GS Paper 3

Wetland City Accreditation (WCA) under Ramsar Convention

Context: MoEF&CC has submitted three nominations from India for Wetland City Accreditation (WCA) of Indore (Madhya Pradesh), Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) & Udaipur (Rajasthan) under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.

Wetland City Accreditation under Ramsar Convention

It is a voluntary accreditation system established under Ramsar Convention during Conference of Parties -12 (COP-12) held in 2015.
It recognizes cities which have taken exceptional steps to safeguard their urban wetlands.
It aims to further promote the conservation and wise use of urban and peri-urban wetlands, as well as sustainable socio-economic benefits for local populations.
It seeks to encourage cities that are close to and dependent on wetlands, primarily Wetlands of International Importance, but also wetlands with other conservation category status, to develop and strengthen a positive relationship with these valuable ecosystems.
This voluntary scheme provides an opportunity for cities that value their natural or human-made wetlands to gain international recognition and positive branding opportunities for their efforts in demonstrating strong positive relationships with wetlands.
To be formally accredited, a candidate for the Wetland City Accreditation should satisfy the standards used to implement each of the six international criteria mentioned Operational Guidance for WCA of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
Criteria for a city or a human settlement to be accredited as Wetland City Accrediation:
- Criterion 1: It has one or more Ramsar Sites, or other wetland conservation sites fully or partly situated within its jurisdiction, which provide(s) a range of ecosystem services to the city;
- Criterion 2: It has adopted measures for conservation of wetlands and their ecosystem services;
- Criterion 3: It has implemented wetland restoration and/or management measures;
- Criterion 4: It considers the challenges and opportunities of integrated spatial/land-use planning for wetlands under its jurisdiction;
- Criterion 5: It has raised public awareness about the values of wetlands by delivering locally adapted information, and enabled participation of local stakeholders in decision making processes;
- Criterion 6: It has established a local committee with appropriate knowledge and experience on wetlands and representation of and engagement with stakeholders to support the preparation work to apply for the Wetland City Accreditation of the Ramsar Convention and the implementation of proper measures to maintain the city’s qualifications for the accreditation.

Cities accredited as Wetland Cities Accreditation under Ramsar Conventions

Nominated Sites by India

These are the first three Indian cities for which nominations have been submitted for Wetland City Accreditation (WCA). These three cities have been selected by MoEFCC based on proposals submitted by State Wetlands Authorities in collaboration with Municipal Corporations.
Indore: Founded by Holkars, Indore is the cleanest city in India and the recipient of India’s Smart City Award 2023 for its best sanitation, water, and urban environment.
- Sirpur Lake, a Ramsar Site in the city, has been recognised as an important site for water bird congregation and is being developed as a Bird Sanctuary.
- Yashwant Sagar is a Ramsar site located close to Indore.
- A strong network of more than 200 wetland mitras is engaged in bird conservation and sensitising local community to protect Sarus Crane.

Bhopal:Bhoj Wetland, Ramsar Site is the city’s lifeline, equipped with the world-class wetland’s interpretation centre, Jal Tarang.
- Additionally, the Bhopal Municipal Corporation has a dedicated Lake Conservation Cell.
- A network of more than 300 wetland mitras is engaged in wetland management and conservation of Sarus Crane.

Udaipur: Located in Rajasthan, the city is surrounded by five major wetlands, namely, Pichola, Fateh Sagar, Rang Sagar, Swaroop Sagar, and Doodh Talai.
- These wetlands are an integral part of the city’s culture and identity, help maintain the city’s microclimate, and provide a buffer from extreme events.

PRITHvi VIgyan (PRITHVI)

Context: The Union Cabinet has approved the overarching scheme Promoting Research in Earth Systems Science, Technology, & Human Resource Development “PRITHvi VIgyan (PRITHVI)”.

About PRITHVI Scheme:

Launched in: 2021
Till: 2026
Type of scheme: Central Sector Scheme
Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Earth Sciences
Outlay: Rs. 4,797 crore.
Aim: To enhance the understanding of the Earth and its vital signs.

Scheme subsumed:

Atmosphere & Climate Research-Modelling Observing Systems & Services (ACROSS): It addresses different aspects of weather and climate services, which includes warnings for cyclone, storm surges, heat waves, thunderstorms etc.
Ocean Services, Modelling Application, Resources and Technology (O-SMART): For promoting ocean research and setting up early warning weather systems.
Polar Science and Cryosphere Research (PACER): To improve the understanding of Polar Science and cryosphere systems.
Seismology and Geosciences (SAGE): To strengthen earthquake monitoring and research on the Earth’s solid components
Research, Education, Training and Outreach (REACHOUT): To fosters talent development and ensures effective translation of research into services directly benefiting society

Objective of PRITHVI Scheme

Augmentation and sustenance of long-term observations of the atmosphere, ocean, geosphere, cryosphere, and solid earth to record the vital signs of the Earth System and change.
It is also intended for the development of modelling systems for understanding and predicting weather, ocean, and climate hazards and understanding the science of climate change.
Exploration of polar and high seas regions of the Earth towards discovery of new phenomena and resources.
Development of technology for exploration and sustainable harnessing of oceanic resources for societal applications.
Translation of knowledge and insights from Earth systems science into services for societal, environmental and economic benefit.

