GS Paper 2

India gets licence to explore Indian Ocean for Polymetallic Sulphides

Context: India has bagged a 15-year contract for exploration of polymetallic sulphides in the northwest Indian Ocean from the International Seabed Authority (ISA). 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Polymetallic Sulphides; International Seabed Authority; Carlsberg Ridge. 

Licence to explore Indian Ocean for Polymetallic Sulphides: 

  • This is the first licence granted globally for exploring polymetallic sulphur nodules in the Carlsberg Ridge. 
  • The contract area covers 10,000 sq. km. in parts of the Carlsberg Ridge in the Indian Ocean.

Polymetallic Sulphides Nodules: 

  • PMS nodules are hydrothermal mineral deposits or concentrations of rock found in the deep ocean (mid-ocean ridges and hydrothermal vents). 
  • They form when hot, mineral-rich fluids from the Earth's mantle mix with cold ocean water, resulting in the precipitation of metal sulphides. 
  • These metalliferous muds contain large amounts of copper, zinc, lead, iron, silver and gold. 
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Carlsberg Ridge: 

  • The Carlsberg Ridge is 3,00,000 sq. km. stretch that lies in the Indian Ocean, specifically in the Arabian Sea and northwest Indian Ocean. 
  • It forms the boundary between the Indian and Arabian tectonic plates.
  • The ridge separates the Arabian Sea to the northeast from the Somali Basin to the southwest.
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Key facts about Exploration Process: 

  • For exploration in areas part of the ‘high seas’ or part of the ocean not part of their territories, countries must obtain permission from the International Seabed Authority (ISA).
  • These rights are specifically designated for regions within the open ocean defined as marine expanses encompassing the air above, surface, and seabed; where no nation holds sovereignty claims.
    • Countries have exclusive rights extending up to 200 nautical miles from their borders, including the underlying seabed. 
    • Countries can claim up to 350 nautical miles from their coasts as their continental shelf. Countries in the Bay of Bengal can claim up to 500 nautical miles as per the United Nations Convention on the Laws of the Sea (UNCLOS).
  • If the claim is approved, the country gains priority to explore and potentially exploit both living and non-living resources in the designated region. 

About International Seabed Authority: 

  • Autonomous international organisation established under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). 
  • It is the organisation through which States Parties to UNCLOS organise and control all mineral-resources-related activities in ‘the Area’ for the benefit of humankind as a whole. 
  • The international seabed area represents around 50% of the total area of the world’s oceans.
  • ISA has the mandate to ensure the effective protection of the marine environment from harmful effects that may arise from deep-seabed-related activities. 
  • All States Parties to UNCLOS are members of ISA (including India). 
  • Headquarters: Kingston, Jamaica 

India’s third exploration contract with ISA: 

  • The contract is India’s third exploration contract with the ISA and is its second for PMS.
    • India had exploratory rights from the ISA in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (till 2027). 
    • India had obtained exploratory rights for polymetallic sulphides in the Indian Ocean Ridge (2031).
  • India has become the first ISA Member State to hold two contracts for PMS exploration and to have the largest area allocated in the international seabed area. 

India continues to conduct its exploration activities in areas beyond national jurisdiction strictly within the framework of the UNCLOS and under the mandate of ISA. 

Judicial Experimentalism versus the Right to Justice

Context: In Shivangi Bansal vs Sahib Bansal (2025), the Supreme Court endorsed the Allahabad High Court’s guidelines mandating a two-month cooling period and referral to Family Welfare Committees in Section 498A/85 BNS cases. This raises concerns of judicial experimentalism and delay in justice.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Basic idea of Judicial experimentalism and issues related to it.

Section 498A of the IPC

  • Section 498A (now Section 85 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita) was inserted in the Indian Penal Code to punish cruelty by the husband or his relatives towards a married woman.
  • Cruelty includes physical or mental abuse, harassment for dowry, or conduct likely to drive the woman to suicide or harm her health.
  • The offence is cognisable, allowing the police to register a case and investigate without prior approval of a magistrate.
  • The offence is non-bailable, meaning bail is subject to judicial discretion and not a matter of right. 
  • The offence is non-compoundable, which means once a complaint is filed, it cannot be withdrawn by compromise between the parties.
  • The punishment under Section 498A is imprisonment up to three years and a fine.

