GS Paper 3

Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI)

Context: In the last 24 years, IRDAI steered the industry on the growth path in the post-reforms era by safeguarding consumer interests and propelling industry advancement.

About IRDAI

Type of Body: Formed as a statutory body under an Act of Parliament, i.e., IRDAI Act 1999.
HQ: Hyderabad, Telangana.
Ministry: Ministry Of Finance, Department of Financial Services.
Composition: The Authority is a ten member team consisting of (a) a Chairman; (b) five whole-time members; (c) four part-time members, all appointed by the Government of India.

What does it do?

Grants licences to Insurance companies and Insurance intermediaries.
Protect the interests of policyholders.
Regulates the investment of funds by Insurance companies, professional organisations connected with the Insurance business.
Undertakes the inspection of, conducts enquiries and investigations of the entities connected with the Insurance business.
Adjudication of disputes between insurers and intermediaries or insurance intermediaries

Entities regulated by IRDAI

Life Insurance Companies - Both public and private sector Companies
General Insurance Companies - Both public and private sector Companies.
Reinsurance Companies
Agency Channel
Intermediaries like Corporate Agents, Brokers etc.

What is Doxxing?

Context: Issues of Doxxing have become common leading to violation of privacy of citizens.

Doxxing and cyber crime

Doxxing is the act of publicizing someone's private personal information (Personally Identifiable Information or PII) online without their consent, often with malicious intent. PII can include home address, phone number, employment details, financial information, etc.
Doxxing is a serious cyber-crime that can endanger the victim's physical safety, emotional well-being, employment, and reputation. It disproportionately affects vulnerable groups like women, children and LGBTQ+ individuals.
In 2023, India emerged as the primary target for cybercriminals, accounting for 13.7% of all attacks. The most common form of cyber-crime in India is financial fraud, which accounted for 75% of cyber-crime in India between 2020 and 2023.

Laws and Regulations

In India, doxxing victims can file complaints through the National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal. They have a legal right to file an FIR.
Social media companies operating in India are bound by the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021. These rules require platforms to appoint grievance officers, resolve complaints within fixed time periods, and adhere to a code of ethics.
Relevant laws include the Information Technology Act, 2000 which penalizes cyber crimes, and the Indian Penal Code which has provisions related to criminal intimidation, stalking, defamation, etc.

Role of Technology Companies

Major platforms like Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, Twitter (X) and Reddit have policies prohibiting doxxing and mechanisms to report such content for removal.
However, enforcement is often inconsistent and platforms have faced criticism for not doing enough to protect users, especially marginalized communities.
Meta's Oversight Board has recommended stricter doxxing rules, noting the disproportionate impact on vulnerable groups and potential for serious offline harms.
Discord has updated its community guidelines to treat doxxing and harassment as distinct harms, reflecting an evolving understanding of these issues among platforms.

Safety Measures for Users

Use strong, unique passwords and enable two-factor authentication.
Be cautious about posting photos/videos that may reveal identifiable locations or sensitive information.
Consider potential risks before posting controversial content.
If doxxed, document evidence in an incident log, report to platforms and authorities, and lean on support systems.
Secure Personally Identifiable Information (PII) and take steps to remove any compromised data from the internet.
More than 90% of web users are concerned about doxxing today, and 73% have limited what they share online to avoid being doxxed.

Psychological and Emotional Impact

Doxxing can be an extremely traumatic experience, inducing fear, anxiety, depression and even PTSD in victims.
The importance of self-care and seeking support from friends, family, and mental health professionals in coping with the aftermath of doxxing.
Building resilience and not succumbing to shame or weakness is crucial, as the fault lies entirely with the perpetrator and not the victim.

Government Initiatives

In 2024, the Indian government is working on a new set of rules to criminalize deliberate misinformation and doxing as part of legislation to govern the country's digital ecosystem. This legislation, known as the Digital India Act, is set to replace the IT Act, of 2000, which is over two decades old.
The Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) is the national agency that deals with cyber security threats.
However, experts have pointed out the need for a comprehensive data protection law, reforms in the criminal justice system, and more public awareness initiatives.

International Perspective

Doxxing is a global issue, and many countries have taken steps to address it through legislation and policy measures.
In the United States, doxxing can be prosecuted under various federal and state laws, including the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, the Interstate Communications Statute, and the Cyberstalking Statute.
The European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) provides a framework for protecting personal data and can be used to address doxxing incidents.
Comparing India's approach to doxxing with that of other countries can provide valuable insights and ideas for strengthening the legal and policy framework.