Significance:

The scheme emphasises a holistic and integrated approach to Earth system science.
It allows for collaborative research across disciplines, tackling complex challenges in areas like extreme weather, oceanic resources, and cryosphere changes.
The scheme paves the way for innovative programs and solutions that address pressing environmental and societal concerns.
It will nurture a skilled workforce of Earth system scientists for the future.
The scheme marks a significant leap forward in India’s commitment to understanding and managing the complex dynamics of the Earth.

Sisal: A Sustainable Alternative to Sanitary Napkin

Context: A team from Stanford University and a Nepal Based NGO is attempting to develop a low-cost decentralised and environmentally sustainable method of producing sanitary napkins from Sisal leaves. The objective is to meet the growing demand for low-cost and environmentally friendly menstrual hygiene products.

About Sisal

Sisal is a xerophytic succulent plant, known for its ability to store water and thrive in drought-prone areas.
Sisal has thick sword-like leaves that grow up to 2 m long which are covered with a waxy layer.
The lifespan of a sisal plant is about 7-10 years, during which it produces 200-250 usable leaves.
Each leaf has about a thousand fibres that can be used to make ropes, paper, cloth, and highly absorbent material.
Sisal plant is a native of Mexico.
Sisal is well adapted to arid and semi-arid regions of India. It grows mainly in Odisha, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Western West Bengal and some parts of Bihar and many southern states where annual rainfall varies between 60-125 cm and temperature 40-45 degree celsius.
Global production: Brazil is world’s largest producer of sisal fibre followed by Tanzania, Kenya, Madagascar, China, Mexico and Haiti.
Current uses of Sisal:
- Sisal leaves have been used for making paper, twine, cloth and carpet.
- Mezcal: Sisal plant is used to make Mezcal which is a distilled alcoholic beverage.
- Researchers have reported that sisal leaves are highly absorbent and retentive. Absorption capacity of sisal leaves is higher than those found in commercially available menstrual pads.

Benefits of Sisal in Making Sanitary Napkins

Water Efficiency: Sisal cultivation requires less water compared to cotton industries, contributing to water conservation.
Environmental Impact: Sisal is less environmentally damaging than cotton, making it a more sustainable choice for sanitary napkin production.
Substitute for Cotton-CMP: Replacing cotton-CMP (Chemical Pulp) with sisal fluff pulp could enhance the environmental sustainability of sanitary napkin production in the long term.
Timber Alternative: While timber could be an alternative to cotton, it is viable only in regions with an "endless supply of sustainably harvested forests."
Distributed Manufacturing: The concept of "distributed manufacturing" supports the environmentally sustainable production of sanitary napkins, allowing for a more widespread and eco-friendly manufacturing process.
Addressing Access Issues: Utilising sisal in sanitary napkin production contributes to addressing the lack of access to menstrual products, fostering an "open-source framework" for menstrual hygiene solutions.

Process of Making Sustainable Absorbent Material from Sisal

The process begins by feeding sisal leaves into a decorticator, a machine that mechanically separates the fibres.
In the next step, a process known as delignification dissolves lignin, a water-repelling polymer in plant cell walls, leaving behind highly absorbent cellulose fibres, substituting the traditional wood-to-wood pulp process known as the Kraft process.
While effective, the Kraft process generates volatile and toxic by-products, causing air and water pollution.
In the environment, researchers identified two organisms proficient in converting wood to wood pulp: termites and wood-rot fungi.
The termite guts house an incredible consortium of organisms, including microbes of various shapes and sizes, which delignify wood through a process not completely understood by scientists.
Peroxyformic acid, an important compound in this process, selectively removes lignin while preserving the structure of cellulose microfibers.
Treatment with peroxyformic acid allows for the compound's reuse over several cycles, and it decomposes into water and carbon dioxide at the end of the process, requiring no neutralising chemicals and minimising environmental damage.
The amount of CO2 released during the breakdown of peroxyformic acid is minuscule compared to the total CO2 in the overall analysis.
After treating the sisal fibres with peroxyformic acid, the process proceeds by washing them first with a solution of dilute sodium hydroxide and then water.
The result is a wet pulp that is then dried and mechanically blended to obtain a dry mass called fluff pup. This fluff can be used in place of cotton in sanitary napkins.

Increasing Demand and Lack of Access of Sanitary Pads

Increasing Use: There has been a significant rise in the number of people using hygienic methods, such as sanitary napkins, tampons, and menstrual cups, to manage menstruation in India.
Limited Access: Despite promising growth, access to menstrual hygiene products remains limited for around 500 million people worldwide. For example, in rural India, only 42% of adolescent women exclusively use hygienic methods to manage their periods.
Rising Cost: A key barrier to making menstrual hygiene products, like sanitary napkins, accessible is the rising cost of raw materials and distribution.

Problem of Safe Disposal and Unsustainable Use of Sanitary Pads

Increasing Waste: According to a United Nations Population Fund report from 2022, Patna alone discards 9.8 billion sanitary napkins every year. Another estimate from a 2022 study placed the monthly quantity of discarded sanitary napkins in Chennai at 27 million.
Problem of Dioxin: Single-use sanitary napkins contain dioxin, a persistent environmental pollutant and a carcinogen, putting users at risk of cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies dioxin as a “known human carcinogen.”

