GS Paper 1

Translocation of African Cheetahs: Neither Ecologically Sustainable nor Ethical

Context: A new study by the Centre for Wildlife Studies (which examines the ethical, ecological and welfare challenges associated with the translocation of African cheetahs to India) has expressed concern over the translocation of the animals.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Cheetah; Project Cheetah 

Mains: Conservation of keystone species: Significance and challenges. 

Major Highlights: 

  • The study highlights that the translocation of African cheetahs to India has resulted in significant challenges:
    • High mortality rate of 40%-50% in the first phase of the project, far below the expected survival rate of 85%.
    • High levels of stress for Cheetahs with over 90 chemical immobilisations and regular veterinary interventions, raises concerns about their physical and mental health.
    • Reliance on a continuous supply of cheetahs from southern Africa, is neither ecologically sustainable nor ethical. African cheetah populations are already under pressure with only around 6,500 mature individuals remaining in the wild.
  • This raises concerns about the scientific rationale and the long-term viability of the Cheetah translocation project (Project Cheetah) in India. 

Project Cheetah (Cheetah Reintroduction in India)

  • Project Cheetah is an initiative to reintroduce cheetahs into the wild after their extinction in the country in 1952. 
  • Initiative of: National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA). The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) provides technical assistance, coordinating the reintroduction project. 
  • Under Project Cheetah, so far 20 adult African cheetahs, eight from Namibia in September 2022 and 12 from South Africa in February 2023, were introduced into the Kuno National Park (KNP) in Madhya Pradesh.
  • As of February 2025, 26 Cheetahs survive (including 12 Adults and 14 cubs), and other adult Cheetahs died. There were various causes of their death including starvation and bacterial infection (blood poisoning/septicaemia) due to wounds caused by the tracking radio collar.
  • Under the Cheetah Action Plan, the government is planning to relocate a new batch of Cheetahs from Africa to the Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh.

About Cheetah

  • The cheetah is a large cat and the world’s fastest land animal.
  • Characteristics:
    • They have a slender body with long legs, a small round head, and distinctive black spots on their tan fur.
    • They are carnivorous animals and hunt mainly small to medium-sized antelopes such as gazelles and impalas.
    • They inhabit diverse scrub forests, dry grasslands, savannas and other arid and semi-arid open habitats.
About Cheetah

Distribution of Cheetahs:

  • Historically, Asiatic Cheetahs had a very wide distribution in India (from Punjab to southern Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Rajasthan to Bengal). In 1952, the cheetah was declared officially extinct in India.
  • Today, four subspecies of Cheetahs are recognised that are native to Africa and Central Iran. (present in fragmented habitats in Iran, Sahara Desert, Tanzania, Namibia, South Africa etc.) 

Threats and Conservation status: 

  • Threats: Habitat loss, conflict with humans, poaching and high susceptibility to diseases. 
  • Protection Status: 
    • IUCN Status: Vulnerable
    • CITES: Appendix I
    • Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule II
  • Cheetah Conservation Fund (1990): An international non-profit organization headquartered in Namibia, founded in 1990 for the conservation of cheetahs and their ecosystems.

Significance of conserving Keystone Species:  

  • Cheetahs, a keystone species, have been reintroduced in India owing to their ecological and economic significance.
    • A keystone species helps to keep an ecosystem together and functioning by shaping it in various ways, from being apex predators to ecosystem engineers.
    • Without them, their ecosystems would be dramatically different or even cease to exist. A keystone species is often, but not always, a predator. E.g., Cheetah, Wolf, Sea otters etc.
  • The significance of key stone species conservation includes:
    • Restores degraded ecosystem: Many Keystone species are at the top of the food chain and naturally control the prey base population, thus reducing the pressure on ecosystems. E.g., Cheetahs can restore open forest and grassland ecosystems.
    • Bio-diversity: Keystone species prevent species at lower trophic levels from monopolising critical resources, such as competition for space or key producer food sources, thereby enabling multiple species to survive. E.g., Abundance of sea otters controls sea urchin population, thereby reducing pressure on kelp forest which support diverse fish species.
    • Ecosystem services: Conservation of these species are economically beneficial as they ensure the ecosystems to deliver crucial ecosystem services. E.g., According to the IIFM report, every rupee spent on tiger conservation will yield returns of ₹ 2500 through ecosystem services of tiger reserves such as water provisioning, soil conservation, gene pool protection, tourism etc. 

By revisiting India’s conservation ethos, Project Cheetah aims to revive the lost splendor of the cheetah, contributing to the country’s rich biodiversity and ecological balance.

Iron Age in Indian Subcontinent

Context: Releasing a report on the antiquity of iron, the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu M.K. Stalin proclaimed that the iron age began on “Tamil soil”, placing the date 5,300-odd years ago (4th millennium BCE). He asserted that the history of the Indian subcontinent could no longer overlook Tamil Nadu.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the Iron Age. 

