GS Paper 2

Dispute Settlement between India and USA

Context: One of the significant outcomes of Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s official state visit to the U.S. was the decision of the two countries to end six long-standing trade disputes at the World Trade Organization (WTO). In view of the continuing impasse in the appointment of ‘judges’ to hear appeals at the Appellate Body, a meaningful resolution of these disputes was almost out of sight. Three cases settled as part of the deal are before the defunct Appellate Body, while the rest could have potentially been ‘appealed into the void’.

The settled disputes involved a challenge of the domestic content requirements under India’s National Solar Mission. India too challenged certain sub-federal programmes implemented in the U.S. in the renewable energy sector and won the case.
India and US also settled disputes involving some of its foreign trade policy schemes, including the special economic zone (SEZ) and export-oriented unit schemes. In particular, certain corporate tax deductions provided under the SEZ scheme faced an uncertain future
The most major of the dispute that was stelled involved a challenge by India against the controversial Section 232 tariffs imposed under the U.S. Trade Expansion Act, 1962. The U.S. had imposed an additional duty of 25% on steel and 10% on aluminium, triggering a series of WTO challenges and unilateral trade responses. India considered these as safeguard measures and imposed retaliatory measures.
Against that backdrop, settling disputes in all six cases shows a pragmatic approach on the part of two strong trading partners. They have accepted each other’s domestic challenges in dispute compliance and realised the importance of burying differences.

Dispute Settlement Mechanism:

Resolving trade disputes is one of the core activities of the WTO. A dispute arises when a member government believes another member government is violating an agreement or a commitment that it has made in the WTO.

Settling disputes is the responsibility of the Dispute Settlement Body (the General Council in another guise), which consists of all WTO members.
The Dispute Settlement Body has the sole authority to establish “panels” of experts to consider the case, and to accept or reject the panels’ findings or the results of an appeal.
It monitors the implementation of the rulings and recommendations, and has the power to authorize retaliation when a country does not comply with a ruling.

First stage: Consultation (up to 60 days). Before taking any other actions the countries in dispute have to talk to each other to see if they can settle their differences by themselves. If that fails, they can also ask the WTO director-general to mediate or try to help in any other way.

Second stage: The panel (up to 45 days for a panel to be appointed, plus 6 months for the panel to conclude). If consultations fail, the complaining country can ask for a panel to be appointed

Appeals

Either side can appeal a panel’s ruling. Sometimes both sides do so. Appeals have to be based on points of law such as legal interpretation — they cannot re-examine existing evidence or examine new issues.
Each appeal is heard by three members of a permanent seven-member Appellate Body set up by the Dispute Settlement Body and broadly representing the range of WTO membership.
The appeal can uphold, modify or reverse the panel’s legal findings and conclusions. Normally appeals should not last more than 60 days, with an absolute maximum of 90 days.
The Dispute Settlement Body has to accept or reject the appeals report within 30 days and rejection is only possible by consensus.

Horizon 2047: Vision for India-France Strategic Partnership

Context: During the recent visit of PM Modi to France a variety of agreements chief among the agreements was the strategic road map for the next 25 years “Horizon 2047” which includes cooperation in defence, space, nuclear energy, climate change and green transitions as well as education and people-to-people ties.

The document Horizon 2047, reflects a vision of the two leaders, of Prime Minister Modi and President Macron, on where the relationship should be in 2047 when India would celebrate 100th year of its independence and we will be celebrating 50 years of our Strategic Partnership. It has 63 specific outcomes that are divided among multiple pillars.

Major pointers of document Horizon 2047

Partnership for Security and Sovereignty: A comprehensive approach to security and sovereignty cooperation between the two countries.
India-France Partnership in the Indo-Pacific: Focused on providing solutions for security, strategic, and economic challenges.
Cooperation in the Fight Against Terrorism: Joint efforts to combat terrorism and ensure global security.
Renewed and Effective Multilateralism: Shared commitment to promoting multilateral cooperation.
Science, Technology, and Academic Cooperation: Collaboration between research institutions in scientific, critical technologies, health, cyber, digital regulatory frameworks, and digital technologies.
People-to-People Ties: Enhancing mobility partnership and skill-set cooperation to foster academic collaboration and meet the needs of skill development.
Defence Cooperation: Roadmap for further cooperation in the Indo-Pacific, including military and naval exchanges and a trilateral development fund.
Defence Procurement: Approval for the purchase of 26 Rafale-M fighter jets for the Indian Navy, three additional Scorpene submarines, and an agreement for helicopter engines.

The France-India strategic relationship is built on respect for each other's strategic autonomy, with France refraining from commenting on India's internal affairs or foreign policy choices.

Minimum Income Guarantee Bill in Rajasthan

Context: The Rajasthan government stated intent of enacting a Minimum Income Guarantee Law in the next few days.

Minimum Income Guarantee Bill

The Rajasthan government while introducing the bill, said “According to the basic spirit of the Constitution, every person has the right to live with dignity.”

Provision of the bill

Minimum Income Guarantee Scheme will include a provision for giving pension of at least Rs 1000 per month to elderly, widow, single women, with a guaranteed annual increment of 15 per cent per year. After the law is made, “giving pension will become a legal obligation.”
Families who complete 100 days in Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) will get 25 days extra employment on a permanent basis. Kathodi, Sahariya and Specially abled people will get employment for 200 days instead of 100 days.