About Dioxins

Belong to the so-called “dirty dozen” - a group of dangerous chemicals known as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), covered by the Stockholm Convention.
Found throughout the world in the environment, they accumulate in the food chain, mainly in the fatty tissue of animals (Bioaccumulate).
Mainly by-products of combustion and industrial processes but can also result from natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires.
These are unwanted by-products of a wide range of manufacturing processes including smelting, chlorine bleaching of paper pulp and the manufacturing of some herbicides and pesticides.
More than 90% of human exposure is through food, mainly meat and dairy products, fish and shellfish.
Has been associated with a range of toxic effects, including chloracne; reproductive, developmental and neurodevelopmental effects; immunotoxicity; and effects on thyroid hormones, liver and tooth development. They are also carcinogenic.

Potential Alternatives

The absorbent material in sanitary napkins currently comprises a combination of wood pulp and synthetic superabsorbent polymers (SAPs). To address environmental and health concerns, efforts are underway to reduce the use of SAPs and substitute them with cellulose-based nanofibers.
Additionally, plant fibres, such as those derived from banana plants, have been employed to synthesise absorbent materials. However, banana plants are highly sensitive to drought, making them less sustainable for producing sanitary napkins in arid or semi-arid and drought-prone regions. Access to hygienic menstruation is particularly critical in countries located in the tropics, which often face drought-related challenges.

Restructuring of Coal Controller Organisation

Context: In order to align the organization with the current scenario in the coal sector, the Ministry of Coal formed a Committee to review the functions of the Coal Controller’s Office.

About Coal Controller Organisation:

The Coal Controller’s Organization is a subordinate Office of the Ministry of Coal.
It collects and maintains coal production data of all private and public sector coal mines in the country. The information is collected on a monthly basis.

Functions of Coal Controller Organisation

Inspection of collieries so as to ensure the correctness of the class, grade or size of coal.
To issue directives for the purpose of declaration and maintenance of grades of coal of a seam mined in a colliery.
To act as the appellate authority in case of dispute between consumers and owner arising out of declaration of grade and size of coal.
To regulate disposal of stock of coal or the expected output of coal in the colliery.
Quality surveillance with respect to maintenance of grade, loading of coal in wagons/ trucks according to laid down procedures regarding grades and sizes.
To grant opening / reopening permission of coal mine, seam or a section of seam or to subdivide a mine.
Assessment and collection of excise duty levied on all raw coal raised and dispatched.

Thirty Metre Telescope

Context: An Indian delegation led by the Secretary of the Department of Science and Technology (DST) visited Mauna Kea, Hawaii, USA and discussed challenges in the progress of the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) project and ways to overcome them.

About Thirty Metre Telescope:

TMT is an international project which aims at building a 30-metre diameter telescope at Mauna Kea, Hawaii, USA.
- At the heart of the telescope is the segmented mirror, made up of 492 individual segments, which makes it three times as wide as the world’s largest existing visible-light telescope.
- Precisely aligned, these segments will work as a single reflective surface of 30 m diameter.
  - The larger the mirror, the more light a telescope can collect, which means that it can see farther, fainter objects.
Upon construction, TMT would be one of the world’s most advanced and capable ground-based optical and infrared observatory.
- Wavelength: Optical, near-infrared, and mid-infrared.
Estimated cost: 1.47 billion USD (Base year 2012 USD).
It is a joint effort of an international consortium of scientific organisations and institutions in Canada, China, India, Japan and USA.

Significance:

The telescope would help in the:

Study of exoplanets and whether their atmospheres contain water vapour or methane — the signatures of possible life, and detection of extraterrestrial life.
Study of black holes, evolution of galaxies, dark matter and dark energy.

Why Mauna Kea?

Mauna Kea is a dormant volcano located on Hawaii’s Big Island, USA.
Astronomers favour Mauna Kea because the clean air and limited light pollution at its summit 4,205 metres above sea level make it one of the world’s best locations for studying the skies.
The area was selected in July of 2009 by the board of the Thirty Meter Telescope after a five-year-long campaign.
The project was started in 2014, but was soon halted due to opposition by native Hawaiins who consider Mauna Kea as sacred, and also concerns regarding environmental damage.
- The indigenous people on the island argue that because of the massive size of the facility, the project would further desecrate the summit.
- The mountain has religious significance for native Hawaiians and already houses 12 observatories on the summit.

Basics of Antibiotics

Context: The National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) recently found that over half of the nearly 10,000 hospital patients surveyed for a study were given antibiotics to prevent, rather than treat, infection. The survey mapped patients treated on one to five days each at 20 tertiary care institutes across 15 States and two Union Territories between November 2021 and April 2022.

It found that 55% of the patients surveyed were prescribed antibiotics as prophylaxis, or as a preventive; only 45% were prescribed antibiotics to actually treat infections; and of them, only 6% were prescribed the drugs after identifying the specific bacteria. This is worrying as India carries one of the largest burdens of drug-resistant pathogens worldwide. Are antibiotics being over-prescribed in India?

Antibiotics are indispensable weapons in the battle against bacterial infections, operating through intricate mechanisms to disrupt bacterial growth and survival. Their remarkable effectiveness lies in the ability to selectively target key components of bacterial biology while sparing human cells.

