as a gas at ambient temperatures, nitrogen dioxide is acidic, corrosive, and possesses strong oxidizing properties.
Recognized for its pungent odour, NO2, along with fine particulate matter, contributes to the characteristic reddish-brown haze associated with smog.
This reactive gas plays a key role in the creation of various air pollutants such as ozone (O3), nitric acid (HNO3), and nitrate (NO3-) particles, all generated through photochemical reactions.

Sources of Nitrogen Dioxide Emissions:

The main sources of NO2 emissions are trucks, buses, and cars, and there are additional contributions from diesel-powered non-road equipment, industrial processes (such as oil and gas production, industrial boilers, and mobile engines), coal-fired power plants, and even food processing industries.
Nitrogen dioxide isn't typically emitted directly into the air; instead, it forms when nitrogen oxide (NO) and other nitrogen oxides (NOx) react with other airborne chemicals.
Notably, burning natural gas (methane), both outdoors (e.g., gas-fired power plants) and indoors (e.g., stoves, dryers, space heaters), produces NO2.
Natural sources, like volcanoes and bacteria, also release nitrogen oxides.

Environmental Effects:

Nitrogen dioxide, even at short-term concentrations of 120 µg/m3, proves toxic to plants, hindering their growth. When coupled with sulphur dioxide and ozone, the adverse effects intensify, potentially leading to acid rain formation.
NO2 also directly absorbs shorter blue wavelengths of visible light, contributing to visibility reduction, and indirectly contributes to nitrate aerosol haze formation (brownish hue/summer smog).
In the presence of moisture, nitrogen dioxide forms corrosive acids, impacting building materials at elevated concentrations.
Indoor Pollution:

Indoor NO2 levels are predominantly influenced by NO2-emitting appliances, indoor-outdoor air exchange rates (such as open or closed windows), and seasonal variations.
Common indoor sources of NO2 emissions include gas stoves and space heaters and improperly vented furnaces, water heaters, and clothes dryers are additional potential sources.

Health Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution:

Nitrogen dioxide induces various adverse effects on lung health, including heightened inflammation and exacerbated cough and wheezing.
Scientific evidence also suggests a potential link between NO2 exposure and the development of asthma in children.
In a comprehensive 2022 review, multiple studies indicated a strong association between elevated NO2 levels, increased particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, and detrimental impacts on heart and lung health. These pollutants were also found to affect pregnancy and birth outcomes, posing a likely risk of kidney and neurological harm, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.
AIIMS Study on NO2 Pollution:

A study conducted by AIIMS, Delhi, revealed that exposure to nitrogen dioxide (NO2), even over a short duration ranging from zero to seven days, led to a staggering 53% increase in emergency room visits.
This finding is particularly alarming as it surpasses the impact of the more familiar pollutant PM 2.5, which increased patient load by 19.5%.
Notably, the study observed a higher rate of admissions among individuals with co-existing health conditions rather than solely respiratory illnesses.

WHO Air quality guidelines:

The Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) established by the World Health Organization (WHO) serve as a global benchmark, guiding national, regional, and city governments in their efforts to enhance the health of their citizens by mitigating air pollution.
WHO consistently integrates scientific evidence on the health impacts of air pollution and monitors the progress of countries in improving air quality.
In 2021, WHO released a revised Global Air Quality Guidelines announcing more stringent limits for six pollutant categories – particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and carbon monoxide (CO).
The guidelines set the stage for eventual shifts in policy in the government towards evolving newer stricter local and national air quality standards and will help countries in protecting health as well as mitigating global climate change.

Recommended 2021 AQG levels compared to 2005 air quality guidelines:

(Follow the link to read India government initiatives to deal with air pollution: https://compass.rauias.com/current-affairs/northern-plains-most-polluted-region/)

Green Cracker & Supreme court Judgement

Context: In 2018, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research launched less noxious and less noisy ‘green’ crackers, whose use is mandated by various statutory bodies.

Green Cracker

Green crackers are defined by the CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR NEERI) as firecrackers with a smaller shell, no ash and/or additives such as dust suppressants to reduce emissions, especially particulate matter.
These crackers do not contain the barium compounds that give them their distinctive green colour.
- Barium is a metal oxide that pollutes the air and causes noise.
Burning green crackers produces water vapour, which reduces the amount of dust emitted.
- It reduces PM emissions by 30% as compared to conventional firecrackers.

Green firecrackers produce sounds between 110 and 125 decibels, while conventional firecrackers produce sounds of around 160 decibels, making them almost 30 per cent less noisy than conventional firecrackers.