MGNREGA as a Right based approach of entitlement

The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), 2005 made 100 days unskilled work a legal right for a rural resident. Which makes it a rights-based approach for providing social protection.

It is a public employment guarantee scheme designed to provide employment and basic income security to the rural working-age population in India, as well as improve their livelihoods through the development of durable assets.
MGNREGA combines rights-based entitlements with demand-driven employment and citizen-centred planning and monitoring in its design.

Benefits of MGNREGA over Cash transfer

MGNREGA solved the hitherto difficulty of selecting recipients under a cash transfer scheme by making it a universal right for all rural residents who could self-select based on their need for employment.
The “targeted” safety net approach of using BPL lists to identify beneficiaries for cash transfer is plagued by the misuse of power by the rural elite and bureaucracy, resulting in the benefits reaching people who were not supposed to receive them.
MGNREGA provides wage income as a legal entitlement for labour done and replaces doles with salaries that are quantified.
MGNREGA combined development rights with citizenship rights thereby giving citizens the platform to mobilise and assert their rights to plan works, earn a minimum wage and evaluate the outcomes of the programme through social audits.
MGNREGA contributed to the resolution of market problems by increasing the negotiating power of MGNREGA workers in the open labour market.
The inability to address authentication errors, inaccessible banking systems and lack of proactive facilitation to the most marginalised make cash transfer less effective in comparison to MGNREGA.

Global Cases of social welfare programme

Brazil

Bolsa Família is the current social welfare program of the Government of Brazil, part of the Fome Zero network of federal assistance programs. Bolsa Família provided financial aid to poor Brazilian families.

Mexico

Oportunidades was the first national conditional cash transfer program targeting poor and extremely poor households and that integrated three basic social rights –health, education and nutrition.

Way Forward

The most logical and effective method by which delivery systems, even within a rights-based framework, can be made to respond to people’s needs is to make sure that the state agencies are accountable. Officials are accountable not just to their administrative superiors, but also to the people.
For any mass scale delivery of rights, a strong people-centric accountability mechanism needs to be in place — the mechanism must be codified by law. The failure to deliver should be dealt with in a given time frame and in a decentralised manner. Accountability should be fixed on individual officials.

SC asks ED chief to quit, but upholds amendments

Context: In a recent development, the Supreme Court has asked Sanjay Kumar Mishra, the Director of the Enforcement Directorate (ED), to resign four months before his third extension, which was originally scheduled to end in November.

Alongside this decision, the court upheld certain statutory amendments that allow for the prolongation of the tenures of Directors of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) and the ED in a gradual manner.
Previously, the CBI and ED chiefs held fixed tenures of two years, but the amendments introduced in 2021 to the Central Vigilance Commission Act, the Delhi Special Police Establishment Act, and the Fundamental Rules now permit them to receive three annual extensions.

Directorate of Enforcement:

The Directorate of Enforcement or the ED is a multi-disciplinary organization mandated with investigation of economic crimes and violations of foreign exchange laws.

The origin of this Directorate goes back to 1956, when an ‘Enforcement Unit’ was formed in the Department of Economic Affairs for handling Exchange Control Laws violations under Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 1947.

It was headed by a Legal Service Officer, as Director of Enforcement, assisted by an Officer drawn on deputation from Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
In 1960, the administrative control of the Directorate was transferred from the Department of Economic Affairs to the Department of Revenue.
With the passage of time, FERA, in 1947 was repealed and replaced by FERA, in 1973. Presently, the Directorate is under the administrative control of the Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
With the onset of the process of economic liberalization, FERA, 1973, which was a regulatory law, was repealed and in its place, a new law viz. the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA) was enacted in 2000.
Further, in tune with the International Anti Money Laundering regime, the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA) was enacted and ED was entrusted with its enforcement in 2005.
Recently, with the increase in number of cases relating to economic offenders taking shelter in foreign countries, the Government has passed the Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 (FEOA) and ED is entrusted with its enforcement in 2018.

Statutory Functions:

Its functions include enforcing acts such as the Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act, 1974 (COFEPOSA), the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA), the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA), and the Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 (FEOA).

The Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA): It is a criminal law enacted to prevent money laundering and to provide for confiscation of property derived from, or involved in, money-laundering and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. Under the PMLA, the ED carries out searches and seizures of properties, money, and documents deemed to be involved in money laundering offenses. It has the power to arrest individuals if necessary. The ED can also directly carry out search and seizure operations without prior summons under Section 50 of the PMLA. The agency has jurisdiction over individuals, legal entities, and public servants involved in offenses related to money laundering. However, the ED cannot initiate action on its own and requires a complaint from another agency or the police to begin an investigation
The Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA): It is a civil law enacted to consolidate and amend the laws relating to facilitating external trade and payments and to promote the orderly development and maintenance of foreign exchange market in India. ED has been given the responsibility to conduct investigation into suspected contraventions of foreign exchange laws and regulations, to adjudicate and impose penalties on those adjudged to have contravened the law.
The Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 (FEOA): This law was enacted to deter economic offenders from evading the process of Indian law by remaining outside the jurisdiction of Indian courts. It is a law whereby Directorate is mandated to attach the properties of the fugitive economic offenders who have escaped from the India warranting arrest and provide for the confiscation of their properties to the Central Government.
Sponsoring agency under COFEPOSA: Under the Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act, 1974 (COFEPOSA), the Directorate is empowered to sponsor cases of preventive detention with regard to contraventions of FEMA.