How do antibiotics function?

Cell Wall Inhibition:
- These antibiotics exert their influence by obstructing the formation of the bacterial cell wall. Bacteria maintain structural integrity through a rigid cell wall, and when this synthesis is impeded, the osmotic balance is disrupted, ultimately leading to the rupture of bacterial cells.
Protein Synthesis Inhibition:
- They interferes with bacterial protein synthesis. Specifically, it binds to the bacterial ribosomes, hindering the elongation of the protein chain. This disruption compromises the bacteria's ability to produce essential proteins, stunting their growth and reproductive capabilities.
DNA/RNA Synthesis Inhibition:
- Ciprofloxacin, a fluoroquinolone, targets bacterial DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, enzymes crucial for DNA replication and repair. By inhibiting these enzymes, the antibiotic prevents bacterial DNA from unwinding and replicating, impeding the bacteria's ability to divide and proliferate.
Metabolic Pathway Disruption:
- This method disrupts the synthesis of tetrahydrofolic acid, an essential component in bacterial metabolism. Without this crucial co-factor, the bacteria are unable to synthesize nucleic acids and amino acids, leading to their demise.
- Example: Trimethoprim
Disruption of Cell Membrane Function:
- These set of anitbiotics disrupt bacterial cell membranes. They bind to the lipopolysaccharides in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, causing permeability changes and leakage of cellular components. This disruption compromises the structural integrity of the bacteria, leading to cell death.
- Example: Polymyxins
Selective Toxicity and Human Cells:
- The beauty of antibiotics lies in their selective toxicity, targeting processes unique to bacteria. This selectivity minimizes harm to human cells, allowing antibiotics to be potent against bacterial infections while sparing the host.

Are antibiotics effective against viruses?

No, antibiotics are not effective against viruses. Antibiotics specifically target bacteria and work by interfering with essential bacterial processes, such as cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, DNA replication, or metabolic pathways. Viruses are fundamentally different from bacteria in structure and function.
Viruses are not classified as living organisms because they lack the cellular structures and metabolic processes that antibiotics typically target. Antibiotics do not have a direct impact on viral replication or infection.
Antiviral medications are used to treat viral infections. These drugs target specific steps in the viral life cycle, such as viral entry into host cells, replication, and release. Common examples of antiviral medications include oseltamivir (Tamiflu) for influenza and acyclovir for herpes viruses.

It is crucial to use the correct type of medication for the specific type of infection. Inappropriate use of antibiotics for viral infections can contribute to antibiotic resistance and is generally ineffective against the viral pathogens. Always consult a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment of infections.

What is antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and how did India reach this stage?

AMR is defined as resistance of micro-organisms to an antimicrobial agent to which they were first sensitive. The present serious concern about AMR is that multiple types of bacteria, particularly in the Indian context — E. coli, Klebsiella, Acinetobacter, Staphylococcus aureus, enterococcus — have even become resistant to some of the latest generation antibiotics. Patients who get infections with these resistant strains of bacteria have a higher possibility of poorer health outcomes due to the resistance.

How did we reach at this situation?

First, the inappropriate use of antibiotics in non-bacterial infections, both because of prescribing practices and the use of over-the-counter antibiotics.
Second, inadequate laboratory facilities to inform clinicians rapidly about what would be an appropriate antibiotic even in bacterial infections, based on cultures. So, most clinicians are shooting in the dark.
Third, the lack of adequate training in antibiotic selection, escalation, and de-escalation.
Fourth, inadequate monitoring of AMR and control of antibiotic prescription and dispensing practices by health systems in spite of repeated warnings.
And fifth, the incentivisation of prescribing practices by the pharmaceutical industry.

Cell Wall Inhibition

Example: Penicillin

Protein Synthesis Inhibition

Example: Erythromycin

DNA/RNA Synthesis Inhibition

Example: Ciprofloxacin

AMR is not a stand-alone entity.

The rate of AMR is directly proportional to steady and strong governance, infrastructure, sanitation, poverty, access to clean drinking water, etc.
So, in a country with high AMR, reducing consumption of medicines alone will not make any significant change in the rate of resistance.
While rationalising antibiotics is indeed important not just from the AMR perspective but also as a patient safety measure, other factors such as sanitation in hospitals, basic access to personal hygiene and infection control, are vital.
COVID-19 taught us the importance of small steps, such as washing our hands and wearing a mask when in public, to counter a huge threat. Fighting AMR needs us to start with these basic steps.

Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism

Context: A concerning development for India is the European Union (EU)’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). The policy, which intends to tax carbon-intensive products coming into the EU from 2026, is divided into two phases, with the first phase (transitional phase) kicking in from October 1, 2023.

What is a carbon border adjustment tax?

A carbon border adjustment tax is a duty on imports based on the amount of carbon emissions resulting from the production of the product in question.
It is aimed putting a fair price on the carbon emitted during the production of carbon intensive goods that are entering the EU, and to encourage cleaner industrial production in non-EU countries.
The gradual introduction of the CBAM is aligned with the phase-out of the allocation of free allowances under the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) to support the decarbonisation of EU industry.