Challenges in Enforcement

Despite the existence of laws and regulations, enforcing them in doxxing cases can be challenging due to the anonymous and borderless nature of the internet.
Investigating doxxing incidents often requires technical expertise and cooperation between multiple stakeholders, including law enforcement agencies, social media platforms, and internet service providers.
The transnational nature of many doxxing cases can create jurisdictional issues and complicate the process of gathering evidence and prosecuting offenders.
Addressing these challenges requires capacity building, international cooperation, and the development of specialized units within law enforcement agencies.

Role of Civil Society and Media

Civil society organizations and media outlets can play a crucial role in raising awareness about doxxing, providing support to victims, and advocating for stronger legal and policy measures.
NGOs and helplines can offer counseling, legal assistance, and other services to individuals who have been doxxed, helping them cope with the psychological and practical consequences.
Media coverage of doxxing incidents can help bring attention to the issue, shape public opinion, and put pressure on policymakers and platforms to take action.
However, media outlets also have a responsibility to report on doxxing cases in an ethical and sensitive manner, avoiding sensationalism and respecting the privacy and dignity of victims.

Future Trends and Emerging Issues

As technology evolves, new forms of doxxing and online harassment may emerge, posing additional challenges for individuals, platforms, and policymakers.
The increasing use of artificial intelligence and machine learning in content moderation and user profiling may have implications for doxxing prevention and response.
The growing importance of data protection and privacy rights may lead to the development of new legal and regulatory frameworks that could impact the handling of doxxing cases.
Anticipating and responding to these future trends will require ongoing research, innovation, and collaboration among stakeholders.

Gopi Thotakura to be the first Indian space tourist

Context: Entrepreneur and pilot Gopi Thotakura is set to become the first Indian to venture into space as a tourist on the NS-25 Mission (New Shepherd Mission) of Blue Origin — a company founded by Jeff Bezos.

Thotakura has been selected as one of the six crew members for the mission, whose launch date is yet to be announced.
If the mission is successful, Thotakura would be the second Indian to go into space. The first was Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma, who flew to the Salyut 7 space station on a Soviet spacecraft in 1984.

Space Tourism:

Space tourism is essentially a section of the aviation sector which seeks to provide tourists with the opportunity to become astronauts and experience space travel for recreational, leisure, or business purposes.
In recent years, space tourism has grown by leaps and bounds. In 2023, the space tourism market was valued at $848.28 million. It is expected to grow to $27,861.99 million by 2032.
There are two main types of space tourism, sub-orbital and orbital.

Sub-orbital spaceflight:

The sub-orbital spacecraft takes passengers just beyond the Kármán line.
- It lies nearly 100 kilometres above mean sea level and is considered to be the boundary between Earth’s atmosphere and outer space.
The passengers get to spend a few minutes in outer space and then come back to Earth. E.g., New Shepherd mission of Blue Origin

Orbital spaceflight:

The orbital spacecraft takes passengers much further than the Kármán line.
Usually, passengers can spend from a couple of days to more than a week at an altitude of nearly 1.3 million feet.
- E.g., In September 2021, Space X’s Falcon 9 took four passengers to an altitude of 160 km where they spent three days orbiting the Earth.

Challenges:

Space tourism is expensive: A passenger generally has to pay at least a million dollars to reach outer space.
Environmental concerns: Several studies have pointed out that space tourism may lead to environmental damage as rockets emit gaseous and solid chemicals directly into the upper atmosphere.
- A 2022 study done by researchers of University College London (UCL), the University of Cambridge and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) found that the soot emissions from rocket launches are far more effective at warming the atmosphere compared to other sources.
Safety: As of 2023, despite high safety standards, a total of 676 people have flown into space and 19 of them have died. (approximately 3% fatality rate which is quite high).

Karman Line:

The Karman is an imaginary line that demarcates the earth’s atmosphere from outer space, located at 100 km (62 miles) above sea level.
Named after aerospace pioneer Theodore von Kármán, the concept was established in the 1960s by Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI).
An aircraft which crosses the Karman line is designated as a spaceflight. Anyone who crosses this line qualifies as an astronaut.
- Below the Kármán line, aerodynamic principles dominate flight. Above it, the laws of orbital mechanics become more important.
- At the Karman line, the atmosphere becomes incredibly thin. Traditional aircraft that rely on wings to generate lift by pushing against air cannot function effectively at such high altitudes.
- Over the Karman line, the spacecraft need their own propulsion systems to maintain trajectory and overcome the remaining atmospheric drag, though minimal.

Guidelines for Management of Community Forest Resources (CFR) under Forest Rights Act (FRA)

Context: Ministry of Tribal Affairs released Guidelines for management of Community Forest Resources (CFR) under Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.