Identification of Green Cracker

Green crackers can be identified by the distinctive green colour logo of CSIR-NEERI and PESO and a Quick Response (QR) code.

Types of Green Cracker

SWAS (Safe Water Releaser): It releases water vapour into the atmosphere to reduce dust. It emits 30% less particulate matter and does not contain Sulphur or potassium nitrate.
STAR (Safe Thermite Cracker): Contains no potassium nitrate or Sulphur, emits less particulate matter, and reduces sound intensity.
SAFAL: It has minimal use of aluminum and more magnesium. It produces less noise than traditional firecrackers.

Supreme court judgement

In 2021, the Supreme Court had passed a slew of directions to ensure that banned chemicals are not used in crackers ahead of Diwali.
- The bench had also clarified that there is no total ban on firecrackers and that only those firecrackers were banned that contained barium salts.
- Green crackers are permissible following the directions issued by the Supreme Court in 2018.
In 2023, The Supreme Court clarified that its firecracker restrictions are applicable not only to Delhi-NCR but to all states.
- It directed state governments to control air and noise pollution, addressing petitions seeking a nationwide ban on firecracker sale and use.

Subansiri Lower Hydroelectric Project

Context: The long-delayed Subansiri Lower Hydroelectric Project on the border of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam suffered its latest setback after a large part of the hill collapsed into its reservoir. The deposits blocked the only functional diversion tunnel and stopped the flow of water downstream of the dam into the Subansiri River, a major tributary of the Brahmaputra.

Subansiri River

The Subansiri River has its origin in Tibet, and it is an antecedent river.
It enters India near the town of Taksing (Arunachal Pradesh) and flows east and southeast through Miri Hills, then south to the Assam Valley at Dulangmukh in Dhemaji district, where it joins the Brahmaputra River at Jamurighat in Lakhimpur district.
Small tributaries of the Subansiri include Rangandi, Dikrong and Kamala.

The Subansiri lends its name to two districts in Arunachal Pradesh: Upper Subansiri and Lower Subansiri.
The high topographic variation makes this river a potential zone for harnessing it for hydropower. The districts situated on the bank of the Subansiri River are flood prone during monsoon season.
The Subansiri River is the largest tributary of the Brahmaputra River.

Subansiri Lower Hydroelectric Project

Location: Located on the Subansiri River, which is on the border of India’s two north-eastern states, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.

Capacity: 2,000MW.
Developing Agency: The project is being developed by the state-run National Hydro Power Corporation (NHPC).
Delays: The construction of Lower Subansiri started in 2005 and was due to be completed in 2010. However, the project was delayed due to stiff opposition over its potential environmental impact.
Present Status (2023) - As per the Ministry of Power, 90% of the total work of the project has been completed.

What is Deepfake Technology?

Context: Deepfakes have become a potential tool to jeopardise the individual’s privacy and have the potential to rupture the social fabric of a nation.

Deepfake

Deepfakes are synthetic media in which a person in an existing image or video is replaced with someone else's likeness. Deepfakes “leverage powerful techniques from machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) to manipulate or generate visual and audio content with a high potential to deceive”.

Issues with deepfakes

Misinformation and propaganda: Deepfake technology has the potential to spread false information and propaganda as it is difficult to differentiate between real and fake content.

E.g., Deepfakes can be used to influence elections.

Damage to personal and professional reputations: Deepfake technology can be used to create fake videos/images of individuals that can damage their personal and professional reputations and further lead to harassment and extortion. E.g., Circulation of pornographic material using celebrity faces.
Threat to National Security: Deepfakes can also be used to carry out espionage activities. Doctored videos can be used to blackmail government and defence officials into divulging state secrets. E.g.,
- India’s non-friendly neighbours and non-state actors can create propaganda videos that can be used for the radicalisation, recruitment of terrorists or inciting violence.
- Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky revealed that a video posted on social media in which he appeared to be instructing Ukrainian soldiers to surrender to Russian forces was actually a deepfake.

Cybersecurity risk: Deepfake technology can be used to create fake videos and images that can be used in phishing scams, or to spread malware or viruses.
Financial frauds: Deepfakes have been used for financial fraud (using voice samples for account verifications).
Ethical issues: Some individuals can exploit the increasing awareness and prevalence of deepfake technology to their advantage by denying the authenticity of genuine content, particularly if it shows them engaging in inappropriate or criminal behaviour.