EU Emissions Trading System:· The EU ETS works on the ‘cap and trade’ principle. A cap is a limit set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by the installations and aircraft operators covered by the system. The cap is reduced annually in line with the EU’s climate target, ensuring that emissions decrease overtime.· Within the cap, companies primarily buy allowances on the EU carbon market, but they also receive some allowances for free. Companies can also trade allowances with each other as needed. If an installation or operator reduce their emissions, they can either keep the spare allowances to use in the future or sell them.· Hence it makes polluters pay for their greenhouse gas emissions, helps bring emissions down and generates revenues to finance the EU's green transition, operates in all EU countries plus Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway (EEA-EFTA states).

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Note: This EU-ETS works for the companies located within the EU borders. CBAM is for those companies which are located outside the E.U.

How the CBAM will work?

The CBAM puts an emissions tariff on imports of goods with a high risk of carbon leakage from countries which are not members of the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS).
Companies importing goods into the EU will have to purchase CBAM certificates and then surrender the required amount to cover the corresponding emissions each year.
There are no limits on the number of CBAM certificates an importer may purchase so as to avoid imposing restrictions on trade.
Unlike ETS allowances, CBAM certificates are not tradeable nor bankable.

Merits of CBAM (Viewpoint of E.U):

Preventing Carbon leakage: It refers to a phenomenon where a EU manufacturer moves carbon intensive production to countries outside the region with less stringent climate policies and hence it does not reduces the actually carbon emissions, it just shifts the source to other regions. CBAM will try to bring stringency for those industries also.
Protecting Domestic industries: CBAM will charge the carbon intensive products coming from non-EU countries hence it will ensure level playing field to the domestic companies who by virtue of EU-ETS are already following stringent norms.
In line with E.U’s green targets: According to the European Commission’s proposal, CBAM would contribute to the achievement of climate neutrality by 2050. This will also help them to reduce GHG emissions by 55% by 2030. It comes under the EU’s Green Deal to.

Issue with CBAM (Viewpoints of India, China & other developing countries):

Hurting industrial interests: This might hurt Industrial interests in the developing countries as their exports will be charged by EU. For e.g. In FY22, India exported Steel and aluminum related products to E.U to the tune of $10B.
Violative of CBDR: As CBAM is equally applicable to all the countries outside EU, it violates the principle of ‘Common but differentiated responsibilities’ as was agreed under Paris agreement.
Green protectionism: This can be misused by EU to unnecessarily levy the import duties on imports. Experts have said that CBAM charge can be around 20-35% but the average levy of EU on the companies within EU is around 2-3%.
Valuation of carbon embedded: There are huge differences between how the actual carbon content embedded is calculated and valued in other jurisdictions.
Historical contribution by developing world in climate change is also very low therefore they cannot be charged for their developmental activities.
FTA agreement and zero duties: It is still not clear that whether CBAM will be applicable in the FTA or not. For e.g If India enters into FTA with EU, then there are chances that EU will impose CBAM making Indian products costly. But India might not reciprocate it leading to zero duties and flooding of Indian markets by EU products.
Other factors for Industrial location: Just the stringent environmental norms do not govern the shift of industries from EU to Asia & Africa. There are other factors also like cheap labour, availability of land, huge markets, government policies etc. So, the E.U’s argument that Industries shift to other areas just to avoid stringent policies is not completely acceptable.
Compliance with WTO: Developing countries have also criticised this legislation on account of violative of WTO’s special and differential treatment provisions.

What can be done?

Funds to developing countries: Experts have suggested that EU could collect the tax and return the funds to such countries to invest in their green technologies.
Own legislations: India can also come up with their own legislations in this regard.

What is Carbon Intensive?

Carbon intensity is a measure of how clean our production is. For e.g in case of electricity, it refers to how many grams of carbon dioxide (CO2) are released to produce a kilowatt hour (kWh) of electricity.
Electricity that’s generated using fossil fuels is more carbon intensive, as the process by which it’s generated creates CO2 emissions.
Renewable energy sources, such as wind, hydro or solar power, produce less CO2 emissions, so their carbon intensity value is much lower.

China launches new satellite for violent cosmic phenomena observation

Context: China made a significant stride in space exploration by launching a revolutionary astronomical satellite, the Einstein Probe (EP), designed in the shape of a lotus. This groundbreaking initiative aims to delve into mysterious transient phenomena in the universe. The Long March-2C carrier rocket lifted off, carrying the EP into its planned orbit.

Technology and design:

The EP utilizes cutting-edge X-ray detection technology.
The lotus-inspired design incorporates 12 ‘petals’ housing wide-field X-ray telescopes (WXT) and two ‘stamens’ containing follow-up X-ray telescopes (FXT).
Together, these components form a space observatory with the primary objective of capturing the initial light emitted during supernova explosions and exploring the nature of transient celestial objects at the outer reaches of the universe.
Designed with a lifespan of five years, the Einstein Probe employs the astronomical time-domain observation method, conducting a high-sensitivity real-time dynamic sky survey in the soft X-ray band.
Launched from the Xichang Satellite Launch Centre in Sichuan Province, the satellite weighs approximately 1.45 tonnes.

Collaborations:

Collaborating in this ambitious space exploration endeavour are the European Space Agency and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany, showcasing the global significance of EP's mission.

Homage to Einstein: This tribute reflects Einstein's predictions regarding black holes and gravitational waves in his general relativity theory.