About Community Forest Resources

According to Forest Rights Act (FRA), community forest resources mean customary common forest land within traditional or customary boundaries of the village or seasonal use of landscape in the case of pastoral communities, including reserved forests, protected forests and protected areas such as Sanctuaries and National Parks to which the community had traditional access.

Community Rights under FRA

Community rights such as nistar, by whatever name called, including those used in erstwhile Princely States, Zamindari or such intermediary regimes.
Right of ownership, access to collect, use and dispose of minor forest produce which has been traditionally collected within or outside village boundaries.
Community tenures of habitat and habitation for primitive tribal groups and pre-agricultural communities. Community rights of uses or entitlements such as fish or other products of water bodies, grazing (both settled or transhumant) and traditional seasonal resource access of nomadic or pastoralist communities.
Right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest produce which they have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.
Right to access to biodiversity and community right to intellectual property and traditional knowledge related to biodiversity and cultural diversity.
Rights of settlement and conversion of all forest villages, old habitation, un-surveyed villages and other villages in forests, whether recorded, notified or not into revenue villages.
Any other traditional right customarily enjoyed by the forest dwelling STs and other traditional forest dwellers which are not mentioned above but excluding traditional right of hunting or trapping or extracting a part of the body of any species of wild animal.

Vesting of Community Rights under FRA

Gram Sabha shall be the authority to initiate the process for determining the nature and extent of individual or community forest rights.

Objective of Guidelines for Management of Community Forest Resources (CFR)

Guide the Gram Sabha and Forest Dwelling Scheduled Tribes (FDST)/Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFD) Communities in managing their Community Forest Resources under FRA.

Duties of holders of forest rights

Section 5 of Forest Rights Act stipulates that holder of any forest right, Gram Sabha and Village Level Institution in areas where there are holders of any forest right are empowered to:

Protect the wildlife, forest, and biodiversity.Ensure adjoining catchment area, water sources and other ecologically sensitive areas are adequately protected.
Ensure that habitat of forest dwelling STs and other traditional forest dwellers is preserved from any form of destructive practices affecting their cultural and natural heritage.
Ensure that decisions taken in Gram Sabha to regulate access to community forest resources and stop any activity which adversely affects wild animals, forest and biodiversity are complied with.

To FRA Rules as amended in 2012, provides that Gram Sabha shall constitute 'Committees for protection of wildlife, forest, and biodiversity, from amongst its members to carry out above provisions.

Salient Features of Guidelines for Management of Community Forest Resource (CFR) under FRA

Constitution of Community Forest Rights Management Committee (CFRMC):

First Meeting of Gram Sabha, for constituting CFRMC shall be convened by Secretary of the concerned Gram Panchayat. Meeting of Gram Sabha will be presided over by traditional headman of the village or by the person elected as the chairperson from amongst its members.
Gram Sabha shall constitute known as Community Forest Rights Management Committee from amongst the members of Gram Sabha
- Consists of 5-11 individuals as members provided that at least 2/3rd members shall be from the Forest Rights holders and at least 1/3rd women members.
- Members of CFRMC will decide on a Chairperson, Secretary, Treasurer and inform Sub-Division Level Committee (SDCL), District Level Committee (DLC) and District Level Monitoring Committee (DLMC) constituted by State Government/UT Administration related to CFR.
- Tenure of CFRMCs will be decided by Gram Sabha for a minimum period of 3 years to a maximum of 5 years.
- Payment towards honorarium or other allowances to members of CFRMC shall be decided by a resolution of Gram Sabha and will be solely borne from the resources of CFRMC.
- Where Community Forest Resource is recognised over a common patch being conserved and managed by more than one Gram Sabha, the CFRMC shall be constituted by a joint meeting of Gram Sabhas concerned under the guidance of SDLC.

Functions of Community Forest Resource Management Committee (CFRMC):

Gram Sabha shall meet with quorum as and when required and in any case not less than once in six months to approve and review the plans made CFRMC. Secretary of Gram Panchayat shall inform all members of Gram Sabha about the meeting in 7 days in advance.

Carry out all executive functions as decided by Gram Sabha and remain accountable and answerable to the Gram Sabha for its actions.
Prepare a draft conservation and management plan or related documents on behalf of Gram Sabha.
Coordination with other departments/committee for protection of wildlife, forest and biodiversity, catchment areas, water sources and other ecologically sensitive areas, on behalf of Gram Sabha/right-holder communities.
Maintain records relating to functioning of Gram Sabha including executive and financial operations in respect of CFR management.
Ensure that views of Forest right holders of all Gram Sabha, who depend on CFR areas are duly taken care of in CFR Conservation and Management Plan.