Safeguards to prevent misuse of Section 498A: 

Over the years, courts have expressed concern about the increasing misuse of Section 498A, through false or exaggerated complaints, often leading to unnecessary arrests of husbands and their relatives. To address this, several measures were introduced: 

  • In the Lalita Kumari (2013) case, the Supreme Court placed matrimonial disputes in the category of preliminary inquiry before registration of an FIR.
  • The recent criminal law reforms have also required that cases of cruelty by the husband undergo a preliminary inquiry before an FIR is registered.
  • To check misuse through arbitrary arrests, the CrPC amendment of 2008 introduced the principle of necessity, mandating that arrests should only be made when justified.
  • In the Arnesh Kumar (2014) case, the Supreme Court restricted unbridled police powers by mandating a checklist for arrest and introducing the practice of issuing a notice of appearance.
  • In the Satender Kumar Antil (2022) case, the Court strengthened safeguards further by directing that bail should be granted if an arrest was made in violation of the Arnesh Kumar guidelines.

Recently in Shivangi Bansal vs Sahib Bansal (2025), the Supreme Court endorsed the guidelines by the Allahabad High Court to prevent the misuse of Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code. 

The Allahabad High Court had introduced

  • A two-month ‘cooling period’ for any coercive action after the registration of a first information report (FIR) or complaint to the magistrate.
  • During the ‘cooling period’, the matter will be referred to a Family Welfare Committee (FWC).

Associated Concerns: 

This ruling is a form of judicial experimentalism as it:  

  • Creates a new dispute-resolution mechanism (FWCs) and procedural bar (cooling period) outside the statutory framework.
  • It interferes with the functional autonomy of police and magistrates.
  • Delays the victim’s right to timely justice, and introduces quasi-judicial bodies without legislative sanction.

What is Judicial Experimentalism?

  • Judicial experimentalism means the courts create rules or mechanisms not explicitly given in law, often to fill gaps or deal with pressing social concerns.
  • It can sometimes be helpful, as seen in Vishaka vs State of Rajasthan (1997) where the Court laid down guidelines on workplace sexual harassment in the absence of a law. These guidelines later became the POSH Act, 2013.
  • But it can also be problematic, as in the Shivangi Bansal case (2025) where such experiments weaken victims' access to justice and undermine statutory authorities.

Criticism of Judicial Experimentalism: 

  • It breaches separation of powers by encroaching upon the legislative and executive domain.
  • It dilutes rule of law by introducing mechanisms beyond statutory mandate.
  • It delays justice and erodes institutional autonomy of police and magistrates.
  • It risks judicial overreach, where courts move from interpreting law to making policy, weakening democratic accountability.

The Supreme Court’s 2025 ruling on Section 498A reflects judicial experimentalism that goes beyond legislative intent. While misuse of the law has been addressed through existing safeguards, the introduction of cooling periods and Family Welfare Committees delays justice and undermines institutional autonomy. 

Yudh Abhyas 2025: India-US Joint Exercise 

Context: The 21st edition of Yudh Abhyas 2025, India-US Joint Exercise, concluded in Alaska in the United States. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Yudh Abhyas 2025. 

Yudh Abhyas 2025: India-US Joint Exercise 

  • It is an annual bilateral army-to-army drill between India and the US. 
  • The exercise has steadily grown in scale and complexity alternating between locations in India and the US. 
  • Infantry units, artillery, aviation, electronic warfare and counter-drone systems were employed under joint command and control. The joint exercise provides valuable lessons in operational planning, command and control, precision, adaptability and joint targeting.

Yudh Abhyas is a hallmark of the growing military-to-military interaction between India and the US, aligned with the Comprehensive Global Strategic Partnership between both countries. 

Important bilateral exercises between India and the US

India has the largest number of military exercises with the US, which are growing in scale and complexity. Important bilateral exercises include: 

  • Yudh Abhyas (Army)
  • Vajra Prahar (Special Forces)
  • Malabar (Navy)
  • Cope India (Air Force)
  • Tiger Triumph (tri-services)  

Also Read: US-India Defence Ties 

Mental Health is a Fundamental Right: SC

Context: In July 2025, the Supreme Court of India in a landmark verdict ruled that mental health is an integral part of the Right to Life under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. The Court also issued 15 strong guidelines for schools and coaching centres to protect student well-being. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key Provisions of Mental Healthcare Act 2017. Mains: Mental Healthcare in India: Challenges, Govt. Initiatives & Way Forward. 

Mental health is more than the absence of mental illnesses. It is the foundation for the well-being and effective functioning of individuals. It includes mental well-being, prevention of mental disorders, treatment and rehabilitation.