Theory of General Relativity:

General relativity, a component of the broader theory of relativity formulated by the German physicist Albert Einstein, originated in 1916.
It specifically deals with gravity, one of the foundational forces governing the universe.
Given that gravity dictates the behaviour of macroscopic entities, general relativity serves as the theoretical framework for understanding large-scale physical phenomena.
At its core, general relativity emerges from Einstein's principle of equivalence, asserting that on a local scale, it becomes impossible to distinguish between the physical effects attributed to gravity and those resulting from acceleration. This theory treats gravity as a geometric phenomenon arising from the curvature of space-time.
The field equations derived from general relativity provide solutions applicable to diverse physical scenarios, encompassing planetary dynamics, the life cycle of stars, the intricacies of black holes, and the evolution of the universe itself.
The validity of general relativity has been substantiated through experimental verifications, including observations of gravitational lenses, the trajectory of the planet Mercury, time dilation within Earth's gravitational field, and the detection of gravitational waves emanating from merging black holes.

Aims:

Contrary to the serene night sky visible to the human eye, the universe harbours intense celestial activities, such as the demise of supermassive stars, the consumption of stars by black holes, and collisions involving peculiar neutron stars and black holes.
The satellite's comprehensive survey and monitoring of high-energy transient sources, search for concealed black holes, and investigation into their formation and evolution are expected to significantly contribute to our understanding of the universe.
The EP's capability to capture remote and faint transients and bursts is crucial in overcoming the challenges posed by Earth's atmosphere, absorbing X-rays with valuable information.

Russia uses Cruise missile against Ukraine

Context: Russia strikes Ukraine with Hypersonic & cruise missile near the front lines of fighting.

Cruise missile:

It is a self-guided, terrestrial and short-range missile with moderate payload capacity.
They are unmanned vehicles that are propelled by jet engines, much like an airplane. They can be launched from ground, air, or sea platforms.
Cruise missiles remain within the atmosphere for the duration of their flight and can fly as low as a few meters off the ground.
Flying low to the surface of the earth expends more fuel but makes a cruise missile very difficult to detect.

Types of cruise missiles:

Hypersonic missiles: They fly at speeds of at least Mach 5 and are highly maneuverable and able to change course during flight. They are different from ballistic missiles, which can also travel at hypersonic speeds (of at least Mach 5) but have set trajectories and limited maneuverability.
Supersonic missiles: They travel at a speed of around 2-3 Mach i.e., it travels a kilometre approximately in a second. E.g., Brahmos (developed by India & Russia).
Subsonic missiles: They fly at speed lesser than that of sound. It travels at a speed of around 0.8 Mach. E.g., Nirbhay – indigenously developed by India.

K-shaped Economic Recovery in India

Context: As per the State Bank of India’s report, the claims of K-shaped economic recovery in India as “prejudiced” and “ill-concocted” because income inequality has declined in India with a higher tax base and a shift in taxpayers from lower income to higher income tax bracket.

Different Types of Economic Recovery

K-shaped

It is a recovery in which the performance of different parts of the economy diverges like the arms of the letter "K."
In a K-shaped recovery, some parts of the economy may experience strong growth while others continue to decline.

V-shaped

It is characterised by a quick and sustained recovery in measures of economic performance after a sharp economic decline.
Because of the speed of economic adjustment and recovery in macroeconomic performance, a V-shaped recovery is a best-case scenario given the recession.

U-shaped

U-shaped recoveries happen when a recession occurs and the economy does not immediately bounce back, instead tumbling along the bottom for a few quarters.
It is similar to a V-shaped recovery but more prolonged.

W-shaped

A W-shaped recovery is when an economy passes through a recession into recovery and then immediately turns down into another recession.
Hence, it is also known as a double-dip recession.
W-shaped recessions can be particularly painful because the brief recovery that occurs can fool investors into getting back in too early.

L-shaped

It occurs when, after a steep recession, the economy experiences a slow rate of recovery.
L-shaped recoveries are characterised by persistently high unemployment, a slow return of businesses' investment activity, and a sluggish rate of growth in economic output.
They have been associated with some of the worst economic episodes throughout history.

Why K-shaped recovery?

The COVID has triggered an effective income transfer from the poor to the rich
This has increased inequality:
- Households at the top of the pyramid are likely to have seen their incomes largely protected, and savings rates forced up during the lockdown, increasing ‘fuel in the tank’ to drive future consumption.
- Meanwhile, households at the bottom have experienced a permanent loss of income in the forms of jobs and wage cuts
Consequence: This will be demand-impeding because the poor have a higher marginal propensity to consume (ie they tend to spend (instead of saving) a much higher proportion of their income.
Visible Manifestation: Passenger vehicle registrations (proxying upper-end consumption) have grown about 4% since October while two-wheelers have contracted 15%.