Recent criticism of the ED

Allegations of misuse of the PMLA by the government and the agency itself.
Concerns have been raised about the inclusion of "ordinary" crimes under the PMLA and the attachment of assets belonging to innocent individuals.
Transparency and clarity regarding the selection of cases to investigate have also been questioned.
The Enforcement Case Information Report (ECIR) - an equivalent of the FIR - is considered an “internal document” and not given to the accused.
The initiation of an investigation by the ED has consequences that have the potential of curtailing the liberty of an individual.
Additionally, the efficiency and low conviction rates of the ED under the PMLA have been a subject of controversy.

The amendments of 2021:

President promulgated two ordinances that allowed the Centre to extend the tenures of the directors of the Central Bureau of Investigation and the Enforcement Directorate from two years to up to five years.
Amendments in DSPE act: Provided that the period for which the Director of CBI holds the office on his initial appointment may, in public interest, on the recommendation of the Committee (the committee led by the Prime Minister and leader of Opposition and CJI as members) and for the reasons to be recorded in writing, be extended up to one year at a time. It also provided that no such extension shall be granted after the completion of a period of five years in total including the period mentioned in the initial appointment.
Amendments in CVC act: Provided that the period for which the Director of Enforcement holds the office on his initial appointment may, in public interest, on the recommendation of the Committee (comprising of CVC chief, Revenue and Home Secretaries among others) and for the reasons to be recorded in writing, be extended up to one year at a time. It provided further that no such extension shall be granted after the completion of a period of five years in total including the period mentioned in the initial appointment.

Criticisms of the amendments:

The government could exploit the possibility of service extensions as a means to manipulate the CBI and ED Directors into aligning with its interests.

It was argued that this dynamic would exert pressure on the Directors, leading them to comply with the government's wishes in order to secure further extensions.
The amendments contradicted the fundamental objective of safeguarding the Central investigative agencies from government influence.

Way forward:

Consensus between the adjudicating authority and the ED officers should be reached to ensure compliance with the constitutional provisions of the PMLA, making investigations more transparent.
The ED's expanded powers should be accompanied by a commitment to resolve cases expeditiously, allowing for speedy trials and convictions.
Regular scrutiny of the agency's operations and ongoing evaluation can lead to improvements in the conviction rate.
Any gaps or deficiencies can be addressed through suitable legislation, executive action, or revised orders from the apex court.

Poverty & UNDP

Context: The UN report noted that deprivation in all indicators declined in India and “the poorest States and groups, including children and people in disadvantaged caste groups, had the fastest absolute progress.”

Different types of Poverty

Absolute Poverty

Absolute poverty means poverty defined using a universal baseline with no reference to other people’s income or access to goods. The failure of meeting this baseline thus means that the individual is poor.

It incorporates the deficiency of basic food, clean water, prosperity, refuge, guidance and information and puts a money value on them to calculate a baseline.

Relative Poverty

Relative poverty is the level of poverty which changes depending on the context–it’s relative to the economic context in which it exists. Relative poverty is present when a household income is lower than the median income in a particular country.

For example, if the disposable income of a household is less than 50% of the median income of the country the household is relatively poor.

Situational Poverty

Situational poverty occurs when “a family temporarily experiences financial constraints due to an illness, job loss, or other temporary event”.

Generational Poverty

Generational poverty is a condition in which poverty has become a familial pattern for at least two generations, although it typically affects multiple generations. Sometimes, situational poverty may lead to Generational poverty.

Subjective Poverty

Subjective poverty is an individual’s perception on his or her financial/material situation. This kind of Poverty is defined on the basis of individual feeling, i.e., those who say that they feel poor represent subjective poverty.

Different Methods of measuring Poverty

Head Count Ratio or Poverty Ratio

Absolute poverty may be measured by the number or ‘head count’ of those whose incomes fall below the ‘poverty line’. Head Count Ratio is the percentage of that population in the total population.

Multi-dimensional Poverty

Multidimensional poverty encompasses the many deprivations that people can experience across different areas of their lives. This could include a lack of education or employment, inadequate housing, poor health and nutrition, low personal security, or social isolation.

In 2005/2006, about 645 million people were in multidimensional poverty in India, with this number declining to about 370 million in 2015/2016 and 230 million in 2019/2021.

Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) is released by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI).

The MPI as a poverty index can be pictured as a stacked tower of the interlinked deprivations experienced by poor individuals, with the aim of eliminating these deprivations.

Source UNDP

Causes of improvement

During the last two decades, India has implemented several social protection programmes with the aim to improve living standards, and these have helped the Indian government in poverty reduction.

Implementation of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) since 2006 has significantly increased household consumption and accumulated more nonfinancial assets.
Minimum Support Price (MSP), Public Distribution Systems (PDS), PM-POSHAN and other programmes have addressed the problem of food security.
Code on social security, Code on wages etc. have increased labour earnings and security of job which played significant roles in poverty reduction.
PM- Jan Dhan Yojana and biometric identity cards under Aadhar have also transformed the anti-poverty programmes by replacing the current cumbersome and leaky distribution of benefits under various schemes using the Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT) programme.
Saubhagya scheme, PM-Sahaj Har Ghar Bijali Yojana etc. helped in improving the standard of living.
Swachh Bharat mission, National Rural Drinking Water Programme, Total Sanitation Campaign, Jalmani Programme etc. have helped in improving the sanitation outcomes.