Preparation and Execution of CFR Conservation & Management Plan

Conservation and Management Plan shall be known as 'Community Forest Resources Management Plan' (CFRM Plan).
Concerned government agency will provide an authenticated copy of information, records, maps expeditiously, on receipt of a written communication from the Gram Sabha.
Views of forest right holders should be considered while preparing CFRM plan.
Gram Sabhas concerned will meet to arrive at consensus. In the event of lack of consensus, the matter will be referred to District Level CFR Monitoring Committee constituted by State Government/UT Administration related to CFR.
After approval of CFRM plan by Gram Sabha, CFRMC shall coordinate with Forest Department for its integration with the micro plans or working plans or management plans of the Forest Department.

Financial Management of Community Forest Resources

Gram Sabha will be responsible for revenue and expenditure for the functioning of CFRMC.

Norms of financial management shall be:
- A single bank account shall be opened in a Nationalised bank or Post Office in the name of Gram Sabha for implementation of CFRM Plan as approved by Gram Sabha. This bank account will be operated by the office bearers of CFRMC authorised as signatories by a resolution of Gram Sabha.
- All expenses will be according to the rules laid down by the Gram Sabha. Gram Sabha would put a ceiling limit above which expenses may only be authorised through a resolution of the Gram Sabha.
- Annual statement of revenue and expenditure shall be finalised by Gram Sabha within three months of finalisation of financial year and will be audited by Chartered Accountant.
Sources of CFRMC funds:
- Agreed upon contribution from sale of forest produce towards management of CFR.
- Grants for developmental activities related to CFR Management received from Government.
- Funds or grants received from other NGOs for development work related to CFR Management.
- Funds provided by forest department for forest development work, in any.

Monitoring of the Guidelines

State Level Monitoring Committee will constitute District Level CFR Monitoring Committee for Management of Community Forest Resource in the district.
District Level CFR Monitoring Committee (DLMC) will facilitate convergence and integration of CFR conservation and management plans by the Gram Sabha with Working/Management plans of Forest Department.

What is C-Dome Missile Defence System?

Context: Israel-Palestine conflict involves Hamas, a Palestinian group that governs Gaza and is backed by Iran. Hamas has been in conflict with Israel, and the drone incident is seen as a show of support for Hamas by Iran-backed Houthis in Yemen. Israel has a very advanced indigenous defence industry. In this context, Israel for the first time deployed the ship-mounted defence system known as C-Dome near the southern city of Eilat.

C-Dome Missile Defence System:

The C-Dome is a naval version of the Iron Dome, a land-based missile defence system developed by Rafael Advanced Defence Systems and Israel Aerospace Industries.
It is designed to intercept and destroy short-range rockets, artillery, and mortars, as well as aircraft, helicopters, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) at a range of up to 65 kilometres.

Iron Dome

The Iron Dome is a mobile all-weather air defence system developed by Rafael Advanced Defence Systems and Israel Aerospace Industries.
It is designed to intercept and destroy short-range rockets and artillery shells fired from distances of 4 to 70 kilometres away and whose trajectory would take them to an Israeli populated area.

Arrow-3

Arrow-3 is an exoatmospheric hypersonic anti-ballistic missile, jointly funded and developed by Israel and the United States.
It is part of the Arrow Weapon System, which also includes the Arrow-2 interceptor.
The Arrow-3 is designed to intercept ballistic missiles, particularly those carrying nuclear, chemical, or biological warheads, outside the Earth's atmosphere.

Central Warehousing Corporation

Context: Central Warehousing Corporation (CWC), a Schedule ‘A’ Mini Ratna company, may be corporatized on the lines of Indian Airlines before it is divested or privatised after repealing the Warehousing Corporations Act, 1962.

About Central Warehousing Corporation:

Central Warehousing Corporation (CWC), a Schedule ‘A’-Mini Ratna, Category-1, Central Public Sector Enterprise (CPSE) is a statutory body established under ‘The Warehousing Corporations Act, 1962’. State Warehousing Corporation has also been constituted under the same act as a statutory body.
CWC has 50% equity in 19 State Warehousing Corporations (SWCs).
Under the current law, State governments cannot return the 50 per cent equity of CWC in the SWCs.