Mental Health is a Fundamental Right: 

  • The Supreme Court in the Sukdeb Saha vs the State of Andhra Pradesh (2025) judgement explicitly recognised mental health as an integral component of the constitutional Right to Life under Article 21.
  • This interpretation significantly broadens the scope of Article 21 to encompass psychological well-being, extending beyond mere physical survival. 
  • The judgment laid down binding guidelines (Saha Guidelines) for educational institutions and coaching centers across India. They aim to establish a preventive, remedial, and supportive framework for mental health protection and prevention of suicides by students. 

Saha Guidelines: 

The SC has ordered a package of binding interim orders referred to as Saha Guidelines for educational institutions and coaching centers across India. 

  • Schools, colleges, hostels and coaching institutes are required to proactively develop support systems to address the issue of mental health. 
  • The SC has directed all States and Union Territories to notify rules within two months for registering private coaching centres and enforcing these guidelines. 
  • District-level monitoring committees, chaired by District Magistrates, have been tasked to oversee compliance and handle complaints. 
  • Until Parliament passes a full code, these guidelines will have legislative force.

Significance of the ruling: 

  • Placing psychological integrity in Article 21 means that the Court has opened up room for these victims (suicide victims) to be heard and safeguarded. 
  • It opens the door for restorative measures i.e., counselling, reform in institutions, mechanisms of accountability that go beyond retribution to prevention.
  • It will strengthen the implementation of the Mental Healthcare Act, 2017. The Act enshrines the right to receive mental health care in India.  

Key Provisions of Mental Healthcare Act 2017

The Act provides the legal framework for providing services to protect, promote and fulfil the rights of people with mental illnesses. The Act is in line with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities (UNCRPD).

  • The Act guarantees mental health services for all. The government is responsible for creating opportunities to access less restrictive options for community living such as halfway homes, sheltered accommodations, rehab homes, and supported accommodations.
  • It decriminalised the attempt to suicide which hitherto was criminal offence under section 309 of Indian Penal Code, and mandates care instead of punishment.
  • It provided for the concept of ‘Advanced directive’, i.e. a person (suffering from mental illness) shall have the right to specify the manner in which he/she wishes to be treated or not to be treated. The person shall have the right to nominate representatives to take decisions on their behalf regarding treatment. 
  • All States are required to establish a State Mental Health Authority and Mental Health Review Boards (MHRB) bodies that can further draft standards for mental healthcare institutes, oversee their functioning and ensure they comply with the Act. 

WHO’s data on Mental Health

As per the recent data from the World Health Organisation: 

  • More than 1 billion people globally are living with mental health disorders (including anxiety and depression). 
  • Mental health conditions affect people of all ages and income levels, and are the second leading cause of long-term disability, contributing to loss of healthy life. 
  • The prevalence of mental health disorders can vary by sex, and women are disproportionately impacted. 
  • Depression and anxiety alone cost the global economy an estimated $1 trillion each year.
  • Progress made in reducing suicide mortality is quite low (only 12% reduction achieved) to meet the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) of a one -third reduction in suicide rates by 2030. 

Challenges: 

  • India has a significant shortfall of mental health professionals, with roughly 0.7 psychiatrists per 100,000 people, far below the WHO’s recommended ratio of 3 per 100,000 people.
  • Systemic neglect of mental health and stigma and reluctance to seek help.  
  • Inadequate funding for community-based programmes and the effective utilisation of funds. E.g., India’s direct mental health budget has remained at roughly ₹1,000 crore in recent fiscal years.
  • Inconsistent implementation of the Mental Healthcare Act 2017. 

Way Forward

  • Active policy interventions and resource allocation by the government. 
  • Measures to train and sensitise the community/society to reduce the stigma around mental health.
  • Awareness to educate society about mental diseases as done by Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
  • Steps to connect the patients with each other by forming a peer network, so that they could listen and support each other.
  • People experiencing mental health problems should get the same access to safe and effective care as those with physical health problems.
  • Telemedicine and digital health platforms can extend the reach of mental health services, particularly in areas with a shortage of mental health professionals.

Also Read: Bridging Health Cover: Mental Healthcare in India 

Transforming mental health services is one of the most pressing public health challenges. However, the national tele-mental health programme has expanded, educational development and awareness programmes are happening at an advanced pace. 

Why has the United Nations Lost Relevance?

Context: The repeated failures of the United Nations in preventing conflicts such as Ukraine, Gaza, and Sudan along with veto paralysis in the UN Security Council have raised doubts about its effectiveness in the 21st century.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Declining Relevance of the United Nations.  