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Current status of MPI in India

India was among the 19 countries that halved their global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) value during one period - for India it was 2005/2006–2015/2016.

According to the report, people who are multidimensionally poor and deprived under the nutrition indicator in India declined from 44.3% in 2005/2006 to 11.8% in 2019/2021, Child mortality fell from 4.5% to 1.5%.
Those who are poor and deprived of cooking fuel fell from 52.9% to 13.9% and those deprived of sanitation fell from 50.4% in 2005/2006 to 11.3% in 2019/2021.
In the drinking water indicator, the percentage of people who are multidimensionally poor and deprived fell from 16.4 to 2.7 during the period, electricity (from 29% to 2.1%) and housing from 44.9% to 13.6%.

Way Forward

Government may focus on the implementation of programmes which faces the problem of rigidity, non-adaptability to local conditions, late disbursement of funds, reallocation of funds to unrelated recurring expenditure, and wide-ranging rent-seeking practices.
DBT, technological improvement Programmes and sanitation programmes has been criticised because of digital divide and urban biasness in their implementation. Through initiatives for education and awareness, the Indian government could enhance the implementation its policies.

India-China Tibet Issue

Context: China protested the meeting between the Dalai Lama and officials of the “Central Tibetan Administration” (CTA) with visiting U.S. official Uzra Zeya in New Delhi, calling it an attempt to “interfere” in China’s “internal affairs”. Ahead of the meeting with Ms. Zeya, the Dalai Lama, who arrived in Delhi on Saturday, said that Tibetans did not seek “independence” and he was open for talks with the Chinese government, which he said had sent feelers to him.

Xizang [Tibet] affairs are purely internal affairs of China and no external forces have the right to interfere. China firmly opposes any form of contact between foreign officials and the “Tibetan independence” forces,”
China had similarly protested Ms. Zeya’s visit to Dharamshala to meet the Dalai Lama in May 2022 and had opposed the setting up of the “special coordinator on Tibetan issues” post by the Biden administration in 2021
The U.S. should take concrete actions to honour its commitment of acknowledging Xizang as part of China, stop meddling in China’s internal affairs under the pretext of Xizang-related issues, and offer no support to the anti-China separatist activities of the Dalai clique. Referring to the CTA as a “separatist political group” not recognised by any country.

History of Tibet

Tibet was India’s actual neighbour, and in 1914, it was Tibetan representatives, along with the Chinese that signed the Simla convention with British India that delineated boundaries. Remember, most of India’s boundaries and the 3500km LAC is with the Tibetan Autonomous Region, and not the rest of China.
India’s voluntary revocation of its special rights in Tibet, inherited from the British raj, during the 1950s for the sake of better India-China relations. This coupled with the acceptance of Chinese rule in Tibet has reduced India’s ability to play any meaningful role in Tibet.
After China’s full accession of Tibet in 1950, that China repudiated the convention and the McMahon line that divided the two countries. And in 1954, India signed an agreement with China agreeing to trading terms on what it called the “Tibet region of China”.
In 1959, when the Dalai Lama fled to India, PM Nehru gave him and Tibetan refugees shelter, and they set up the Tibetan government in exile, which continues to hold elections.
The disappearance of Tibet as a buffer in 1951 meant that Indian and Chinese forces stood eye-to-eye across the undemarcated Himalayan border. Prime minister Nehru was willing to sacrifice Tibet for the sake of friendship between India and China. But the Chinese also claimed that the boundary between British India and Tibet was the work of “European imperialists and Tibetan feudal lords”, and thus the boundary treaties needed to be re-negotiated.
The presence of the Dalai Lama and his followers in India is a source of friction between India and China. China has repeatedly claimed that the Dalai Lama is using his position to lobby for independence for Tibet and thus trying to break up China, which the Chinese government describes as “splitting the motherland” .It has asked the Indian government to address these issues.
China feels that India continues to keep the “Tibetan Question” alive by giving refuge to the Dalai Lama. This has not helped improve relations between the two Asian giants and this issue will continue to remain the bone of contention as China tries to increase its presence and hold over Tibet
It is to be understood that Tibet is at the heart of the India-China rivalry for dominance in Asia. When Tibet was occupied, it changed the asymmetry between the two sides. China was able to exercise geo-strategic influence over much of south Asia and challenge India’s dominance in the region. India recognises that the loss of Tibet as a buffer zone crippled the security of its northern frontiers forcing it to maintain hundreds and thousands of soldiers along the Himalayan frontier.

Today the official Indian policy is that the Dalai Lama is a spiritual leader, and the Tibetan community in India, with more than a lakh exiles, is not allowed to undertake any political activity. Despite frequent protests from China, especially when the Dalai Lama is invited to an official event or travels to Arunachal Pradesh, most governments have held the line on what is seen as a contradictory stand.