Warehousing Corporations Act, 1962:

Provides for the establishment of CWC and SWCs as statutory bodies by the Central and State governments respectively.
Central Warehousing Corporation shall, in any case where the State Government has subscribed for fifty percent of such capital of SWCs, subscribe for the remaining fifty percent of the capital.
This act repealed the Agricultural Produce (Development and Warehousing) Corporations Act, 1956

Functions of CWCs:

Acquire and build godowns and warehouses at such suitable places in India or aboard as it thinks fit.
Run warehouses for the storage of agricultural produce, seeds, manures, fertilizers, agricultural implements and notified commodities offered by individuals, co- operative societies and other institutions.
Arrange facilities for the transport of agricultural produce, seeds, manures, fertilizers, agricultural implements and notified commodities to and from warehouses.
Subscribe to the share capital of a State Warehousing Corporation.
Act as agent of the Government for the purposes of the purchase, sale, storage and distribution of agricultural produce, seeds, manures, fertilizers, agricultural implements and notified commodities.
Enter into, with the previous approval of the Central Government, joint ventures with any corporation established by or under any Central Act or any State Act or with any company formed and registered under the Companies Act, 1956 (1 of 1956) including foreign company or through its subsidiary companies, for carrying out the purposes of this Act.
Note: the expression "foreign company" shall have the meaning assigned to it under clause (23A) of section 2 of the Income-tax Act, 1961 (43 of 1961)
Establish subsidiary companies.

Functions of SWCs:

Acquire and build godowns and warehouses at such places within the State as it may, after consultation with the Central Warehousing Corporation, determine.
Run warehouses in the State for the storage of agricultural produce, seeds, manures, fertilizers, agricultural implements and commodities.
Arrange facilities for the transport of agricultural produce, seeds, manures, fertilizers, agricultural implements and notified commodities to and from warehouses.
Act as an agent of the Central Warehousing Corporation or of the Government for the purposes of the purchase, sale, storage and distribution of agricultural produce, seeds, manures, fertilizers, agricultural implements and notified commodities.
Enter into, with the previous approval of the State Government, joint ventures with the Central Warehousing Corporation;
Carry out such other functions as may be prescribed.

Financial aspects of CWC and SWCs:

A Warehousing Corporation may, in consultation with the Reserve Bank and with the previous approval of the appropriate Government, issue and sell bonds and debentures carrying interest for the purpose of raising funds.
Total amount of bonds and debentures issued and outstanding and of the other borrowings of the Corporation shall not at any time exceed ten times the amount of the paid-up share capital and the reserve fund of the Corporation.
The bonds and debentures of a Warehousing Corporation may be guaranteed by the appropriate Government as to the repayment of principal and the payment of interest at such rate as may be fixed by the appropriate Government on the recommendation of the board of directors of the Corporation at the time the bonds or debentures are issued.
A Warehousing Corporation may, for the purpose of carrying out its functions under this Act, borrow money
- from the Reserve Bank, or
- from the State Bank,
- from any [scheduled bank], or
- from such insurance company, investment trust or other financial institution as may be approved by the Central Government in this behalf.
The Central Warehousing Corporation may borrow money from the Central Government and a State Warehousing Corporation may borrow money from the State Government and the Central Warehousing Corporation on such securities and on such terms and conditions as may be agreed upon between the borrowing Corporation and the lender, in each case.

Accounting and Auditing:

Every Warehousing Corporation shall maintain proper accounts and other relevant records and prepare an annual statement of accounts including the profit and loss account and the balance sheet in such form as may be prescribed:
In the case of the Central Warehousing Corporation, the accounts relating to the Warehousing Fund and the General Fund shall be maintained separately.
The accounts of a Warehousing Corporation shall be audited by an auditor duly qualified to act as an auditor of companies under section 226 of the Companies Act, 1956.
The said auditor shall be appointed by the appropriate Government on the advice of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.

IISc develops Hydrogel to tackle microplastics

Context: Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) have developed a sustainable hydrogel that effectively removes microplastics from water, addressing significant environmental and health challenges.

More about the news:

Microplastics, small plastic debris, pose significant health risks as they can enter the human body through the water, potentially leading to various illnesses. These particles are pervasive, found even in remote areas such as polar ice caps and deep ocean trenches, threatening both aquatic and terrestrial life.
The IISc team created a hydrogel with a complex structure called an inter-penetrating polymer network (IPN), composed of three different polymers: chitosan, polyvinyl alcohol, and polyaniline. This structure was combined with copper substitute polyoxometalate (Cu-POM) nanoclusters, which act as catalysts under UV light to degrade microplastics.
The hydrogel is capable of adsorbing and breaking down large amounts of microplastics. Testing showed that the hydrogel could remove approximately 95% and 93% of two different types of microplastics in water at a near-neutral pH of about 6.5.
This process was enhanced by the inclusion of a fluorescent dye in the microplastics, allowing the researchers to track the efficiency of the hydrogel under various conditions such as different pH levels, temperatures, and concentrations of microplastics.

