GS Paper 3

Regulation of Antibiotics in India

Context: Recently, the National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) has released a survey mapping the patients treated for one to five days each at 20 tertiary-care institutes across 15 States and two Union Territories between November 2021 and April 2022.

Major Highlights of the survey:

The key reason for antimicrobial resistance is the excessive and inappropriate use of antibiotics.
Over half of the almost 10,000 patients surveyed recently were given antibiotics to prevent infection, rather than to treat it, amid growing concerns about the rise in resistance to antibiotics.
- 94% of patients were prescribed antibiotics even before a definitive diagnosis of the infection; only 6% were given antibiotics after confirmed diagnosis.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR):

Antimicrobial resistance is the resistance acquired by any microorganism (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasite, etc.) against antimicrobial drugs (such as antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antimalarials) that are used to treat infections.
As a result, standard treatments become ineffective, infections persist and may spread to others. Microorganisms that develop antimicrobial resistance are sometimes referred to as “superbugs”.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified antimicrobial resistance (AMR) as one of the top threats to public health.

Regulation of Antibiotics in India:

1. Prevent counter-sale:

Antibiotics are included in Schedule H and H1 of the Drugs Rules, 1945. These drugs have specific caution labelling requirements and are sold by retail only under the prescription of a Registered Medical Practitioner.
- The supply of a drug specified in Schedule H1 is recorded in a separate register at the time of the supply and such records are maintained for three years and are open for inspection.
- Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) has placed 24 hi-end antimicrobials under schedule H1 by issuing notification.

2. National Action Plan for containment of Antimicrobial Resistance:

National Action Plan on containment of Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR) focusing on One Health Approach was launched on 19th April 2017 involving various stakeholder ministries/departments.
Delhi Declaration on AMR– an inter-ministerial consensus was signed by the ministers of the concerned ministries pledging their support in AMR containment.

3. Red Line Campaign:

The Red Line Campaign was launched in February 2016 by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare aiming to tackle the crucial issue of antibiotic misuse in India. This campaign was to create awareness among the public to avoid self-medication and follow medical practitioner’s advice.
A red line is put on the packaging of two dozen antibiotics and antimicrobials which are identified by the Ministry. The purpose is that these antibiotics should not be sold over the counter without prescription of a medical practitioner.

National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC):

The National Centre for Disease Control acts as the national nodal agency for disease surveillance, i.e., it closely monitors the spread of infectious diseases throughout India.
It collects data from various sources, including hospitals, laboratories, and health officials, to track disease outbreaks in real-time. This data is then analysed to identify trends, predict future outbreaks, and implement effective control measures.
The NCDC is the nodal agency for India’s national programme on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) containment, of which one of the key components is the surveillance of antibiotic usage.
To achieve this goal, NCDC has established the National Antibiotic Consumption Network (NAC-NET) through which network sites compile data on antibiotic consumption in their respective health facilities and send it to the NCDC.
It was established in 2005 under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
Headquarters: Delhi

FRP Composite Material and Its Applications

Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites are materials made by combining a polymer matrix (such as epoxy, vinyl ester, or polyester) with a reinforcing fiber material (commonly glass, carbon, or aramid).

This combination results in a composite that optimizes the properties of both components: the flexibility and toughness of the polymer and the strength and stiffness of the fiber.

Historical Development and Evolution

FRP's roots trace back to the early 20th century, initially used in minor applications. Post World War II, the development and demand for lightweight, strong materials in aerospace and military sectors led to significant advancements.

Over the decades, FRP evolved with improvements in fiber materials, matrix compositions, and manufacturing processes, leading to its widespread use in automotive, construction, marine, and sports industries.

This evolution has been marked by a constant search for better, more durable, and more cost-effective materials, propelling FRP to the forefront of modern engineering materials.

Types of FRP Composites

FRP composites are primarily classified based on the type of reinforcing fiber:

Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP): Uses glass fibers and is most common due to its cost-effectiveness and good strength.
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP): Known for its high strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness, used in high-performance applications.
Aramid Fiber Reinforced Polymer (AFRP): Features aramid fibers (like Kevlar), offering high toughness and resistance to impact.

The choice of resin—epoxy, polyester, or vinyl ester—affects the composite's final properties. Epoxy offers excellent strength and durability, polyester is cost-effective with good mechanical properties, and vinyl ester provides a balance between the two with superior resistance to moisture and chemicals.

Properties of FRP Composites

FRP composites are lauded for their superior mechanical properties, notably high strength and stiffness relative to their weight, making them desirable for lightweight structures. They also exhibit excellent durability, with inherent corrosion resistance and long fatigue life, making them ideal for harsh environmental conditions.

These properties can vary widely based on fiber type, resin selection, and manufacturing technique, allowing for a broad range of applications tailored to specific performance needs.