Recent developments in Tibet

Changes in Tibet itself: Over the past few decades, the Chinese government has moved to change Tibet in many ways. From pouring in investment, infrastructure projects, to pouring in Han or mainland Chinese, in an effort to Sinicize the population. While there has been rapid development, including the famous Qinghai Tibet, and now Sichuan Tibet rail lines, there has also been an increasing suppression of the Tibetan populations’ links to the Dalai Lama, and old border crossings from Nepal have been sealed
Infrastructural Drive: The construction of Chinese dams on the upper riparian areas of the Brahmaputra, and construction of Tibetan villages along the LAC, particularly along Arunachal Pradesh boundary, which can prove to be a future flashpoint aimed at bolstering Chinese claims of territory.
Changed Geo-Security Outlook: China has begun to raise Tibetan Militia groups, while the Indian Army trains the Tibetan Special Frontier Force, which could lead to the frightening albeit unlikely spectre of Tibetans on both sides fighting each other at some point in the future.
Question over Tibetan people: The question over the future of the Tibetan community in India, that the government doesn’t give citizenship to Tibetans born in India after the cut-off year of 1987, leaving the youth of the community completely in limbo, living in segregated communes in different parts of India, but not being given rights as Indians, with little recourse or connection to what is happening back home in Tibet.
Increased US interest: The US has also increased its role, by accepting more Tibetan refugees, with an estimated 30,000 now residing there. Most prominently, the Karmapa Lama the head of the Karma Kagyu sect, who took Dominican citizenship, also resides permanently in the US now, and as US-China relations deteriorate, is likely to increase its interest in the Tibetan issue.
Succession of Dalai Lama: The larger question is over the succession to the Dalai Lama, who has been not only the spiritual leader but also a political leader of the community worldwide. China has made it clear it intends to announce its own Dalai Lama, as it once did the Panchen Lama, and try to control the succession. The US is likely to weigh in as well, as it has by settling the Karmapa there.

Demographic transition and change in women’s lives

Context: India's population has skyrocketed from 340 million at Independence to 1.4 billion, thanks to improved public health and medical advancements. This unexpected decline in mortality has transformed the lives of Indians, especially women, as they navigate longer lifespans and the consequences of fewer children.

Demographic transition

Demographic transition refers to the process of changes in population characteristics that occur as societies develop over time.

India’s Demographic transition

The growth of population was fuelled by receding starvation, improved public health and medical interventions.
In 1941, male life expectancy was about 56 years and only 50% of boys survived to age 28. Today, life expectancy for men is 69 years and nearly 50% of them live up to 75 years of age.
Due to rapid decline in mortality rates, the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) fell from 5.7 in 1950 to 2.1 in 2019. #As per National Family Health Survey 5

Dynamics of Male Child in India

Social norms and patrilocal kinship patterns combined with lack of financial security reinforce a preference for sons.
According to India Human Development Survey (IHDS), 85% of women respondents expected to rely on their sons for old age support, while only 11% expected support from their daughters. #Report
Nowadays, Parents who want to ensure at least one son among their one or two child family, often resort to sex selective abortion.

Impact of declining fertility on Women’s life

Increased opportunities for Education: With declining fertility, women may choose to delay starting a family in order to pursue education, career goals, or personal aspirations. This can provide women with greater opportunities for personal and professional growth. In India, there has been significant progress in women's educational attainment, with over 70% of girls enrolling in secondary education.
Focus on family planning: Declining fertility rates often coincide with increased availability and acceptance of family planning methods. This empowers women to have greater control over their reproductive choices, allowing them to plan the timing and number of children they want to have.
Reduce gender disparities in society: When women have fewer children, they can allocate more time and energy towards their own pursuits, including education, careers, and personal interests. This can help break traditional gender roles and promote gender equality by challenging societal expectations placed on women as primary caregivers.
Improved employment opportunities: With fewer children to care for, women can participate more actively in the labour force, contributing to household income and economic growth. Women's financial independence can lead to greater decision-making power within families and promote their overall well-being.
Reduced maternal and infant mortality: When women have fewer pregnancies, the overall risk of complications and health issues associated with childbirth is reduced. Improved access to healthcare services, prenatal care, and skilled birth attendants further enhances maternal and infant health outcomes.

How early marriage and aging impacts Women’s empowerment?

Early motherhood may not lead to increased participation in the labour force for women. By the time their childcare responsibilities decrease, they may have missed out on opportunities in occupations that require specialized skills, leaving them with limited options for employment, mostly in unskilled work.
For widowed women, the lack of access to savings and property results in dependence on children, mainly sons, bringing the vicious cycle of son preference to full circle.

Practical strategies to harness Gender Dividend:

Enhancing women’s access to employment and assets will reduce their reliance on sons and could break the vicious cycle of disadvantage, stretching from childhood to old age.
Expansion of anganwadis to include a creche can result into increased participation of mothers in the work. E.g., Randomised control trial in Madhya Pradesh showed positive results as per World Bank.
State support should be provided for childcare, as it creates space for education and employment for Women. #CaseStudy: State support for childcare declined, employment rates for mothers fell from 88% to 66% in urban China.
Government can make staffing creche an acceptable form of work under National rural employment guarantee scheme (NREGS).
Self-help group movement can be harnessed to setup neighbourhood childcare centres in urban and rural areas.

Fully harnessing the gender dividend is crucial for realizing the long-awaited demographic dividend, and a significant aspect of accomplishing this is by ensuring optimal access to childcare.

China’s Outreach in South pacific

Context: Leaders of the Solomon Islands and China promised to expand relations that have fuelled unease in Washington and Australia about Beijing’s influence in the South Pacific.

China & Solomon Islands

The Solomon Islands, 2,000 kilometres northeast of Australia, has been China’s biggest success in a campaign to expand its presence in the South Pacific. The Solomon government switched official recognition in 2019 to Beijing from Taiwan.
The Solomon Islands signed a secretive security agreement with Beijing that might have allowed Chinese military forces in the South Pacific.
Beijing wants to expand relations and trade through its Belt and Road Initiative to build ports and other infrastructure from the Pacific across Asia and Africa.