About hydrogel:

It is a biphasic material, a mixture of porous, permeable solids and at least 10% by weight or volume of interstitial fluid composed completely or mainly by water.
It is three-dimensional (3D) cross-linked natural or synthetic polymers polymer networks and a fluid, which can absorb and retain large amount of water. Because of their tunable properties as well as their versatile fabrication methods, hydrogel materials have been applied in a wide range of biomedical and engineering applications, ranging from tissue engineering and regenerative medicine to wastewater treatment and soft robotics.
They are a jelly-like material and can be found naturally or synthesized in a lab.
Generally non-toxic and non-immunogenic, meaning they don't trigger an immune response in the body, makes them ideal for biomedical applications such as drug delivery, tissue engineering, and wound healing (due to water retention, that can help to keep tissues hydrated and promote healing).
Some hydrogels can change their properties in response to external stimuli such as temperature, pH, or light, makes them useful for controlled drug delivery applications.
It is also used in some contact lenses to help keep them comfortable and moist.
It can be added to soil to help retain moisture.

Black softshell turtles

Context: The Baneshwar Village in the Cooch Behar region of West Bengal has a Shiva Temple built during the reign of Koch Dynasty in the 17th Century.

The temple pond is home to the critically endangered black softshell turtels, which the locals lovingly call ‘Mohan’. Recognising the close bond between the local population and with these turtles, Election Commission of India has adopted ‘Mohan Babu’ as its mascot to get people out to polling booths on April 19.

About Black Softshell Turtle

The black softshell turtle, also referred to as the Bostami turtle, holds a unique place in the realm of freshwater turtles.
Once considered a variant of other species such as the Indian softshell turtle or the Indian peacock softshell turtle, it has now been recognized as a distinct species.
Indigenous to the regions of India, specifically Assam and Tripura, as well as Bangladesh, notably Chittagong and Sylhet, this species has a rich history intertwined with cultural significance.
IUCN STATUS: Critically Endangered
CITES: Appendix I
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: No legal protection

Origins and Cultural Heritage

Legend has it that in the 1800s, Hazrat Bayezid Bostami brought these turtles from Iran to the Chittagong shrine pond.
These turtles, revered as sacred beings, garnered respect and reverence from the local populace.

Conservation Efforts and Discoveries

Declared extinct by the International Union for Conservation of Nature in 2002, the black softshell turtle surprised researchers when populations were found in the Hayagriva Madhava Temple Pond in Assam and the Kalyan Sagar Lake in the Tripura Sundari Temple in Udaipur, Tripura, India.
Through concerted conservation measures and habitat protection, these turtles have managed to survive in the wild.

Scientific Insights and Continued Research

Their mitochondrial genome reveals connections to 19 other turtle species.
In phylogenetic trees, Nilssonia nigricans emerges as a sister species to Nilssonia formosa, shedding light on their evolutionary relationships.

Behavior

Hibernation takes place during the late autumn season until the spring for softshell turtles.
They bury themselves at the bottom of a river/lake in the mud.
Food is not as essential as oxygen during this period.
Oxygen is needed at a reduced rate than normal, and the turtles practice a technique called “pharyngeal breathing”.
This means that they pump water in and out of their throat (pharynx) that contain microvillus projections of small blood vessels.
This structure provides them with greater surface area to absorb more oxygen.

Plastic Overshoot Day report

Context: The Plastic Overshoot Day report said global plastic waste generation has risen by 7.11 per cent since 2021.

Key finding of the report:

The Plastic Overshoot Day report by Swiss non-profit EA Earth Action said global plastic waste generation has risen by 7.11 per cent since 2021.
The world is estimated to have generated 220 million tons of plastic waste this year, 70 million tons of which will end up polluting the environment.
12 countries are responsible for 60 per cent of the world's mismanaged plastic waste: China, India, Russia, Brazil, Mexico, Vietnam, Iran, Indonesia, Egypt, Pakistan, the United States and Turkey.
Belgium are the top generators of plastic waste, with a yearly waste production of 147.7 kg per person. This is 16 times higher than in India.
Oman tops the list of countries in terms of mismanaged plastic waste, with a projected 111 kg of mismanaged plastic per person in 2024. This is 30 times higher than Norway. India is in the bottom 12 countries.
On September 5, 2024 , that the plastic waste produced worldwide will surpass the planet's waste management systems and will be called "Plastic Overshoot Day".

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Each country has its own "Plastic Overshoot Day", determined by the amount of plastic waste generated and the country's capacity to manage it. India will reach its Plastic Overshoot Day on April 23,2024.
The amount of plastic produced is expected to double by 2040, which will triple the volume of plastic pollution. The underlying issues with plastic pollution are the excessive production and use of plastic across the planet and the lack of sufficient waste management systems to properly process plastic after it has been used.