About United Nations

  • The UN is a global intergovernmental organisation established by the signing of the UN Charter in 1945.
  • It was established with the articulated mission to:
    • maintain international peace and security
    • develop friendly relations among states
    • promote international cooperation
    • serve as a centre for harmonising the actions of states in achieving those goals.
  • It has increasingly come under criticism for its lack of effectiveness in addressing global challenges. Its decline stems from its structural flaws, financial dependence, and failure to act at the times of crises.

Reasons for Declining Relevance of the United Nations: 

  • Veto Paralysis of the UN Security Council: The veto power of the five permanent members (P5) USA, UK, France, Russia, and China has crippled decision-making. E.g.,
    • Russia blocked UN action during its annexation of Crimea in 2014 and its 2022 Ukraine invasion, while the US has often vetoed resolutions on Palestine.
    • Similar vetoes have prevented action in Syria, Sudan, Tibet, and Cold War conflicts, exposing the undemocratic nature of the system.
  • Failure to Prevent Conflicts and Protect Civilians:
    • The UN has been ineffective in major crises such as Ukraine, Israel-Gaza, Syria, and Sudan often reduced to passing symbolic resolutions. 
    • Peacekeeping missions in Rwanda (1994) and Bosnia (1990s) failed to prevent genocide and ethnic cleansing. 
    • The Iraq War in 2003 showed how powerful states can bypass the UN altogether.
  • Selective Humanitarianism and Double Standards: The UN has intervened selectively, for instance authorising NATO in Libya (2011) but failing to rebuild the nation. Humanitarian disasters in Africa and Asia often receive inadequate global attention compared to crises in geopolitically strategic regions.
  • Financial Vulnerability and Dependence:
    • The UN’s financial dependence on a handful of countries, especially the United States (contributing around 22% of its regular budget), makes it vulnerable to political pressures. During the Trump presidency, proposals for an 83% cut in US foreign spending and sharp reductions in UN financing has highlighted the fragility of its funding base.
    • Around 40 nations default on annual dues, while discretionary donations critical for humanitarian operations are declining. This financial fragility raises doubts about the UN’s ability to achieve ambitious goals like the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda.
  • Bureaucratic Inefficiency and Weak Enforcement: The UN has been criticised for being slow, bureaucratic, and ineffective in enforcement. Even agreements like the Paris Climate Accord (2015) lack strong compliance mechanisms, leaving issues like climate change and terrorism unresolved.
  • Geopolitical Capture and Location Concerns: Critics argue that the UN’s headquarters in New York keeps it too close to Washington, tilting influence towards the US. Relocating or rotating UN headquarters to conflict-prone regions such as Kigali, Kyiv, or Khartoum is proposed to make the organisation more grounded in global realities.
  • Crisis of Courage and Leadership: Analysts argue that the UN has lost its courage to lead, act decisively, or stand up to great powers. This leadership deficit has eroded its moral authority, leaving it as a “toothless and clawless” organization.
  • Rise of Multipolar Alternatives: The growth of regional and global groupings such as G20, BRICS, SCO, AU, and ASEAN shows that states increasingly rely on other mechanisms for conflict resolution and cooperation. These platforms are often seen as more flexible and effective compared to the UN’s slow processes.

Supporters argue that despite its flaws, the UN remains necessary. As former Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld said, the UN “was not created to lead mankind to heaven but to save humanity from hell.” Without the UN, the world may be hungrier, poorer, less safe, and less sustainable.

Key Reform Suggestions for the United Nations: 

  • Expand Security Council membership to reflect contemporary power realities and ensure equitable regional representation.
  • Restrict or suspend veto power in cases of genocide, war crimes, or humanitarian crises.
  • Diversify and stabilise UN financing to reduce donor dependence and enhance budget predictability.
  • Strengthen peacekeeping operations with clear mandates, adequate resources, and rapid deployment capacity.
  • Consider rotation of UN headquarters to conflict-prone or Global South regions for greater legitimacy.
  • Promote multilateralism by building synergy with regional platforms like G20, BRICS, and AU.
  • Strengthening of enforcement mechanisms for international treaties and agreements, including climate accords and arms control regimes.

In its current form, the UN risks becoming a symbolic institution rather than an effective guardian of peace and security in the 21st century. For the UN to regain relevance, it must reform its structure, restore courage in leadership, and rebuild trust in multilateralism.