Recent Developments in the region:

Located between the US, China and Australia, the Pacific island countries hold strategic importance for security and defence. The US has long maintained influence and a military presence in the Pacific region. Over the last decade, China has focused on strengthening its ties in Pacific through increased aid development, diplomacy and security cooperation.

The area gained prominence when in 2022, Solomon Islands signed a security pact sparking international concern over the possibility of Beijing building its first military base in the region.
China has also signed off on a variety of smaller bilateral agreements during the same tour. To counter the move, newly appointed Australian Foreign Minister, immediately travelled to Fiji, Samoa and Tonga to shore up Australian diplomatic interests in Oceania.

Isolation of Taiwan

Strategist are of the opinion that China would use the island countries to further isolate Taiwan from the diplomatic support it receives from the region.

Several countries in Oceania (The Marshall Islands, Nauru, Palau, and Tuvalu) recognize Taiwan as a sovereign country. Chinese outreach and development manoeuvrings could therefore help them reduce regional support for Taiwanese independence.
As a testimony to this Honiara has recently cut ties with Taiwan and followed Beijing’s line on the “One China” policy. The “Inter-governmental Framework Agreement on Security Cooperation” between Beijing-Honiara is a culmination of these efforts.

Isolation of Australia:

Increased Chinese influence in the region could lead to more overseas military bases being built, and could lead to Australia, a vital Pacific ally for the United States, to be isolated, cutting them from supply lines from overseas.

The Zero Sum Game in the Pacific

China’s engagement with South Pacific is about increasing its influence and about diminishing American and Australian influence. It’s a zero-sum game. Australia has a security cooperation agreement with Honiara and is a preferred security provider. Australia went from being a “key security provider” to becoming “one of the options” to seek out.

Great Game in the Pacific

The US’ posture and initiatives in Indo-Pacific are also worrying China. US’ Indo-Pacific strategy outlines that it is keen to focus on “every corner of the region including the Pacific Islands. Further the formation of Quad and US’ Indo-Pacific strategy have worried China, so this game of influence will further intensify.

Regional Economics

The Pacific region is also an important route to transport products and natural resources. Further the exports from Australia (as Australia supplies critical minerals like that of iron ore, coal, and raw cotton and exports to important allies like Australia and other countries like New Zealand pass through this sea area.

Climate Hazards

Many Pacific Island nations are worried of the impact of climate change and rising sea levels, which pose an immediate existential threat. In fact, the Fijian Defence Minister, in the recent Shangri-La Dialogues that the greatest threat to the region is not a conflict between China and the U.S., but rather the geopolitical effects of climate change.

Conclusion

As two geopolitical superpowers start to compete for political dominance in the region, the region as a whole now risks being dragged into conflicts, being used as pawns in broader global ambitions, and at the worst, could see themselves as the site of an armed conflict.

Palliative care

Context: A new set of operational guidelines of NP-NCD, issued by the government, limit the focus of palliative care in India to people with cancer.

About Palliative care

It is the branch of medicine focusing on improving the quality of life and preventing suffering among those with life-limiting illnesses like heart failure, kidney failure, certain neurological diseases, cancer, etc.
It aims to identify patients at risk of over-medicalisation at the expense of quality of life and financial burden on the family.
It also aims to improve the quality of life by addressing the physical, psychological, spiritual, and social domains of the health of people suffering from life-limiting diseases
It is often misinterpreted as end-of-life care.
Beneficiaries are terminal cases of Cancer, AIDS etc.
The goal is the availability and accessibility of rational, quality pain relief and palliative care to the needy, as an integral part of Health Care at all levels, in alignment with the community requirements.

Need for palliative care

Palliative care in India has largely been available at tertiary healthcare facilities in urban areas. Due to this skewed availability of services, it is accessible to only 1-2% of the estimated 7-10 million people who require it in the country.
India has experienced a steep rise in the burden of lifestyle-related non-communicable diseases. Nearly 1.4 million people are diagnosed with cancer in India every year while diabetes, hypertension, and respiratory diseases are also on the rise. All these diseases need palliative care sooner or later in the disease trajectory.
Post-independence India has made considerable efforts to improve the health of its people like the introduction of the three-tier health system, multiple national health programmes and schemes, and the Ayushman Bharat Health Insurance Scheme. But despite these efforts, 55 million people in India are pushed below the poverty line every year due to health-related expenditures. Over-medicalisation plays a significant role in this financial burden.

Steps taken by the government:

The National Programme for Prevention & Control of Non-Communicable Diseases (NP-NCD): In order to prevent and control major NCDs, it was launched in 2010 with a focus on strengthening infrastructure, human resource development, health promotion, early diagnosis, management and referral.
The programme envisaged the provision of promotive, preventive, and curative care from the primary to tertiary institutes, thus providing health services delivery across the continuum of care.

National Programme for Palliative Care (NPPC): It was launched in 2012, NCD Cells are being established at National, State and District levels for programme management, and NCD Clinics are being set up at District and CHC levels, to provide services for early diagnosis, treatment and follow-up for common NCDs. Provision has been made under the programme to provide free diagnostic facilities and drugs for patients attending the NCD clinics.
National Programme for Health Care for the Elderly: To provide accessible, affordable, and high-quality long-term, comprehensive and dedicated care services to an Ageing population.
NGOs like Pallium India, Karunashraya, and CanSupport are trying to fill the gap in palliative care in India.