Manufacturing Processes

Lay-up Process: Involves layering fibers and resin manually/automatically. It's versatile and ideal for complex shapes. However, it can be labor-intensive with variability in quality.
Filament Winding: Fibers are wound under tension over a mandrel. It's efficient for uniform, cylindrical shapes and offers high precision but is limited to symmetrical forms.
Pultrusion: Continuous fibers are pulled through a resin bath and then a heated die, creating consistent, long profiles. It's cost-effective for mass production but limited to constant cross-sectional profiles.
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM): Fiber preform is placed into a mold, and resin is injected. RTM provides excellent surface finish and part uniformity but requires significant equipment investment and longer cycle times.

Applications of FRP Composites

FRP's applications span multiple industries due to its strength and lightweight properties.

In aerospace and aviation, it's used for components that require high strength-to-weight ratios. The automotive industry uses it for body parts to improve fuel efficiency and impact resistance.

In construction, FRP is utilized in load-bearing structures due to its durability and resistance to corrosion. Marine applications include boat hulls and offshore structures where resistance to harsh seawater is crucial.

Each industry benefits uniquely from FRP's adaptability and performance.

FRP in Practice

In practice, FRP has revolutionized industries. For example, in aerospace, Boeing's 787 Dreamliner incorporates FRP for efficiency. In automotive, BMW's i3 uses CFRP for a lightweight frame. Infrastructure examples include the use of GFRP in the construction of the pedestrian bridge in Aberfeldy, Scotland, showcasing its durability and strength.

These cases illustrate FRP's transformative impact across sectors, demonstrating its versatility and potential in addressing modern engineering challenges.

Future Trends and Research Directions

Future trends in FRP focus on developing stronger, more sustainable fibers and resins. Research is geared towards creating eco-friendly FRP variants and enhancing recycling processes to reduce environmental impact.

These directions aim not only to improve performance but also to ensure the long-term sustainability of FRP materials in various industries.

Conclusion

FRP composites have significantly impacted various industries due to their unique properties and versatility. As research continues to advance in fiber and resin technology, alongside a growing focus on sustainability, FRP's future looks promising. Its applications are set to expand, driving innovation and efficiency across sectors.

The continuous evolution of FRP ensures it will remain a key material in engineering and construction, contributing to a more sustainable, efficient, and innovative future.

RBI guidelines for Inoperative Accounts and Unclaimed Deposits

Context: RBI has released guidelines for classifying accounts and deposits into inoperative accounts and unclaimed deposits. These guidelines will be applicable on Commercial Banks (including RRBs) and all Co-operative Banks.

Importance of these guidelines for inoperative accounts and unclaimed deposits

Reducing risk of frauds: Inoperative accounts have often been used for money laundering and committing frauds.
Mobilising of funds parked in inoperative accounts: Around Rs 1-1.30 Lakh crores is expected to be parked in inoperative Bank accounts and Rs 42,270 crore of unclaimed deposits are lying with banks as of March 2023.
Streamlining direct benefit transfers and scholarships from central and state governments: banks open zero balance accounts for beneficiaries of Central/State government schemes and for students who receive scholarship. Central and State governments have been expressing difficulty in crediting cheques/Direct Benefit Transfer/ Electronic Benefit Transfer/ scholarship amount in these accounts as they are also classified as inoperative due to non-operation for two years.

Inoperative Account

A savings/current account shall be treated as inoperative if there are no 'customer induced transactions' in the account for a period of over two years. Thus, bank induced transactions will not be considered for classifying any account as inoperative.
Customer induced transaction is in the nature of:
- Financial transaction initiated by or done at the behest of account holder by the bank/third party.
- Non-financial transaction like
- KYC updation done in face-to-face or through digital channels.
Banks shall activate inoperative accounts/unclaimed deposits.

Unclaimed deposits

The credit balance in any deposit account maintained with banks, which have not been operated upon for ten years or more, or any amount remaining unclaimed for ten years or more are required to be transferred by banks to Depositor Education and Awareness (DEA) Fund Scheme maintained by the RBI.
Unclaimed Deposit Reference Number (UDRN): Whenever an unclaimed deposit/account is transferred by the bank to the Depositor Education & Awareness (Fund) of RBI, a unique number is generated through the Core Banking Solution and assigned to each such account known as Unclaimed Deposit Reference Number (UDRN).
Banks shall host the details of unclaimed deposits and UDRN, which have been transferred to DEA Fund of RBI on their respective websites, which will be updated monthly.

Accounts opened for scholarships and direct benefit transfer under Government Schemes

Banks shall segregate accounts opened for the above purposes in their Core Banking Solution, so that the stipulation of inoperative account is not applicable to these accounts due to their non-operation for a period of more than two years.