UN backs Two-state Solution without Hamas 

Context: The UN General Assembly has overwhelmingly approved a resolution supporting a declaration that calls for tangible, timebound, and irreversible steps toward a two-state solution between Israel and the Palestinians, without the involvement of Hamas.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Israel and the Palestinian conflict; Two-state Solution. 

India votes in favour of UNGA resolution on Palestine: 

  • Recently, India voted in favour of a resolution in the UN General Assembly that endorses the ‘New York Declaration' on peaceful settlement of the Palestine issue and implementation of the two-state solution.
  • Asserting that the war in Gaza must end, the declaration said that Gaza is an integral part of a Palestinian State and must be unified with the West Bank. There must be no occupation, siege, territorial reduction, or forced displacement.
  • The resolution was adopted with an overwhelming 142 nations voting in favour. Those voting against included Israel, the US etc.
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What is the Two-state Solution?

  • The two-state solution is an internationally backed formula for peace between Israel and the Palestinians.
  • It proposes an independent Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza, with East Jerusalem as its capital. It would exist alongside Israel.
  • The Palestinian Authority backs a two-state solution but Hamas does not recognise Israel’s legitimacy. 
  • Israel rejects a two-state solution. It says any final settlement must be the result of negotiations with the Palestinians, and statehood should not be a precondition.

India announced its recognition of Israel in 1950 and has recognised Palestine in 1988. India has long advocated the need to bring about a Two-State solution through purposeful dialogue and diplomacy. 

Genocide in Gaza: UN Commission of Inquiry:

  • After a multi-year investigation, the UN Commission of Inquiry has concluded that Israeli authorities have committed genocide in Gaza. 
  • The UN Commission found reasonable grounds to conclude that four of the five genocidal acts have been carried out since the Gaza war began following Hamas’s October 2023 attack in Israel. They include:
    • killing members of a community
    • serious bodily and mental harm
    • actions aimed at destroying the group
    • preventing births

Also Read: Is Israel committing Genocide in Gaza? 

The International Court of Justice is hearing genocide charges against Israel, and the International Criminal Court had issued an arrest warrant for Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in 2024. 

Women’s Economic Empowerment Index

Context: India aspires to become a $30 trillion economy by 2047, but women who constitute nearly half the population contribute only 18% to the GDP. Their invisibility in data makes gender-disaggregated data crucial for inclusive growth.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Gender budgeting, WEE Index (Uttar Pradesh)

Mains: Role of gender data in inclusive growth, governance reforms, women’s economic empowerment.

Almost 196 million employable women in India are outside the workforce. The biggest barrier to women’s economic empowerment is not merely the lack of opportunities but their invisibility in data. Without gender-disaggregated data their participation gaps across education, skilling, employment, and entrepreneurship will remain stalled. 

Women’s Economic Empowerment Index: 

  • The WEE Index was recently launched by Uttar Pradesh. It aims to track the impact of government schemes on women's economic participation across all 75 districts of the state.
  • It is India’s first district-level tool to track women’s participation across five economic levers:
    • Employment
    • Education and skilling
    • Entrepreneurship
    • Livelihood and mobility
    • Safety and inclusive infrastructure
  • The index shifts focus from participation numbers to structural barriers that limit women’s empowerment. E.g., Data showed women dominate skilling enrolments but remain very low in entrepreneurship due to poor access to credit. 

Why Gender Data is Needed?

  • Inclusive Growth: Inclusive economic growth cannot occur if half the population remains invisible in policy datasets. Gender-disaggregated data ensures women’s contribution is measured, valued, and integrated into growth strategies.
  • Making Gaps Visible: Without a gender lens, existing indices on health, economy, and infrastructure mask inequities. Data reveals critical drop-off points such as high female dropout rates after Class 12 and post-graduation, or the gap between skilling enrolment and entrepreneurship.
  • Catalyst for Reforms: Visibility of inequities prompts departments to act. E.g., In Uttar Pradesh, data on low female representation among bus drivers and conductors, led to new recruitment strategies and women-friendly infrastructure such as women’s restrooms in bus terminals.
  • Shifting beyond Participation Rates: Gender data helps track retention, leadership roles, re-entry into work, and quality of employment, not just surface-level participation. It highlights systemic barriers such as limited access to credit for women entrepreneurs despite high skilling enrolments.
  • To improve Gender Budgeting: Gender budgeting is often confined to welfare schemes or finance departments. True gender budgeting requires applying a gender lens to every rupee spent in sectors like education, infrastructure, energy, and housing, and this is only possible if robust gender-disaggregated data exists.
  • Guiding Policy and Investment: Data makes it possible to design district-wise gender action plans, guiding budget allocations and infrastructure priorities.