Gaps in the guidelines

Per the Global Atlas of Palliative Care, in 2020, the need for palliative care was higher for non-cancer illnesses. However, the revised NP-NCD operational guidelines, mention palliative care in synonymy with cancer only. Cancer is just one of 20 common health conditions that require palliative care.
Since most patients who need palliative care are suffering from debilitating diseases, home-based care forms the ideal mode of healthcare delivery. Previously, the programme guidelines mentioned providing support for home-based palliative care services. However, palliative care service delivery starts only from the district hospital in the revised guidelines, with no mention of home-based care.
No mention of home-based palliative care services: Since most patients who need palliative care are suffering from debilitating diseases, home-based care forms the ideal mode of healthcare delivery.
However, palliative care service delivery starts only from the district hospital in the revised guidelines.
No mention of paediatric palliative care: An estimated 98% of children facing moderate to severe suffering during their end of life reside in lower and middle-income countries like India.
Linking of 11 programmes (including NPPC) to promote convergence: The mechanisms of the linkage with a programme (NPPC) that has not yet been fully implemented are unclear.

Way Forward:

Access to palliative care will be assessed by estimating morphine-equivalent consumption of strong opioid analgesics (excluding methadone) per death from cancer. Including an indicator to assess morphine access is a welcome move, but an indicator focusing only on patients with cancer might lead to an inaccurate assessment of coverage of services.
The recommendations of the World Health Assembly in 2014:

Palliative care to be integrated into health systems at all levels.
Including palliative care along with curative treatment

It is high time for India to realise the ongoing pandemic of non-communicable diseases and strengthen its palliative care services.

Women’s reproductive autonomy is the new catchword

Context: This year’s World Population Day theme, i.e., ‘Unleashing the power of gender equality: Uplifting the voices of women and girls to unlock our world’s infinite possibilities’, could not be more apt for India. When we unlock the full potential of women and girls, encouraging and nurturing their desires for their families and themselves, we galvanise half the leadership, ideas, innovation, and creativity available to societies.

India’s Progress on Population Front

On World Population Day (July 11), India deserves to be commended for its family planning initiatives, where despite the many challenges, the aim is to provide an increasingly comprehensive package of reproductive health services to every potential beneficiary — with a focus on the provision of modern short and long-acting reversible contraceptives, permanent methods, information, counselling, and services, including emergency contraception.
India’s commitment towards the Family Planning 2030 partnership includes expanding its contraceptive basket.
The inclusion of new contraceptive options advances women’s rights and autonomy, leading to a spike in modern contraceptive prevalence.
Access to timely, quality and affordable family planning services is crucial because unspaced pregnancies may have a detrimental influence on the newborn’s health as well as major effects on maternal mortality, morbidity, and healthcare expenditure.
The Indian government’s health, population and development programmes have shown steady progress.
Life expectancy at birth has significantly increased in the country over the years. Compared to the 1990s, Indians are currently living a decade longer. In terms of maternal health, India has made impressive strides.
The current maternal mortality rate is 97 (per 100,000 live births in a year), down from 254 in 2004.
Another triumph of these programmes is gender empowerment.
Since the beginning of 2000, India has cut the number of child marriages by half.
Teen pregnancies, too, have dramatically decreased.
Access to vital services, including health, education, and nutrition, has also improved.

Issue of Lack of Physical/Reproductive Autonomy

According to the most recent National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), just 10% of women in India can independently decide about their health, and 11% of women believe that marital violence is acceptable if a woman refuses to have sex with her husband.
Nearly half of all pregnancies in India are unplanned.

Advantages of Physical/Reproductive Autonomy

Advancing gender equality is not just about women but also populations as a whole.
In ageing societies that worry about labour productivity, achieving gender parity in the workforce is the most effective way to improve output and income growth.
In countries experiencing rapid population growth, women’s empowerment through education and family planning can bring enormous benefits by way of human capital and inclusive economic development.
More importantly, the focus on gender equality helps shift the focus away from the notion of ‘population stabilisation’ to ‘population dynamics’ based on reproductive choices people make.
India has a significant opportunity to advance gender equality and grow its economy. Raising the women’s labour force participation by 10 percentage points might account for more than 70% of the potential GDP growth opportunity ($770 billion in additional GDP by 2025).

The way forward

Focusing on gender equality-centred growth, rights, and choices promises to help all achieve their aspirations.
Gender equality can be ensured by making investments in a woman’s life at every stage, from childbirth to adolescence to maturity.
Engaging with women, girls and other marginalised people and formulating legislation and policies that empower them to assert their rights and take life-changing personal decisions are the first steps in this direction.
Gender-just approaches and solutions are the fundamental building blocks of a more prosperous India, and indeed the world.

The Global South: origins and significance

Context: The unwillingness of many leading countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America to stand with NATO over the war in Ukraine has brought to the fore once again the term “Global South.”