Interest Payments and charges

Interest on savings accounts shall be credited on a regular basis irrespective of the fact that the account is in operation or not.
Banks are not permitted to levy penal charges for non-maintenance of minimum balances in any account that is classified as an inoperative account.

Activation of inoperative accounts

Banks shall activate inoperative accounts/unclaimed deposits, including freeze accounts only after adhering to KYC guidelines such as Customer Due Diligence, Customer identification, risk categorisation etc.
Activation of inoperative accounts/unclaimed deposits in Core Banking Solution (CBS) will only take place second level of authorisation by another officer at the same or higher level.
Bank shall automatically intimate the inoperative account/unclaimed deposit holders through SMS and registered email stating that based on KYC verification and updation, the inoperative status has been removed.
Banks shall make available the facility of updation of KYC for activation of inoperative accounts/unclaimed deposits at all branches (including non-home branches) and through Video-Customer Identification Process (V-CIP).
No charges shall be levied for activation of inoperative accounts.
Transactions in inoperative accounts, which have been reactivated, shall be monitored regularly, for at least 6 years.

Review of Accounts

Banks shall undertake atleast an annual review of accounts, where there are no customer induced transactions for more than year.

Bringing extinct Dodo back to life

Context: Geneticists and conservationists have joined forces to re-introduce the Dodo, extinct since the late 17th century.

About Dodo

It is a flightless birds that primarily inhabited the island of Mauritius.
Listed as extinct on IUCN Red List of species.
The lifespan of a Dodo bird was 10 to 30 years.
It was a large, plump bird covered in soft, grey feathers, with a plume of white at its tail.
It had small wings that were far too weak to ever lift the dodo off the ground.
The dodo's legs were short and stubby and yellow in colour.
The closest living relative of the dodo bird is the Nicobar pigeon, lives on the ground.
Initially, the Dodo's extinction was attributed to human overhunting, but recent research indicates that a combination of human actions and the introduction of animals like dogs, pigs, cats, rats, and macaques led to habitat destruction and nesting ground loss for the Dodo.

Genetic reintroduction of Dodo using Genetic engineering

Genetic engineering company Colossal Biosciences and Mauritian Wildlife Foundation are planning using genetic engineering and repopulate the Dodo’s in the island of Mauritius. Colossal Biosciences has sequenced the entire genome of dodo using DNA extracted from a skull in the collection of Natural History Museum of Denmark.
Scientists have found the primordial germ cells (PGCs) of Nicobar Pigeon (Dodo’s closest living relative). PGCs are basically embryonic precursors of a species sperm and egg. Nicorbar’s PGCs will be edited to express the physical traits of dodo. These edited PGCs will be then inserted into embryos of a sterile chicken and rooster, who will act as interspecies surrogates.

Square Kilometre Array Project

Context: India is set to get full member status to the Square Kilometer Array. Indian Cabinet has approved Rs 1,250 crore to support the multinational Square Kilometre Array (SKA) project, whose telescope arrays or groups of telescopes will be built in Australia and South Africa.

About Square Kilometre Array Project

SKA is a group of radio telescopes being built in South Africa and Australia in two phases. The first phase is expected to begin operations by 2029.
The radio telescopes will be operating in two different ranges of radio frequency.
- The South-African array will scan for mid-frequency signals, between 350 MHz and 15.4 GHz.
- The Australian telescope will work in the low-frequency range of 50-350 MHz.
Once constructed, the SKA will be the most powerful radio telescope ever built, capable of detecting faint radio signals from extreme distances, with eventually over a square kilometre (one million square metres) of collecting area.

Objectives

SKA will observe and map galaxies at the edge of the observable universe and the Milky Way in great detail. It will study magnetism and radiation from distant galaxies and map them as well.
- Since the Milky Way galaxy’s view is better from the Southern Hemisphere, the arrays are being constructed there.
Survey data from SKA observation will:
- Provide deep insights about formation and evolution of our galaxy.
- Detect and understand the role of dark matter and dark energy in the universe.
- Aid in the search for life beyond the Earth by looking for planets that orbit stars in habitable zones and studying their atmosphere for organic compounds, as a part of a science programme called Cradle of Life.

Collaborative efforts

It will also be one of the world’s largest collaborative research projects, involving thousands of researchers and the world’s fastest supercomputers.
- Square Kilometre Array Observatory: Founded in 2019, the Square Kilometre Array Observatory (SKAO) has 16 consortium members — Australia, South Africa, Canada, China, India, Japan, South Korea, the UK, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Italy. Headquarters: Jodrell Bank Observatory in the UK.
- The Indian research partner for the SKA project is Pune’s Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope, operated by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics (NCRA) of Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR). India’s main contribution to the SKA is in the development, and operation, of the Telescope Manager element, the “neural network” or the software that will make the telescope work.
To improve the accuracy of triangulation of data and its resolution, the project will include additional dishes in the future (phase 2) in neighbouring African countries — Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, and Zambia.