A robust framework such as the WEE Index can be replicated and scaled in other states as well. It can help the states translate intent into implementation: turning data into district-wise gender action plans that guide budget allocations, infrastructure priorities and programmatic reforms.

Also Read: Budgeting for a gender-inclusive ‘Viksit Bharat’ 

Anticipatory Bail under the SC/ST Act 1989

Context: The Supreme Court in Kiran vs Rajkumar Jivaraj Jain quashed the Bombay High Court order granting anticipatory bail to an accused of caste atrocities reaffirming the statutory bar under the Section 18 of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Anticipatory bail and SC/ST Act 1989.

What is Anticipatory Bail?

  • Anticipatory bail is a pre-arrest legal safeguard provided under the Code of Criminal Procedure (now Section 482 of BNSS) allowing a person to seek bail in anticipation of arrest for a non-bailable offence. 
  • It is preventive in nature and distinct from regular bail, which is sought after arrest.
  • It was recommended by the Law Commission of India to protect citizens against arbitrary or mala fide arrests. 

The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989 explicitly excludes the application of Section 482 of BNSS which provides for anticipatory bail. 

Why is Anticipatory Bail barred under SC/ST Act 1989? 

  • Parliament introduced this bar to protect victims from intimidation, harassment, and coercion by accused persons after registration of cases.
  • The Supreme Court has upheld the constitutional validity of this bar in multiple judgments, holding that it does not violate Article 14 (equality before law) or Article 21 (right to life and liberty).
  • Offences under the Act are treated as a distinct class because they are rooted in systemic untouchability, caste oppression, and social exclusion.

In Kiran vs Rajkumar Jivaraj Jain (2025): 

  • The Supreme Court quashed anticipatory bail granted by the Bombay High Court terming it a manifest error and jurisdictional illegality. 
  • It held that courts cannot conduct a mini-trial at the bail stage and must only check for a prima facie case. 
  • The ruling reinforced that the SC/ST Act is a substantive shield to protect dignity and security of vulnerable groups. 

Judicial Precedents: 

  • State of M.P. vs Ram Krishna Balothia (1995), the SC upheld the validity of Section 18 emphasising the need for strong deterrent measures.
  • Vilas Pandurang Pawar vs State of Maharashtra (2012), the Court reiterated that anticipatory bail is statutorily barred when a prima facie case under the Act exists.
  • Prathvi Raj Chauhan vs Union of India (2020), the Court clarified that anticipatory bail may be considered only if no prima facie offence under the Act is made out, but not otherwise. 
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What is Kolhan’s Manki-Munda System?

Context: Adivasis from the Ho tribe staged a protest in Jharkhand’s West Singhbhum district against the Deputy Commissioner (DC) accusing him of interfering with their traditional self-governance system known as Manki-Munda system.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About the Manki-Munda system. 

What is the Manki-Munda system?

  • Traditional self-governance mechanism of the Ho tribe in the Kolhan region of Jharkhand. 
  • It is a decentralised system that has existed for centuries, and continues to function alongside the formal administrative apparatus of the state.
  • The Manki-Munda system involves:
    • Hereditary village heads (Mundas) who resolve social and political disputes at a village level. 
    • Higher-level chief (Manki): A cluster of 8-15 villages (called a pir) is headed by a Manki who deals with cases which were unresolved by Mundas.
  • Before colonial times, the Manki and Munda had no responsibilities for revenue or land-related issues. 

British Intervention: 

  • After the Permanent Settlement Act of 1793, zamindars began seizing Ho lands to meet revenue demands. 
  • This led to major tribal uprisings such as the Ho revolt (1821-22) and the Kol revolt (1831-32).
  • Unable to suppress the Ho people militarily, the British decided to co-opt their system of governance.

Wilkinson’s Rules (1833):  

  • The British appointed Captain Thomas Wilkinson as their Political Agent in the Kolhan Government Estate (KGE), an administrative unit created in 1837 to control the Ho-dominated region.
  • Wilkinson codified the Manki-Munda system into 31 rules, which became known as Wilkinson’s Rules. This was the first formal codification of any tribal self-governance system in India.
  • The rules recognised Mundas and Mankis as community leaders but turned them into agents of colonial administration.This codification facilitated the integration of Kolhan into British India and allowed the entry of non-tribal settlers (dikkus).
  • It also introduced private property, pattas, and the designation of Ho people as raiyats (tenants).