Image Source: Tariene Gaum (ResearchGate)

The term Global South appears to have been first used in 1969 by political activist Carl Oglesby. Writing in the liberal Catholic magazine Commonweal, Oglesby argued that the war in Vietnam was the culmination of a history of northern “dominance over the global south.”
The term ‘First World’ referred to the advanced capitalist nations; the ‘Second World’, to the socialist nations led by the Soviet Union; and the ‘Third World’, to developing nations, many at the time still under the colonial yoke.
The term ‘Global South’ is not geographical. In fact, the Global South’s two largest countries - China and India - lie entirely in the Northern Hemisphere.
Countries in the Global South were mostly at the receiving end of imperialism and colonial rule, with African countries as perhaps the most visible example of this.
However there is an increase in economic might of the countries in global south as it is estimated by 2030 it is projected that three of the four largest economies will be from the Global South — with the order being China, India, the U.S. and Indonesia. Already the GDP in terms of purchasing power of the Global South-dominated BRICS nations — Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa — surpasses that of the Global North’s G-7 club.
The economic transformation has brought greater political prominence, as Global South nations assert themselves globally. For example, China brokering deals between Iran and Saudi Arabia, and Brazil's peace plan for Ukraine. This shift has sparked discussions of an "Asian Century" and a "post-Western world."

Importance of South-South Cooperation:

Driving Economic Growth: Countries in the Global South have been major contributors to more than half of the world's economic growth in recent years. This collaboration fuels economic progress and fosters sustainable development.
Increasing Trade: Intra-South trade has reached unprecedented levels, accounting for over a quarter of global trade. This trend strengthens regional economies, enhances market access, and promotes economic integration.
Foreign Direct Investment: Outflows of foreign direct investment from the Global South represent a significant portion of global flows. This investment promotes infrastructure development, creates jobs, and encourages technological advancements.
Poverty Alleviation: Remittances from migrant workers to low- and middle-income countries have played a crucial role in lifting millions of families out of poverty. South-South cooperation enables financial support and sustainable development initiatives for vulnerable communities.
Achieving Sustainable Development Goals: The ambitious 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development necessitates the ideas, energy, and ingenuity of countries in the Global South. Their active participation and cooperation are indispensable for achieving these goals.

ISSUES IN SOUTH-SOUTH COOPERATION

Power Imbalances and Exploitation: Stronger countries in the Global South sometimes take advantage of weaker partners, undermining the principles of fairness and equitable collaboration. China, in particular, has been criticized for such practices.
Environmental Concerns and Public Health: Certain international oil companies have been accused of disregarding environmental impacts and public health concerns while extracting natural resources. Addressing these issues is crucial for sustainable cooperation.
Misuse of Financial Assistance: Some countries exploit the principle of lack of conditionality by diverting financial assistance intended for socially impactful projects to other purposes. This undermines trust and hampers genuine development efforts.
Non-Interference Limitations: The principle of non-interference can hinder the resolution of local conflicts, as countries like India and China prioritize economic interests over intervention. Balancing economic cooperation and addressing internal conflicts is crucial.
Lacks institutional and Financial Capacity: Global South is not a coherent group and does not have a single shared agenda and the collective institutions created to voice concerns of Global South such as Non-Aligned Movement and New International Economic Order have been largely rendered dysfunctional, this has led to strong regional competition and opposition among countries of global south. Further there is also lack of financial capacity among countries of Global South.
North Dominated Mindset: North-oriented mindset and traditional vertical links with metropoles and the world still dominated by US hegemony.

High Seas Treaty

Context: Context: On June 19, the UN adopted the Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) or the High Seas Treaty.

The United Nations has recently adopted the Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) or the High Seas Treaty. This historic agreement, the third to be approved under UNCLOS, aims to protect and preserve the marine environment through international cooperation. The process to develop this treaty began in 2002, and after several years of negotiations, it was finally adopted in 2023.

Key Points of the high sea treaty:

Protecting Marine Biodiversity: The treaty addresses pressing issues such as rising sea surface temperatures, overexploitation of marine biodiversity, overfishing, coastal pollution, and unsustainable practices beyond national jurisdictions.
Establishment of Marine Protected Areas: The treaty introduces the establishment of marine protected areas through a "three-quarterly majority vote," ensuring that decisions cannot be blocked by a small number of parties.
Fair Sharing of Benefits: The treaty mandates the fair sharing of benefits from marine genetic resources. It includes a "clear house mechanism" to facilitate the sharing of scientific information and monetary benefits among all parties.
Open Access to Information: Parties to the treaty are required to share and exchange information on marine protected areas, scientific and technical tools, and area-based management tools. This promotes open access to knowledge and collaboration.
Scientific and Technical Body: A Scientific and Technical Body will play a crucial role in conducting environmental impact assessments, creating standards and guidelines, and assisting countries with limited capacity.

Contentious Issues:

Marine Genetic Resources: The issue of sharing marine genetic resources was a major point of contention during the treaty negotiations.
Information Sharing: The absence of a provision to monitor information sharing was debated. Some parties proposed a licensing scheme for monitoring, while others argued against it, citing potential hindrance to bioprospecting research.
Language Used in the Treaty: The use of phrases like "promote" or "ensure," particularly regarding the sharing of benefits from marine genetic resources, led to disagreements among the parties.

Opposition to the Treaty:

Opposition from Developed Countries: Several developed countries opposed the treaty, as they support private entities that are involved in advanced marine technology research and development. These entities hold patents related to marine genetic resources.
Russia and China's Position: Russia and China are not in favour of the treaty. Russia withdrew from the final stage of reaching a consensus, arguing that the treaty does not strike a balance between conservation and sustainability.