Significance for India:

SKA offers opportunities similar to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) or the ITER, which too are located on foreign soil but have brought rich dividends to the Indian scientific community.
A full member status would provide India preferential access to the SKA facilities. Most existing telescopes operate under an open-use policy which allows research groups from any country to get time on the facility through competitive bidding by making a scientific case.
Member countries will get preferential allocation of time on the radio telescope, roughly in proportion to their contribution to the project, and only limited time slots would be available through competitive bidding.
The Indian participation in SKA led by a consortium of more than 20 academic and research institutes (with NCRA-TIFR as the nodal institute).
During the design phase of the SKA (2014-2020), India has contributed actively to the project, with a lead role in the successful design of the complex Telescope Manager system.
India’s membership in SKAO will enable the large-scale participation of Indian industry not only for fulfilling our commitments towards in-kind contributions but also in other open tenders that may be floated by the SKAO.
Participation in this project will open up possibilities for development of niche skills in Indian industry and research organizations in different areas of next generation technologies, such as modern antenna design, sophisticated cryogenic receiver systems, and high volume optical fibre data transport technology etc.

National Transit Pass System (NTPS) for timber, bamboo and other forest produce

About National Transit Pass System (NTPS)

NTPS system provides seamless issuance of transit pass and is envisioned as 'One Nation, One Pass' system. This system helps in monitoring and keeping records of transit permits for inter-state and intra-state transportation of timber and bamboo from private lands/government/private depot and other minor forest produce.
States have exempted some species grown on private land from the purview of transmit permits while other species still need permits even if it is grown on private land. These two categories have been dealt with in the system. Application will move to concerned Range Forest Office.
Transit pass for transit of regulated species in the originating state: Transit pass is required for species which are not exempted by a state government.
No-Objection Certificate for transit of exempted species in the originating state: If an applicant wants to transport a species which is exempted from transit pass in origin state but it is not exempted en-route states or destination state, applicant may apply for NOC for hassle free movement.
Transit permits will be issued for tree species which are regulated, while users can self-generate No-Objection Certificates for exempted species.
Currently, 25 States and UTs have joined the unified permit system, streamlining interstate business operations for producers, farmers and transporters.
NTPS offers seamless transit permits, managing records for both inter-state and intra-state transportation of timber, bamboo and other forest produce obtained from various sources like private lands, government owned forest and private depots.
The QR coded transit permits generated under NTPS will allow check gates across various states to verify the validity of the permits and allow seamless transit.

Transit system before introduction of National Transit Pass System

Prior to the introduction of NTPS, obtaining transit permits from different states along the route was a time-consuming process, causing hurdles in transporting timber and forest produce across the states.
Each state has its own transit regulations which meant that in order to transport timber or forest produce across states, the transporter was required to get a separate transit pass issued in each state.

Benefits of National Transit Pass System

Expedite issuance of transit permits for timber, bamboo and other minor forest produce without physically going to forest offices.
Replace manual paper based transit system by online transit system.
One permit for whole India for transit of timber, bamboo and other minor forest produce for ease of doing business.
Seamless movement across state borders for origin to destination through help of MobileApp.
Prevent hardships of timber and bamboo producers, farmers and transporters in obtaining permits and at forest check posts.
Promotion of agro-forestry activities.
Saving of transportation cost and time which will benefit farmers and traders and will in turn help in increasing farmer's income.

Issues in Disaster Financing in India

Context: The destruction caused by Cyclone Michaung in Tamil Nadu has resulted in Tamil Nadu Government demanding extra funds from the Central Government to meet the relief and reconstruction demands. Tamil Nadu has been demanding declaring Cyclone Michaung as a 'National Disaster'. Central Government has replied that there is no provision in the current disaster management financing framework which allows for declaration of disaster as a national disaster. Centre has agreed to send team to assess the damage in Tamil Nadu to provide excess grants to Tamil Nadu government from the NDRF. All this brought about the issue of Disaster Financing in India into spotlight.

Disaster Financing in India

The mechanism of disaster risk financing in India reflects the distribution of responsibility in respect of disaster management.
State Governments respond immediately to disasters - organizing rescue, evacuation and relief and providing people with assistance. After the disaster event, the responsibility for recovery and reconstruction also lies primarily with State Governments.
State Governments incur most of the expenditure on disaster management. These expenditures are met through SDRF. When States exhaust their SDRF resources, they can request financial assistance through the NDRF by submitting memorandums to the Union Government.
Union Government extends secondary support to states through deploying the National Disaster Response Fund and armed forces at the request of State Governments. NDRF replenishes and reinforces the State funds following a set of guidelines.
Climate change is expected to significantly increase the frequency of adverse weather events severely increasing magnitude of disasters. India has been witnessing many large-scale floods (Tamil Nadu, Kerala); Cyclones (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh); droughts and floods. This necessitates focusing on disaster management.