Post Independence developments:  

  • After 1947, the Kolhan Government Estate was dissolved, but Wilkinson’s Rules continued to operate. Indian courts recognised these rules as customs, even though they were not treated as formal law.
  • In 2021, the Jharkhand government recognised the traditional judicial system known as the Nyaya Panch to work on revenue related activities such as tax collection and reporting of land purchase and sale, maintaining law & order and settlement of disputes.

Issues with the Manki-Munda System

  • Hereditary Succession: The posts of Munda and Manki are hereditary, usually passed from father to son. This restricts opportunities for capable individuals.
  • Lack of Formal Education: Many traditional leaders lack literacy and training needed to manage land records, documents, and modern governance tasks.
  • Absentee Leadership: In several cases, Mundas stay away from villages for long periods, preventing villagers from accessing basic services.
  • Tensions with Non-Tribal Communities: Non-tribal groups such as Scheduled Castes and OBCs residing in Ho-dominated villages have complained of discrimination and restrictions on their livelihoods.
  • Vacant Posts: Out of around 1,850 sanctioned posts of Mankis and Mundas in West Singhbhum, nearly 200 are vacant, which hampers effective governance at the grassroots level.
  • Limited Understanding of Rules: Most leaders do not fully understand Wilkinson’s Rules or the 1837 Hukuknama, which complicates dispute resolution.
  • Dependence on state officials: Villagers often bypass Mankis and Mundas and approach the Deputy Commissioner, reducing the authority of the system.

There is a section of the Ho community, especially the youth, who want reforms to the Manki-Munda system.

The current conflict

  • In response to the complaints against Mundas and Manki, the district administration issued a nine-point directive reminding Mundas of their duties under the 1837 Hukuknama.
  • However, this was misinterpreted as interference which sparked rumours and protests. The officials have clarified that customary laws remain untouched.

What do SC guidelines say on DNA?

Context: The Supreme Court has issued uniform guidelines to ensure the integrity of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) samples in criminal cases. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about SC guidelines say on DNA; Applications of DNA profiling. 

Importance of DNA evidence in criminal cases: 

  • DNA is a molecule that encodes the genetic information in all living organisms. It can be obtained from biological materials, such as bone, blood, semen, saliva, hair, or skin.
  • Generally, when the DNA profile of a sample found at a crime scene matches the DNA profile of a suspect, it can be concluded that both samples have the same biological origin. However, it is not substantive evidence in criminal cases. 
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What do SC guidelines say on DNA?

The SC in Kattavellai @ Devakar v. State of Tamil Nadu has issued four guidelines for cases where DNA evidence is involved. 

  • Collection and documentation: DNA samples must be collected with due care, appropriately packed and labelled (FIR number and date, sections and statutes involved, details of the investigating officer, police station). The document must include the signatures and designations of the medical professional present, investigating officer, and independent witnesses.
  • Transportation: The investigating officer must ensure that the samples reach the concerned Forensic Science Lab within 48 hours of collection. The reasons for delay (if any) must be recorded, and samples should be preserved.
  • Storage: No package shall be opened, altered, or resealed without express authorisation from the trial court.
  • Chain of Custody Register (logbook that tracks DNA sample till the case ends) must be maintained. The investigating officer is responsible for explaining any lapses in compliance.

Need to issue the directions:

  • Though some guidelines have been issued by various bodies, there is neither uniformity nor a common procedure to be followed by all investigating authorities.  
  • ‘Police’ and ‘Public Order’ are subjects mentioned in the State List of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, but the SC deemed it necessary to issue these guidelines to have uniformity of procedure.
  • Past rulings show that lapses in handling have led to DNA reports being rejected, making both proper collection and quality control essential. 
  • Unexplained delays in sending DNA samples to the Forensic Laboratory (FSL) can risk the possibility of sample contamination.  

Associated Court rulings: 

  • In Anil v. State of Maharashtra (2014): The SC observed that a DNA profile is valid and reliable, but this depends on quality control and procedure in the laboratory. 
  • Manoj v. State of Madhya Pradesh (2022): The SC rejected a DNA report on the ground that recovery was made from an open area and the likelihood of its contamination cannot be ruled out. The blood stains found on the articles were disintegrated, and the quantity was insufficient to run any classification test.
  • Rahul v. State of Delhi (2022): The DNA evidence was rejected because it remained in the Police Malkhana for two months and during such time, the possibility of tampering could not be ruled out.
  • Kattavellai @ Devakar v. State of Tamil Nadu (2025): The SC  stated that DNA evidence is in the nature of opinion evidence as envisaged under Section 45 of the Evidence Act. Like any other opinion evidence, its probative value varies from case to case. Therefore, DNA evidence must be proved scientifically and legally. 