Legal framework in India

In India, the legal framework related to AI is insufficient to adequately address the various issues that have arisen due to AI algorithms.
Currently, very few provisions under the Indian Penal Code (IPC) and the Information Technology Act, 2000 can be potentially invoked to deal with the malicious use of deepfakes.
- Section 500 of the IPC provides punishment for defamation.
- Sections 67 and 67A of the Information Technology Act punish sexually explicit material in explicit form.
The Representation of the People Act, 1951, includes provisions prohibiting the creation or distribution of false or misleading information about candidates or political parties during an election period.
However, these rules do not address the potential dangers posed by deepfake content. China is one of the few countries which has introduced regulations prohibiting the use of deepfakes.

Way Forward

Regulations and legislation: The union government should introduce separate legislation regulating the nefarious use of deepfakes and the broader subject of AI. E.g., The proposed Digital India Bill can address this issue.
Development of technology to detect deepfakes: Need to invest in the development of technologies that can accurately detect deepfake videos and images to protect individuals and organisations from misinformation and propaganda.
Awareness: Public awareness campaigns to educate people about the potential dangers of deepfake technology.
Collaboration between industry and academia: Industry and academia need to work together to find solutions to the issues surrounding deepfake technology.

The legislation must provide provisions to address the malicious use of deepfake technology in criminal acts but should be accommodative so as not to hamper innovations in AI.

Wolbachia Method: Mosquito Program

Context: A continuous surge in the cases of dengue disease is a worldwide concern. Scientists claim that the Wolbachia Method can help curb the spread of dengue by 77%.

Wolbachia Method

Wolbachia is a type of bacteria that is commonly found in many arthropods, including insects. It has evolved to naturally infect these insects and manipulate their reproductive biology.

Wolbachia method does not involve genetic modification of the target insect species itself. It is considered a form of biological control rather than genetic engineering.
- In this method, naturally occurring Wolbachia bacteria can be introduced into male population by infecting insects in a laboratory setting and then releasing them into the wild.
- When these Wolbachia-infected insects male mate with females that are not infected with the same strain of Wolbachia, these bacteria are passed on to their offspring through the normal reproductive process and their offspring are less likely to survive or reproduce.
Since the method does not suppress mosquito populations or involve genetic modification, it is safe for humans, animals and the environment.

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)

Context: India is at the centre of the hidden epidemic of Antimicrobial resistance (AMR). There are over 1.2 million (12 lakhs) deaths globally and over 3 lakhs in India alone, due to drug-resistant infections and superbugs.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Antimicrobial Resistance.

Mains: Issue of AMR: Key factors & Govt. Initiatives.

What is Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)?

Antimicrobial resistance is the resistance acquired by any microorganism (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasite, etc.) against antimicrobial drugs (such as antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antimalarials) that are used to treat infections.
As a result, standard treatments become ineffective, infections persist and may spread to others. Microorganisms that develop antimicrobial resistance are sometimes referred to as superbugs.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) has identified antimicrobial resistance (AMR) as one of the top threats to public health.

What are the factors contributing to AMR?

Misuse of antibiotics by buying over-the-counter/wrong prescriptions. Widespread use of antibiotics over the last years due to COVID-19.
Rampant use of antibiotics in agriculture and farming sector. E.g., Streptomycin used for treating Tuberculosis is used indiscriminately to grow fruits & vegetables, Colistin is mixed in poultry feed to make chickens grow faster.
Untreated waste from pharmaceutical manufacturing sites and hospitals releases large amounts of active antimicrobials into the environment.
Incomplete courses of antimicrobial drugs may develop drug resistance. E.g., MDR-Tuberculosis.
Lack of hygiene and sanitation, infrastructural standards such as quality of drinking water and sanitation levels also contribute to AMR.

Govt. Initiatives to prevent AMR:

1. Prevent counter-sale of Antibiotics:

Antibiotics are included in Schedule H and H1 of the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945. These drugs have specific caution labelling requirements and are sold by retail only under the prescription of a Registered Medical Practitioner.
- The supply of a drug specified in Schedule H1 is recorded in a separate register at the time of the supply and such records are maintained for three years and are open for inspection.
- Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) has placed 24 hi-end antimicrobials under schedule H1 by issuing notification.

2. National Action Plan for containment of Antimicrobial Resistance:

National Action Plan on containment of Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR) focusing on One Health Approach was launched in April 2017 involving various stakeholder ministries/departments.
Delhi Declaration on AMR– an inter-ministerial consensus was signed by the ministers of the concerned ministries pledging their support in AMR containment.