Funds created by Disaster Management Act, 2005

Disaster Management Act, 2005 lays down the framework for disaster financing in India. The act establishes the following funds:

National Disaster Relief Fund (NDRF): In the event of a calamity of a severe nature, where the requirement of funds for relief operations is beyond the funds available in the State’s Disaster Response Fund account, additional Central assistance is provided from National Disaster Response Fund. State Government is required to submit a memorandum indicating the sector wise damage and requirement of funds. On receipt of the memorandum from the State, an inter-Ministerial Central Team is constituted and deputed for an on-the-spot assessment of damage and requirement of funds for relief operations, as per the extant items and norms of State Disaster Response Fund and National Disaster Response Fund.
State Disaster Relief Fund (SDRF): States contribute 25% of funds of SDRF and rest is provided by Central Government. The State Disaster Response Fund shall be used only for meeting the expenditure for providing immediate relief to the victims of cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunami, hailstorm, landslide, avalanche, cloud burst, pest attack, frost, and cold wave.
National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF) & State Disaster Mitigation Fund (SDMF): Though provided in the Disaster Management Act, 2005, yet these funds had not been operationalised. 15th Finance Commission has recommended for the constitution of NDMF and SDMF. The Mitigation Fund would be used for local level and community-based interventions to reduce disaster risks and promote environmentally friendly settlements.

Concerns with the present disaster financing framework

Lack of focus on Mitigation: Allocations made through the SDRF and NDRF help governments meet their contingent liabilities in the face of disaster. However, these allocations do not help in reducing contingent liabilities. Mitigation refers to minimizing of adverse impact of a hazardous event by undertaking both structural and nonstructural measures.
Lack of flexibility for states: Current guidelines for providing relief from the SDRF and NDRF are determined by the Central Government. States have been demanding greater flexibility for their unique needs of certain areas, especially remote and hilly terrains.
Limited list of disasters eligible: Many State Governments have been arguing for widening the scope for inclusion of several calamities in the eligible list of disasters for funding support from the SDRF and NDRF. However, most of these calamities are State-specific or region-specific and can be difficult to quantify. For ex. Heatwaves, river and coastal erosion, fire hazards, lightning deaths are not eligible for ex gratia assistance.
Limited quantum of funds allocated to SDRF and NDRF: Current practice of allocating funds to SDRF and NDRF is based on past expenditures incurred by States and Union government on Disaster Management and Relief. The expenditure-based approach tends to favour better off states, which can allocate resources and show higher expenditures. Risk and vulnerability to disasters are currently not taken into consideration.
Inability of states to meet matching grants towards SDRF: Mandates relating to operating of disaster-related funds require the States to transfer their matching share towards the SDRF along with Union's share received by them. However, some States do not make transfers into the public account maintained by them in a timely manner. This results in inadequate funds being available with States to tackle disasters of a severe nature and they seek additional central assistance from the NDRF.
Exclusion of long-term or permanent restoration works from the ambit of NDRF/SDRF: Existing norms for disaster relief from SDRF and NDRF do not provide sufficient funds for reconstruction of housing and infrastructure, resettlement of people from floodplains, coastal and hilly areas. This force states to look after World Bank or Central Government for long term resettlement and recovery efforts.
Slow process: Current process of assessment for the determination of Union assistance through the NDRF as well as its release is slow. Often funds required for disaster relief is required immediately, especially after severe disasters.
GST regime: NDRF was financed by National Calamity Contingent Duty (NCCD). However, a substantial amount of NCCD has been subsumed under the GST. NCCD is currently being levied on very few products such as Tobacco and crude petroleum. This leaves very less fiscal space for the Union Government to finance NDRF. Thus, the central government will have to incur additional fiscal deficit for financing NDRF.

Recommendations for strengthening disaster financing in India

Focus on disaster mitigation: NDMF and SDMF should be operationalised which should amount for 20% of overall funds allocated to NDRF and SDRF.
Risk based fund allocation: Allocation to SDRF should be a combination of capacity (as reflected by expenditure), risk exposure (area and population) and hazard and vulnerability (risk index).
Separate window for long-term reconstruction: A separate Recovery and Reconstruction facility should be created with SDRF and NDRF with about 30% allocation. This will help people affected by disasters on a long-term basis.
Separate window for capacity building: Current disaster financing mechanism overlooks capacity building required to effectively respond to disasters in the States. Capacity building measures like early warning systems and emergency equipment etc. are essential for effective disaster management. Thus, a separate window for capacity building should be created in SDRF and NDRF.
Constitution of District level Disaster Response and Mitigation Funds: State Government can allocate resources to districts for preparedness and mitigation of disaster on an annual basis.
Using flex-fund component of CSS towards disaster management: States hit by severe disaster should be permitted to use more than the 25% flexi-fund component of centrally sponsored schemes to carry out post-disaster permanent restoration works.
Mainstreaming disaster insurance pool: After the liberalisation of India's insurance industry, it is essential to leverage insurance sector to substantially reduce the financial burden of disaster management by households, particularly well-to-do ones.