The investigating agency needs to ensure that samples are collected properly, without contamination, and sent to the FSL without delay. 

Also Read: DNA Profling 

What is the Scarborough Shoal and what is China planning there?

Context: China has approved the creation of a national reserve at Scarborough shoal - one of Asia’s most contested maritime features and a diplomatic flashpoint between China and the Philippines.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Scarborough Shoal. 

Recent Developments: 

  • China has approved creation of a national nature reserve at Scarborough Shoal that it says is to preserve 3,524-hectare area of the coral reef ecosystem. It would cover the entire north-eastern side of the triangle-shaped atoll, with close proximity to the sole entrance for larger vessels.
  • The Philippines has urged China to respect the sovereignty and jurisdiction of the Philippines over Scarborough Shoal, and any Chinese construction at Scarborough would be a red line.
image 45

What is Scarborough Shoal? 

  • Chain of reefs in the South China Sea forming a triangular atoll with a central lagoon. It is a disputed atoll in South China Sea claimed by both China and the Philippines.
  • Located about 200 km west of Luzon, Philippines, it lies well within the Philippines’ Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) under UNCLOS.
  • Coveted for its rich fish stocks, potential hydrocarbon reserves, and safe haven for vessels during storms. 
  • It is named Huangyan Island by China, while the Philippines calls it the Panatag Shoal, or Bajo de Masinloc. 

Who does the atoll belong to? 

  • The Philippines and China both lay claim to the Scarborough Shoal, but sovereignty has never been legally established.
  • The shoal is effectively under Beijing’s control, with Chinese coast guard and fishing vessels maintaining constant presence.
  • China seized the shoal in 2012 after a standoff with the Philippines and has held it since then. Filipino boats continue to operate there, but they are dwarfed by China’s larger deployment and face restrictions.
  • The Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) in 2016 ruled in favour of the Philippines on various South China Sea issues, but establishing sovereignty over Scarborough Shoal was not within its scope, leaving ownership unresolved. The ruling affirmed that the China blockade violated international law as it is a traditional fishing ground for multiple countries, including the Philippines, China, and Vietnam.

Jammu & Kashmir Public Safety Act 

Context: Recently, a sitting legislator (MLA) in Jammu and Kashmir was detained under the Jammu & Kashmir Public Safety Act (PSA) for one year. 

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key features of PSA; Preventive Detention; Article 22

About Jammu & Kashmir Public Safety Act: 

  • The Public Safety Act was enacted in 1978 by the J&K Legislative Assembly to curb timber smuggling in the state.
  • Over time, the Act has become a tool for preventive detention of political opponents, dissenters, journalists, and protesters. E.g., On the eve of Article 370’s abrogation, hundreds, including former Chief Ministers, were detained under PSA.

After the abrogation of Article 370, the PSA is now deemed a law passed by the Indian Parliament.

Key Provisions of the Public Safety Act: 

  • Preventive Detention: The Act authorises detention without trial for up to 2 years, if individuals are considered a threat to the security of the state. Allows detention up to 1 year if they are deemed a threat to public order.
  • Grounds of Detention: Individuals can be detained if the administration is satisfied that they might act in a manner prejudicial to security or public order. The power is based on “subjective satisfaction” of the executive authorities (District Magistrates/Divisional Commissioners).
  • Communication of Grounds: Grounds of detention must be conveyed to the detainee. However, Section 13(2) allows the government to withhold grounds if disclosure is deemed against “public interest.”
  • Advisory Board Review: Detention orders must be reviewed by an Advisory Board (of High Court judges). 
  • Restrictions on Legal Remedies: Individuals cannot directly represent themselves before the Advisory Board. Courts often avoid probing into the merits of detention if the executive claims satisfaction.

Concerns associated with J&K Public Safety Act: 

The Act has been repeatedly flagged by UN Human Rights bodies as a “lawless law” because it:

  • permits prolonged preventive detention without trial
  • relies on vague definitions like public order
  • restricts legal remedies
  • undermines rights guaranteed under both the Indian Constitution and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). 

Also Read: Preventive Detention laws in India: How preventive detention works?

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