Status of India’s Plastic Waste Management

India is a "low-waste-producing" polluter due to its low per capita plastic waste production (8 kg per capita per year). India's expected mismanaged waste in 2024 will be 7.4 million tons, which is "very high".
India's mismanaged plastic waste will be less than one-fifth of China and one-third of the US.
India is estimated to release an average of 4 lakh tons of microplastics into the environment and 32 thousand tons of chemical additives into waterways.

CDP – SURAKSHA Portal for Horticulture

Context: The Union government has launched the CDP-SURAKSHA portal to streamline the subsidy disbursal system to horticulture farmers so as to give a major boost to horticulture farming in India under the cluster development program of the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.

About CDP-SURAKSHA Portal

SURAKSHA Stands for ‘System for Unified Resource Allocation, Knowledge, and Secure Horticulture Assistance’
It is a digital platform to disburse subsidies to horticulture farmers under the Cluster Development program which seeks to promote horticulture crops.
Instant disbursal of subsidies to farmers through e-RUPI vouchers.
It has features like database integration with the PM-Kisan scheme, cloud-based server space from National Informatics Centre (NIC), content management system, geotagging, etc.
Farmers, vendors, implementing agencies, cluster development agencies and officials of National Horticulture Board can access the portal.
Allow the farmer to log in using her mobile number and place order for planting materials such as seeds, seedlings, and plants, etc.
On placing the order, farmer would have to pay her share and the government's subsidy contribution will also be generated automatically then.
The government's subsidy payment will be made via e-RUPI to the vendor once the farmer has paid her contribution.
The farmer would have to verify the delivery of order through geo-tagged photos and videos of her field.
With the completion of this verification process, the implementing agency will release the money to the vendor who has to upload the payment invoice on the portal.
The amount to implement the agency will be released by the cluster development agencies. But, in this process of payment, the subsidy benefit has been availed by the farmer immediately at the first stage.
In the earlier system, a farmer had to give the full amount to buy planting materials and then seek the release of the subsidy amount.
Both public & private banks are part of this initiative- SBI, HDFC, ICICI and Bank of Baroda.

About Cluster Development Program under National Horticulture Board

Launched by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.
Programme for Horticulture Cluster Development to enhance the global competitiveness of the Indian horticulture sector.
National Horticulture Board has been designated as the Nodal Agency for implementation of the Cluster Development Programme as a component of the Central Sector Scheme of NHB.
Designed to leverage the geographical specialization of horticulture clusters and promote integrated and market-led development of pre production, production, post-harvest, logistics, branding, and marketing activities.
MoA&FW has identified 55 horticulture clusters.
For the implementation of the CDP, cluster-wise Cluster Development Agencies (CDAs) have been appointed based on the recommendations of the State/Central Government.

World Cybercrime Index (WCI)

Context: The first edition of World Cybercrime Index has been published by researchers from University of Oxford.

Overview of the World Cybercrime Index (WCI)

First-ever global ranking of countries by level of cybercrime threat published by researchers of University of Oxford and UNSW Canberra.
Based on research by an international team of experts
Ranks the most significant sources of cybercrime at the national level
Shows a small number of countries are key cybercrime hotspots
Covers five major categories of cybercrime:
- Technical products/services (malware, botnets, hacking tools)
- Attacks and extortion (denial-of-service, ransomware)
- Data/identity theft (hacking, phishing, account compromises)
- Scams (advance fee fraud, business email compromise)
- Cashing out/money laundering (credit card fraud, money mules)

Top Cybercrime Hotspots

Specialization of Countries in Cybercrime

Russia and Ukraine: highly technical cybercrime hubs
Nigeria: less technical forms of cybercrime, such as scams
Romania and US: both high-tech and low-tech crimes
India: mid-tech crimes, specializing in scams, considered a "balanced hub"

Challenges in Cybercrime Tracking

Offenders mask physical locations behind fake profiles and technical protection.
Cybercriminals cannot be easily accessed or surveyed directly due to the illicit, anonymous nature of their activities
Technical data is insufficient to map locations as attacks are routed globally

Significance of the WCI

Cybercrime as a Global Issue & Socio-Economic Impact of Cybercrime

Relevance to India

Ranks 10th in the World Cybercrime Index: India's high ranking in the WCI highlights the significant level of cybercrime threat the country faces.
Cybercrime complaints soared by 200% in 2023, with financial losses reaching ₹168.5 crores.
Mumbai, Delhi, and Bangalore are among the world's top cities for ransomware detections.
The Indian cybersecurity market size is projected to exhibit a growth rate (CAGR) of 16.5% during 2024-2032. It is estimated at USD 4.70 billion in 2024, and is expected to reach USD 10.90 billion by 2029, growing at a CAGR of 18.33% during the forecast period (2024-2029).
The Indian government's launch of the National Cyber Security Policy and the establishment of the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) demonstrate its recognition of the cybercrime threat and its commitment to strengthening the country's cybersecurity posture.
The Bureau of Police Research & Development (BPR&D) has developed a Training of Trainers module and several training programmes for various levels of police personnel on the new criminal laws.