Evidence on the Contrary

Reduced Income Inequality: Income inequality captured through the Gini coefficient of taxable income has declined significantly from 0.472 to 0.402 during FY14-FY22.
Increased Consumption of the bottom 90% of the population has increased by Rs 8.2 lakh crore post pandemic.
Widened Tax Base: The number of ITRs filed by people earning between Rs 10 lakh and Rs 25 lakh increased by 291 per cent while the total number of persons filing income tax increased to 7.4 crore in AY23 from 7 crore in AY22. For AY24, 8.2 crore ITRs have been filed by December 31, 2023.
Higher Income Tax Returns: The income-tax returns (ITRs) filed by individual taxpayers earning between Rs 5 lakh and Rs 10 lakh, climbed by 295% between the assessment years (AY) 2013-14 and AY 2021-22, showing a positive trend of migration to a higher range of gross total income.
Shift in taxpayers from Lower Income to Higher Income Tax Bracket:
- About 36.3% of individual ITR filers belonging to an income group of less than Rs 3.5 lakhs in AY15 (FY14) have left the lowest income group and shifted upwards resulting in 21.3% additional income.
- 15.3% have shifted each in the income group of Rs 3.5 lakhs to 5 lakhs, and Rs 5 lakhs to 10 lakhs.
- 4.2% people shifted in the income group of Rs 10 lakhs to Rs 20 lakhs.
Declining Contribution by the Highest Taxpayers: The top 2.5% of taxpayers’ contribution in income declined from 2.81% in FY14 to 2.28% in FY21.
Transition into Larger Firms:
- 19.5% of small firms have transitioned into larger firms through MSME value chain integration.
- The transition of small firms into larger firms and consumption trends such as the rising trend of ordering from food ordering platforms such as Zomato are indicative of “vanishing inequality”.
Rising Sale of 4-Wheelers:
- Two-wheeler sales are on a downward trend and passenger vehicle (4-wheeler) sales are on an upward trend even before the pandemic, but FY19 onwards, there has been a clear preference for 4-wheelers over 2-wheelers.
- Further, the strong credit deployment of auto loans touching nearly 1.8 times the pandemic level, supported by Gross NPAs of vehicle loans at just 1.4% signifies that auto loans are not down or non-performing, it is indeed substituted from two wheelers towards 4 wheelers even for the bottom of pyramid.

Way Forward for a Broad Based Recovery

Economic Growth: In India, Private consumption expenditure is the biggest driver of economic growth. However, due to reduced social sector spending by the government over a few years and the recent COVID induced lockdowns reduced the consumer demand. So, increased social sector spending by the government will increase consumer demand thereby economic recovery.
Demographic Dividend: Spending on human capital will help India reap the benefits of demographic dividend.
Reducing Poverty and Hunger: Reduced social sector spending by the governments force the poor to spend more on non-food essential items squeezing their food budget and ultimately results in Hunger and malnutrition. This will further reinforce poverty.

Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)

Context: India’s aviation regulator Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) introduced changes to the flight duty time limitations (FDTL) including more rest for pilots, redefining night duty and mandating airlines to file regular fatigue reports.

About Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)

Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Civil Aviation.
Body: It became a statutory body under the Aircraft (Amendment) Act, 2020.
Aim: To regulate civil aviation in the field of Civil Aviation primarily dealing with safety issues.
Functions: It is responsible for regulation of air transport services to/from/within India and for enforcement of civil air regulations, air safety and airworthiness standards.
- It also co-ordinates all regulatory functions with International Civil Aviation Organisation
- Registration of civil aircraft
- Licensing to pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers, air traffic controllers and flight engineers, and conducting examinations and checks for that purpose.
- Checks on the proficiency of flight crew and other operational personnel such as flight dispatchers and cabin crew

Oil production from Krishna Godavari deep-sea project by ONGC

Context: Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) has started crude oil production from its massive deep-sea project in the Krishna-Godavari (KG) basin, which was hit by multiple delays and deadline extensions over the past few years. It is located around 35 km from the coast of Andhra Pradesh.

This project is expected to add 7 percent each to India’s current production of oil and natural gas.
Large projects like KG-DWN-98/2 are critical to the country’s objective of reducing its reliance on oil and gas imports to meet its rapidly growing energy needs.
India is the world’s third-largest consumer of crude oil and depends on imports to meet over 85 percent of its requirement.
The country is also a major importer of natural gas, as domestic gas output is able to meet around 50 per cent of the demand.
The location of the oil well is 30 km in the Bay of Bengal off the coast of Kakinada.

Significance of oil production in Krishna-Godavari Basin

India is the third largest consumer and importer of crude oil in the world.

The oil production at KG basin will help in:

Significant reduction of import bill
Boosting India’s energy security
Providing boost to India’s economy

As evident from the above graph, India’s domestic crude oil production has been on a decreasing trend since 2011-12. In this situation, the start of crude oil production from KG Basin will significantly enhance India’s domestic crude production.

About Krishna-Godavari Basin

Krishna Godavari basin refers to extensive deltaic plain formed by two rivers Krishan & Godavari formed on the coast of Andhra Pradesh and the adjoining areas of Bay of Bengal.
KG Basin is a proven petroliferous basin of continental margin located on the east coast of India.
The onland area of KG Basin covers an area of 15,000 sq km and offshore part covers an area of 25,000 sq km up to 1000 m isobath.
The basin contains about 5 km thick sediments with several cycles of deposition ranging from Late Carboniferous to Pliestocene.
KG basin is also rich in Shale Gas.