International Space Station

Context: Russian and U.S. space agencies have agreed to keep working together to deliver crews to the International Space Station (ISS) until at least 2025.

Russia has extended to use the ISS until 2028, an apparent reversal of an earlier announcement to quit the orbiting laboratory after 2024.

About International Space Station (ISS):

ISS is a modular space station (habitable artificial satellite) and the single largest man-made structure in low Earth orbit (approximately 408 kilometres above the Earth's surface).
Launched in 1998, it is a multinational collaborative project involving five participating space agencies:
- NASA (United States)
- Roscosmos (Russia)
- JAXA (Japan)
- ESA (Europe)
- CSA (Canada)
It circles the Earth in roughly 92 minutes and completes 15.5 orbits per day, hosting a maximum of seven astronauts.
It serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which scientific research is conducted in astrobiology, astronomy, meteorology, physics, and other fields.
NASA intends to keep operating the ISS until the end of 2030, after which the ISS would crash into Point Nemo over the South Pacific Oceanic Uninhabited Area (SPOUA).

Climate Milestones of 2023

Context: From registering the hottest summer on record to some significant steps at the yearly United Nations climate summit, 2023 was a year of extremes. Here are some climate-related milestones from this time.

Hottest year:

The global mean near-surface temperature in 2023 (to October) was around 1.40 (± 0.12) °C above the 1850–1900 average. Based on the data to October, it is virtually certain that 2023 will be the warmest year in the 174-year observational record, surpassing the previous joint warmest years, 2016 at 1.29 (± 0.12) °C above the 1850–1900 average and 2020 at 1.27 (±0.13) °C.

Highest sea surface temperature ever:

Marine heat waves - periods when ocean temperatures are warmer than 90% of prior observations for a given time of year - were widespread in 2023.

According to the U.S. National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 48% of global oceans experienced them in August 2023.

Global sea surface temperatures (SST) are usually highest in March. But as per data, global average SSTs remained at record highs throughout April, May, June, and July 2023.

Sea level rise

In 2023, global mean sea level reached a record high in the satellite record (since 1993), reflecting continued ocean warming as well as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets. The rate of global mean sea level rise in the past ten years (2013–2022) is more than twice the rate of sea level rise in the first decade of the satellite record (1993–2002).

A graph showing the number of satellites.

Lowest Antarctic Sea ice extent: Sea-ice extent is the area of ice covering the Antarctic Ocean at a given time. In 2023, Antarctic Sea ice had record low ice growth from April.

According to NOAA, sea ice in the Antarctic reached an annual maximum extent of 16.96 million sq. km on September 10, 2023, the lowest since 1979. This year’s maximum was 1.03 million sq. km, below the previous record low set in 1986.

Record carbon dioxide levels: Global carbon dioxide emissions are expected to have hit a new high in 2023, up 1.1% from 2022. The Global Carbon Budget Report, published in December 2023, said overall CO2 emissions, which climbed to a record last year, had plateaued in 2023 due to a slight drop in deforestation.

Ocean Acidification:

The ocean absorbs around one quarter of the annual emissions of anthropogenic CO2 to the atmosphere. CO2 reacts with seawater and alters the carbonate chemistry, resulting in a decrease in pH referred to as ‘ocean acidification’.

Ocean acidification affects organisms and ecosystem services, including food security, by reducing biodiversity, degrading habitats, and endangering fisheries and aquaculture.
The IPCC AR6 concluded that “There is very high confidence that open ocean surface pH is now the lowest it has been for at least [thousand years] and current rates of pH change are unprecedented since at least that time”.

Loss and damage fund: The world’s first loss and damage fund for the impacts of climate change was created in 2023, at the start of the COP28 climate talks in the U.A.E. in early December. This money is meant to help countries trying to recover from climate induced disasters.

The fund will be based at the World Bank but managed by an independent secretariat.

According to a senior U.N. official, it has received pledges of $792 million from governments, which is a lot but still well short of the billions required to fulfill its purpose.

Impact of food systems: For the first time in the history of climate summits, 134 countries at COP28 pledged to tackle the climate impact of the food industry.

These countries represent over 5.7 billion people, 70% of the food we eat, nearly 500 million farmers, and 76% of total emissions from the global food system. But observers noted the declaration doesn’t include quantitative targets.

'Zero Coupon Zero Principle' Instruments

Context: SEBI has unveiled a roadmap for public issuance of 'Zero Coupon Zero Principle' instruments by not-for-profit organisations (NPOs) and listing of such instruments on the Social Stock Exchange (SSE).