3. Red Line Campaign:

Launched in 2016 by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare to create awareness among the public on AMR and avoid self-medication.
A red line is put on the packaging of two dozen antibiotics and antimicrobials identified by the Ministry, such that these should not be sold over the counter without prescription of a medical practitioner.

4. National Centre for Disease Control:

Designated as the national coordinating centre for AMR activities in India.
Provides technical assistance to states and stakeholders in implementing the NAP-AMR, and monitors progress and impact of AMR interventions.

5. AMR Surveillance Network:

Established by the Indian Council of Medical Research.
Comprises a network of laboratories across the country to monitor trends and patterns of drug-resistant infections.

Conclusion: AMR is a global emergency that requires urgent, multi-sectoral intervention. Governments must enforce stricter regulation on antibiotic sales and distribution, in human medicine and agriculture. Countries must collaborate to share data, create unified strategies, and implement global responses to AMR.

Russia test fires nuclear-capable ballistic missile

Context: Russia has test-launched an intercontinental ballistic missile “Bulava” capable of carrying nuclear warheads from one of its submarines. The 12-metre-long missile has a range of over 8,000 kilometres.

The launch comes just days after the Russian withdrew its ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in a move Russia argued was needed to bring its position in line with the United States.

Ballistic Missiles

Ballistic missiles are long range rocket-propelled munitions/weapon systems that follow a parabolic trajectory to deliver a payload from its launch site to a predetermined fixed target.

Types of Ballistic Missiles:

Short-range ballistic missile (SRBM): Range from 300 to 1,000 kilometres.
Medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM): Range from 1,000 to 3,500 kilometres.
Intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM) or long-range ballistic missile (LRBM): Range from 3,500 to 5,500 kilometres.
Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM): Range greater than 5,500 kilometres. E.g., Agni-V

Ballistic missiles follow a specific ballistic parabolic trajectory whose path is determined primarily by gravity and the missile's initial velocity. However, they are not actively guided like cruise missiles throughout their entire flight.
Ballistic missiles travel at extremely high speeds (upto 24 Mach) during their terminal phase, making it challenging for defensive systems to track and intercept them in real-time. The rapid speed reduces the time available for a defence system to respond effectively.
Ballistic missiles are rocket-powered, their rocket engines use a combination of fuel and oxidizer to generate thrust. This allows the missile to continue operating in the vacuum of space.
- Two primary components of the rocket propulsion system are the fuel and the oxidizer.
- The fuel is typically a chemical substance that can burn and release energy, while the oxidizer is another chemical component that provides the necessary oxygen for combustion of fuel.
Ballistic missiles can carry conventional high explosives as well as chemical, biological, or nuclear munitions.

Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty

Comprehensive Nuclear-Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) bans all nuclear explosions, whether for military or peaceful purposes.
Objective: To end nuclear testing and promote nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation. By prohibiting all nuclear explosions, it aims to prevent the development of new nuclear weapons and promote global security.
Negotiation and Adoption: The treaty was subsequently opened for signature on September 24, 1996, and it has been signed by 187 countries and ratified by 178 countries as of October 2023.
Entry into Force: CTBT has not entered into force as of November 2023. CTBT requires that all 44 “nuclear capable” states (also known as “Annex II” states) ratify the treaty before it may enter into force. Eight Annex II states have yet to ratify the CTBT.
- Countries that have signed but not ratified CTBT: United States, China, Egypt, Iran, and Israel.
- Those that have neither signed nor ratified: India, Pakistan and North Korea.
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization was established to oversee the implementation and verification of the CTBT. It is headquartered in Vienna, Austria, and is responsible for managing the International Monitoring System (IMS) and the International Data Centre (IDC) to detect and analyse nuclear test events.

InvITs (Infrastructure Investment Trust)

Context: According to Sebi data, Rs 18,658 crore was collected through these emerging investment vehicles in the April-September period of 2023-24. This comprises Rs 12,753 crore through InvITs and the remaining Rs 5,905 crore via REITs.

What are InvITs?

Infrastructure Investment Trusts (‘InvITs’) are pooled investment vehicles similar to mutual funds which were introduced to make investment in infrastructure assets accessible to private and retail investors. InvITs invest in long-term infrastructure projects such as roads, gas pipelines, transmission lines, renewable assets, etc. They are regulated by SEBI.

Design and Features of InvITs:

The InvITs designed as a tiered structure with a sponsor setting up the InvIT which in turn invests into the eligible infrastructure projects either directly or via special purpose vehicles (SPVs).

Who can Invest?