Major sedimentary basins of India

India has an estimated sedimentary area of 3.36 million sq km comprising 26 sedimentary basins. Of this 1.63 sq km is on land, shallow offshore upto 400m - isobath have an areal extent of 0.41 sq km and deep water beyond 400m isobath having sedimentary area of 1.32 sq km.
Of the total sedimentary area, 49% of total area is located onland, 12% in shallow water and 39% in the deepwater area.

Basins are categorised as follows:

Category I : (Basins with reserves being produced and potential to be exploited at increased recovery)

Basin Name	Area On-land	Area Shallow-water	Area Deep-water	Area Total
Krishna-Godawari	31,456	25,649	1,72,895	2,30,000
Mumbai Offshore	–	1,18,389	93,611	2,12,000
Assam Shelf	56,000	–	–	56,000
Rajasthan	1,26,000	–	–	1,26,000
Cauvery	37,825	43,723	1,58,452	2,40,000
Assam-Arakan Fold Belt	80,825	–	–	80,825
Cambay	48,882	4,618	–	53,500

Category II : Basins with contingent resources to be developed and produced

Basin Name	Area Onland	Area Shallowwater	Area Deepwater	Area Total
Saurashtra	75,076	42,617	76,421	1,94,114
Kutch	30,754	20,500	7,300	58,554
Vindhyan	2,02,888	–	–	2,02,888
Mahanadi	15,500	14,211	69,789	99,500
Andaman-Nicobar	–	18,074	2,07,844	2,25,918

Category III : Basins with only prospective resources to be explored and discovered

Basin Name	Area Onland	Area Shallowwater	Area Deepwater	Area Total
Kerala-Konkan	–	90,380	4,89,620	5,80,000
Bengal-Purnea	42,414	33,465	46,035	1,21,914
Ganga Punjab	3,04,000	–	–	3,04,000
Pranhita Godavari	30,000	–	–	30,000
Satpura-S.Rewa-Damodar	57,180	–	–	57,180
Himalyan Foreland	30,110	–	–	30,110
Chhattisgarh	32,000	–	–	32,000
Narmada	95,215	–	–	95,215
Spiti Zanskar	32,000	–	–	32,000
Deccan Syneclise	2,37,500	–	–	2,37,500
Cuddapah	40,100	–	–	40,100
Karewa	6,671	–	–	6,671
Bhima Kaladgi	14,100	–	–	14,100
Bastar	5,360	–	–	5,360

Directorate General of Hydrocarbons (DGH)

DGH is a regulatory body under the administrative control of Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG) established in 1993.
The body was created by a notification of Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
DGH has an Advisory Council appointed by the Government who are eminent persons in the field of hydrocarbon exploration and production.

Functions of Directorate General of Hydrocarbons (DGH)

Provide technical advice to MoPNG on issues relevant to exploration and optimal exploration and exploitation of hydrocarbons
A nodal agency for implementation of NELP and CBM policy on behalf of Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas
To review the exploration programs of companies operating under Petroleum Exploration Licenses granted under the Oilfields (Regulation and Development) Act, 1948 and the Petroleum and Natural Gas Rules, 1959 with a view to advising Government on the adequacy of these programs.
To evaluate the hydrocarbon reserves discovered and estimated by the operating companies
To advise the Government on the offering of acreages for exploration to companies as well as matters relating to relinquishment of acreage by companies
To review the development plans for commercial discoveries of hydrocarbon reserves proposed by the operating companies and advise Government on the adequacy of such plans and the exploitation rates proposed and matters relating thereto
To review and audit concurrently the management of petroleum reservoirs by operating companies and to advise on any mid-course correction required to ensure sound reservoir management practices in line with the optimal exploitation of reserves and the conservation of petroleum resources
To regulate the preservation, upkeep and storage of data and samples pertaining to petroleum exploration, drilling, production of reservoirs etc. and to cause the preparation of data packages for acreage on offer to companies
All other matters incidental thereto and such other functions as may be assigned by Government from time to time
Assist Government in Contract management functions
Exploration & Development of unconventional hydrocarbon resources like Gas Hydrate, Shale Gas/Oil and Oil Shale
Issue Essentiality Certificate for indigenous procurement of goods used in E&P sector to avail GST concession.

The Government of India in the interest of meeting the objective of the country's energy security, decided in 2004 to construct Strategic Petroleum Reserves (SPRs) facilities as well as a Special purpose vehicle (SPV) to build and operate the strategic crude reserves.
Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserve Limited (ISPRL) is a wholly owned subsidiary of Oil Industry Development Board (OIDB), which is a Body Corporate.
Under Phase-I of SPR program, ISPRL completed the construction and filling of strategic crude oil in underground rock caverns with 5.33 MMT capacity at three locations namely Visakhapatnam (1.33 MMT) in Andhra Pradesh and Mangalore (1.5 MMT) & Padur (2.5 MMT) in Karnataka which can be used in emergencies particularly from serious disruptions in global crude oil supply chain.
Abu Dhabi National oil Company (ADNOC), National Oil Company from UAE, joined the Phase-I of India's SPR programme.
Further, the Union Cabinet also accorded approval for establishing additional 6.5 MMT of Strategic Petroleum Reserves at two locations Chandikhol (4 MMT) in Odisha and at Padur (2.5 MMT) in Karnataka along with two dedicated SPMs for Padur and Chandikhol with associated pipelines, under Public Private Partnership (PPP) model under Phase-II.