Zero Coupon Zero Principal Instruments

These are financial instruments using which any non-profit organisation (NPOs) can raise funds which are listed on the social stock exchange.
Usually, NPOs raise money through donations or CSR initiatives of individuals and corporates. Thus, those willing to donate money to NPOs, can buy these securities listed on SSEs.
ZCZP instruments are structured like a bond. In a regular bond, the entity raising money using a bond, has to make interest payments and principal payments when the bond matures. However, the ZCZP is issued by an entity not raising loans but donations. Thus, the ZCZP issuing entity does not have to pay interest (zero coupon) and does not have to pay the principal (zero principal) either.
ZCZP instruments issued by a NPO can be issued only for a specific project or activity to be completed within a duration specified in fund raising document.
Central Government (Ministry of Finance) has declared Zero Coupon Zero Principal instruments as securities under the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 in 2022.

Regulations for issuing of Zero Coupon Zero Instruments by SEBI

Minimum issue size for ZCZP instruments is Rs 50 lakhs.
Minimum application size has been kept at Rs 10,000.
Minimum subscription required to be achieved will be 75% of the funds proposed to be raised through the issuance of such instruments. Funds will be refunded in case subscription is less than 75% of the issue size.
ZCZP can be issued only in dematerialised form
ZCZP are non-transferable.
ZCZP instruments will be listed on Social Stock Exchange.

Ammonia

Context: A leakage of ammonia gas from a subsea pipeline connected to a fertiliser manufacturing unit in Chennai resulted in locals experiencing medical conditions such as shortness of breath and burning eyes.

About Ammonia:

Ammonia is a colourless gas with a strong, pungent odour. Naturally occurring sources like soils and vegetation fires release ammonia, but significant contributors to its emission include agricultural practices such as livestock farming and fertiliser use.
- Nitrogen is a macronutrient required by plants in large quantities for protein synthesis, chlorophyll production, and overall growth.
- As agriculture expands to accommodate increasing populations, it is probable that ammonia emissions will also increase.

Ammonia Synthesis:

The Haber-Bosch process is the primary method for industrial-scale ammonia synthesis.
It combines hydrogen and nitrogen gases at high temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst. This process results in the formation of ammonia gas.

Use of Ammonia:

Ammonia is a primary feedstock for producing nitrogen-based fertilisers, which are essential for plant growth.
Fertiliser Production:
- Ammonium Nitrate: Obtained by reacting ammonia with nitric acid.
- Urea: Produced by reacting ammonia with carbon dioxide under high pressure and temperature.
- Ammonium Phosphate: Formed by reacting ammonia with phosphoric acid.
- Ammonium Sulphate: Resulting from the reaction of ammonia with sulfuric acid.

Global Warming Potential (GWP):

GWP is a measure of how much energy the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will absorb over a given period, relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide (CO2).
- The larger the GWP, the more that a given gas warms the Earth compared to CO2 over that time-period.
- The time-period usually used for GWPs is 100 years.
GWPs enable analysts to aggregate emissions estimates from various gases and help policymakers assess and compare emission reduction opportunities across sectors and gases.

Production of Ammonia- A Climate Concern:

The process uses natural gas, which leads to 2.6 metric tons of life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions per metric ton of ammonia produced.
With ammonia being the second most produced chemical in the world, its production accounts for approximately 2% of worldwide fossil energy use and generates over 420 million tons of CO2 annually.

Consequences related to Ammonia Pollution:

Impact on human health:

After reacting with other particles, ammonia emissions can lead to the formation of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), posing serious health risks such as heart and lung diseases.
Exposure to high levels of ammonia can cause respiratory problems, such as asthma, bronchitis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
Direct exposure to Ammonia can also irritate the eyes, skin, and throat, leading to discomfort and potential health issues.

Impact on Ecosystem and Biodiversity:

Ammonia deposition can cause soil acidification, which can harm plant growth and reduce soil biodiversity leading to reduced crop yield.
Excess ammonia in water bodies can lead to eutrophication, a process that results in algal blooms and oxygen depletion, disrupting aquatic ecosystems.

Impact on the Climate:

Ammonia emissions contribute to climate change by releasing nitrous oxide (N2O) after oxidation, a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential 298 times that of carbon dioxide (CO2).
N2O is involved in the depletion of stratospheric ozone, which protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Ammonia emissions also contribute to the formation of aerosols, which can impact cloud properties and potentially influence climate patterns.

Economic Impacts of Ammonia Pollution: These costs include healthcare expenses, reduced agricultural productivity, and the implementation of pollution control measures.