The minimum subscription limit for InvITs is 1 lakh. Hence apart from institutional investors like Banks, Insurance companies, pension funds and sovereign wealth funds, Retail investors also can invest in InviTs. The investors receive units for their investment, hence they are also referred as Unit holders.
Some part of the investment is used by the InvIT as loan while other portion is used as capital. Hence, the unit holders receive returns in the form of Dividend and Interest. Both the dividend and interest are taxed.
If the investor receives profit upon selling his units, Capital gains tax is imposed on any such gain.

Low Risk:

As per the SEBI regulations, InvITs must invest at least 80% of their assets in projects that are completed and revenue-generating. This lowers the risk for investors as this reduces the typical risk associated with the infrastructure sector i.e. delay in completion, due to lack of regulatory approvals, poor project management etc.
InvITs and REITs are recognised as borrowers under the Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Securities Interest (SARFAESI) Act. This enables the investors, especially banks, to initiate action against the trustees of InvITs in case of any default.

National Efficient Cooking Program & Energy Efficient Fans Program (EEFP)

Context: Energy Efficiency Services Limited (EESL) has launched National Efficient Cooking Program (NECP) and Energy Efficient Fans Program (EEFP). These initiatives are aimed at revolutionizing cooking practices in India and emphasizing on the importance energy efficiency.

About National Efficient Cooking Program

NECP aims to distribute 20 lakhs non-solar/electricity-based energy-efficient induction cook stoves nationwide.
The induction based cookstoves to be distributed under the program offer a cost advantage of 25-30% over traditional cooking methods, promising both energy savings and cost-effective cooking solutions.
It is a sub-program under the Clean Cooking Scheme of EESL.
Implemented by EESL.
EESL has already been promoting clean and safe electric cooking to support India's Go-electric campaign.
EESL has partnered with Modern Energy Cooking Services (MECS) for large-scale deployment of induction cookstoves.

Significance of the scheme

Reduced energy consumption
Lower electricity bills for consumers
Contribute to India's green transition and carbon mitigation goals.
Reduced environmental impact of inefficient cooking methods, ensuring cleaner air and improved health for citizens.
Accelerate the acceptance and large-scale adoption of modern electric cooking devices in India.
Currently, cooking is based on biomass burning in rural areas and LPG or City Gas Distribution based in urban areas. LPG and CNG are largely imported by India. Shift to electricity-based cooking will improve India's energy security.
Many poor families are not able to afford the price of LPG cylinder. Hence, electricity-based cooking will reduce cooking cost especially for poor consumers.
Electricity based induction cooking has been seeing increased demand due to factors like modular kitchen, rising LPG costs and versatility of cooking with induction.
Higher safety and convenience of cooking on induction cookstoves.
Increased adoption of induction based cookstoves in various food outlets.

Modern Energy Cooking Services (MECS)

MECS program researches the socio-economic realities of a transition from polluting fuels to energy-efficient electric cooking devices.

Modern Energy Cooking Services (MECS) is an eight-year research programme funded by UK Aid.

About Energy Efficient Fans Program (EEFP)

EEFP aims at deploying energy-efficient BLDC fans by distributing 1 crore ceiling fans.
Contemporary 5-star fans consume only 28-32W. However, Conventional fans typically consume 75-80 W. Thus, using them will lead to savings of electricity and reduced energy bills for consumers.
Mandatory star rating of ceiling fans: Bureau of Energy Efficiency, which is a statutory body, under the Energy Conservation Act has made star-labelling of ceiling fans mandatory from 1st January 2023.

Significance of Energy Efficient Fans Program

Ceiling fans contribute to 40% (Approximately) of total residential electricity consumption in India, accounting for over a quarter of India's overall electricity usage.
By replacing, all current fans with most efficient models, nearly 20% of total residential electricity consumption can be reduced.
Despite, large energy savings, adoption rate of 5-star energy efficient fans stands at a mere 5%. This indicates that widespread adoption of energy-efficient fans will lead to substantial energy conservation.
The EEFP program is expected to not only address the demand for new fans but also motivate existing ceiling fans users to upgrade to energy-efficient fans.
Contribute to India's green transition and carbon mitigation goals.

About Energy Efficiency Services Limited (EESL)

Energy Efficient Services Limited is a joint venture of PSUs under the Ministry of Power.
It functions under the Ministry of Power.
It is a leading Energy Service Company which aims to promote energy-efficient products like LED bulbs, tube lights, air conditioners, streetlights and electric vehicles.
EESL's transparent procurement processes, overseen by CVC, have enabled them to distribute millions of these products, resulting in substantial energy savings, reduced peak demand, and greenhouse gas emissions.