ISRO’s ‘zero orbital debris’ milestone

Context: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) announced that its PSLV Orbital Experimental Module-3 (POEM-3) re-entered the Earth's atmosphere in March 2024 without leaving any debris in orbit.

Major Highlights:

Mission launch: The PSLV-C58 mission was launched on January 1, 2024.
Primary Mission: The mission's main objective was to deploy XPoSAT satellite into the intended orbit of 650 km, which it successfully accomplished.
POEM-3: After deploying the satellite, the leftover part of the PSLV rocket, the terminal stage (fourth stage), was not discarded. Instead, it was ingeniously repurposed into a stabilised platform named POEM-3 (PSLV Orbital Experimental Module-3).

PSLV Orbital Experimental Module (POEM):

Developed by: Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC).
POEM is an experimental mission or space platform to perform in-orbit experiments using the final, and otherwise discarded, stage of ISRO’s PSLV.
- PSLV is a four-stage rocket where the first three spent stages fall back into the ocean, and the final stage (PS4) — after launching the satellite into orbit — ends up as space junk.
- In POEM, the spent final stage will be utilised as a stabilised platform to perform experiments.
POEM has a dedicated Navigation Guidance and Control (NGC) system which will act as the platform’s brain for attitude stabilisation with specified accuracy.
POEM will derive its power from solar panels mounted around the PS4 tank, and a Li-Ion battery. It will navigate using four sun sensors, a magnetometer, gyros & NavIC.

Zero orbital debris milestone:

Deorbiting POEM-3: To ensure POEM-3 would not remain as space junk, its orbit was lowered from a high altitude of 650 km to a much lower one at 350 km. This significantly reduced the time it took for POEM-3 to re-enter Earth's atmosphere and burn up.
Passivation: To further minimise risks, any leftover fuel on POEM-3 was eliminated in a process called passivation. This reduced the chance of an accidental explosion during re-entry that could create debris.
Zero-Debris Goal Achieved: On March 21, 2024, POEM-3 re-entered the earth’s atmosphere, meeting its fiery end. Due to the well-planned deorbiting and passivation manoeuvres, the PSLV-C58/XPoSat mission resulted in practically zero debris left behind in Earth's orbit. This is a significant achievement in space sustainability, reducing the potential hazards of space debris for future missions.

Space Debris:

Space debris in the low earth orbit (LEO) mainly comprises pieces of spacecraft, rockets, and defunct satellites, and the fragments of objects that have deteriorated explosively as a result of anti-satellite missile tests.
This debris often flies around at high speeds of up to 27,000 kilometres per hour. Due to their sheer volume and momentum, they pose a risk to several space assets.
With the rise in the number of satellites in orbit around the earth, space debris has become a pressing issue, particularly in the Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
- Currently, there are 7,000 operational satellites orbiting the earth at different altitudes along with millions of pieces of space debris.
- According to ISRO’s Space Situational Assessment report 2022, the world placed 2,533 objects in space in 179 launches in 2022, up from 1860 objects in 135 launches in 2021.
As more communication satellites/constellations are launched and more anti-satellite tests are conducted, more on-orbit breakup and collisions occur, producing smaller and smaller fragments in orbit.
- The number of space objects (debris or functional equipment) greater than 10 cm in size in LEO is expected to be about 60,000 by 2030, per ISRO estimates.
Space debris also leads to two major risks – it creates unusable regions of the orbit due to excessive debris, and leads to the ‘Kessler syndrome’ – creation of more debris due to cascading collisions resulting from one collision.

How are space agencies dealing with debris?

Currently, there are no international space laws pertaining to LEO debris.
However, most space-exploring nations abide by the Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines 2002 specified by the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), which the U.N. endorsed in 2007.
The U.S. Space Command tracks and catalogues space debris larger than 10 centimetres in LEO and larger than 0.3-1 metres in geosynchronous orbit (GEO).

Project NETRA:

Initiative by ISRO, an early warning system in space to detect debris and hazards to Indian satellites and thus gaining capability in space situational awareness (SSA).
NETRA will use telescopes, radars, data processing units, and other tools to spot and track objects as small as 10 cm, up to a range of 3,400 km.