Way Forward

The application of anhydrous ammonia (pure ammonia in liquid form), injected into the soil, quickly converts to ammonium ions. This process makes nitrogen available to plants, providing an efficient way to deliver nitrogen to crops.
Sustainable production of ammonia by developing more sustainable methods for ammonia synthesis, such as using renewable energy sources and carbon capture technologies, to minimise environmental impacts.
The regulation of ammonia production and use to minimise environmental impacts, such as nutrient runoff and water pollution.
Farmers should be encouraged to follow best management practices to optimise fertiliser application, reduce nutrient losses, and protect water quality.
Proper storage and handling of ammonia-based fertilisers should be followed to prevent accidents and environmental hazards.

Chemical Disaster and their Management

Potential Causes of Chemical Disaster:

Process and Safety Systems Failures: This includes equipment failures, leaks, or other breakdowns in the systems designed to contain and control hazardous substances.
Human Errors: These errors may range from simple miscalculations to misinterpretation of procedures, leading to unintended and potentially dangerous outcomes.
Technical Errors: These may arise from defects, malfunctions, or shortcomings in the design or implementation of these technologies.
Management Errors: This includes issues related to organisational culture, resource allocation, and overall safety management practices.
Induced Effects of Natural Calamities: Natural disasters, such as earthquakes, floods, or cyclones, can exacerbate the risks associated with chemical facilities, leading to the release of hazardous substances, and amplifying the impact of the natural calamity.
Accidents During Transportation: During the shipping or transit of chemicals, whether by road, rail, air, or sea, accidents can result in spills, leaks, or explosions, with potential far-reaching consequences.
Hazardous Waste Processing/Disposal: Inadequate waste management practices can result in the release of toxic substances into the air, soil, or water.
Terrorist Attack/Unrest Leading to Sabotage: Intentional attacks may aim to compromise safety measures, damage infrastructure, or release toxic substances, posing risks to both human life and the environment.

Management of Chemical Disaster in India:

Our country possesses an extensive legal and institutional framework. Various regulations addressing transportation safety, liability, insurance, and compensation have been put in place. The following are the provisions related to chemical disaster management currently in force:

Explosives Act, 1884: Governs the regulation of explosives to ensure safety.
Petroleum Act, 1934: Regulates the import, transport, storage, production, and use of petroleum.
Factories Act, 1948: Focuses on the safety, health, and welfare of workers in factories.
Insecticides Act, 1968: Regulates the sale, distribution, and use of insecticides.
Environment Protection Act, 1986: Aims to protect and improve the environment.
Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991: Deals with the public liability for damages arising from accidents in handling hazardous substances.
Disaster Management Act, 2005: Provides a comprehensive framework for disaster management.

To further strengthen chemical safety and manage chemical accidents, the Government of India has enacted additional rules and amendments like Rules addressing the management of hazardous waste etc.

Role of NDMA in Chemical Disaster Management:

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) of India plays a crucial role in Chemical Disaster Management.

The authority has formulated specific guidelines to direct ministries, departments, and state authorities in developing detailed disaster management plans.
These guidelines advocate a proactive, participatory, multi-disciplinary, and multi-sectoral approach at various levels to enhance chemical disaster preparedness and response.

Global Coal Demand likely to decline: IEA

Context: Despite production of coal reaching a record in 2023, global demand is expected to decline by 2026.

Coal Consumption and decline

International Energy Agency report released recently has pointed out that,

Global demand for coal rising by 1.4%in 2023, surpassing 8.5 billion tons for the first time.
Demand in the European Union and United States is expected to drop by 20% each, India and China are expected to rise by 8% and 5% respectively, due to increased demand for electricity and diminished generation of hydroelectric power.

IEA expectation of a decline in coal demand is premised on following consideration:

The current El Nino conditions, usually linked with drier monsoon in Asia, are expected to turn to La Nina which is generally linked to better rainfall from 2024 to 2026.
This will presumably translate to greater hydroelectric power output.
A steep upward trend in low-cost solar photovoltaic deployment is expected to aid renewable power generation.
Nuclear generation is set to see moderate increase, especially in China, India, and the European Union.
A little over half the world’s coal demand comes from China. With a major expansion of renewable energy expected coal demand in the country is expected to fall in 2024, and plateau in 2026.
The decline is more structural, driven by the formidable and sustained expansion of clean energy technologies.
Overall, this will result in a 2.3% fall in global coal demand by 2026.

Global Demand to remain well.

Coal, the most important energy source for electricity generation, steelmaking, and cement production, is also the largest source of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from human activity.
Despite forecasts of a fall, global consumption is expected to remain well over 8 billion tonnes through 2026, the market report says.
China, India, and Indonesia — the three largest coal producers globally — are expected to break output records in 2023, pushing global production to a new high in 2023.
These three countries now account for more than 70% of the world’s coal production.

A turning point for coal is clearly on the horizon — though the pace at which renewables expand in key Asian economies will dictate what happens next, and much greater efforts are needed to meet international climate targets.