About Iron Age

  • The iron age is the period of human history (pre-history) where iron became a regular metal to be used by the masses. 

1. North India: 

  • For North India, the early evidence suggests iron use around 1800 BCE. The Iron age likely began from the 1200 BCE i.e., after the Bronze Age. (Rakesh Tiwari, 2003)
    • Iron artefacts, furnaces, and tuyeres, carbon-dated between 1800 BCE and 1000 BCE, were found during the excavations conducted at Raja Nala-ka-tila , Malhar, and Dadupur archaeological sites in Uttar Pradesh. 
    • In Malhar, especially, the presence of tuyeres, slags, and finished iron artefacts, hinted at a large-scale manufacturing of iron tools.
    • Technical studies on materials found at several places suggested that iron smelting in India could have begun as early as the 16th century BCE.
  • Iron age in North India co-existed with Painted Grey Ware (1300-300 BCE) and Northern Black Polished Ware (700-200 BCE) civilisations. It also coincided with the Later Vedic Period and period of Mahajanapadas. 

2. South India: 

  • The recently released report by the Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department, ‘Antiquity of Iron: Recent radiometric dates from Tamil Nadu’, has placed the introduction of the iron age at 3,345 BCE to 2,953 BCE (fourth millennium BCE) in the State.
  • The report suggests that when cultural zones to the north of Vindhyas experienced the copper age, the south might have already entered into the iron age, owing to the limited availability of commercially exploitable copper ore. 
image 148

Significance of the discovery of Iron: 

  • The presence of Iron helped in the development and expansion of 2nd phase of urbanisation in India (1st phase was Indus Valley civilisation). 
  • Iron helped in clearing forest and iron plough boosted agricultural productivity and surplus crops were produced.
  • Iron age is also characterised by social stratification, polity diversification, literary developments, Economic expansion and Trade and craft specialisation. 

Teesta Dam and Climate Change

Context: The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) has approved the proposal for rebuilding the Teesta-III dam, despite concerns over its design and stability. The new structure will be a 118.64-metre-tall concrete gravity dam.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Questions based on rivers, tributaries and dams associated.

About Teesta-III Chungthang hydroelectric dam

  • In October 2023, the original 1,200 MW Teesta-III Chungthang hydroelectric dam was destroyed in a flash flood. 
  • The flood was triggered by a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) from the South Lhonak Lake, which washed away the 60-metre-tall concrete dam, claiming 40 lives.
  • Reason for failure of dam: Moraine on the South Lohank lake’s flank suffered a slope failure, weakening the terminus. The failure sent rocks tumbling into the lake generating strong ripple, the event also set off multiple landslides about 30 to 40 kilometers downstream.
image 2

Links between dam failure and global warming: 

  • Reducing albedo: Particulate matter, especially black carbon, also known as soot, reduces the albedo of ice and leads to absorption of solar insolation.
  • Accelerating melting of ice: Global warming and rise in the global average temperature accelerates the melting of ice and glaciers, this leads to the rise in the water levels. (E.g., South Lhonak lake itself was formed in the early 1960s and grew to 167 hectares by 2023)
  • High rate of glacial retreat: Glacial retreat has also been known to destabilise extant geological formations and create new sources of risks.
  • Rise in glacial lakes: As per the Central Water commission, the number of glacial lakes in Himalayan region grew by 10.8% from 2011 to 2024.

Concerns in the construction of Teesta-3 2.0 Dam: 

  • The dam’s design and structural aspects are still pending approval from the Central Water Commission (CWC), the Geological Survey of India, and the Central Soil and Materials Research Station.
  • Reports on the risk assessment fail to account the erosion, sediment transport and riverbank collapse that have a significant impact on the flood behaviour.
  • Local communities and environmental groups like affected citizens of Teesta have highlighted potential risks like Glacial lake outburst floods during project planning stages.

Measures Undertaken

  • Enhanced spillway design: 
    • The dam design is altered from a concrete face rockfill dam (a commonly used structure worldwide) to a concrete gravity dam, a design that relies on its own weight to bear loads. 
    • The company claims that the complete concrete design will lead to a rise in the spillway capacity from 7000 cubic metres per second (cumecs) to 19946 cumecs. This enhancement will offer greater resilience to flash floods and GLOFs.

Suggested Measures: 

  • Development and implementation of a robust Early Warning System (EWS) for flood alerts in the river catchment.
  • Conduct thorough environmental impact assessments (EIA) that incorporate climate change projections, glacial behaviour and potential GLOF risks to inform project design and location decisions.

About South Lhonka Lake

  • South Lhonak lake is a glacial lake in North Sikkim.
  • Formation: The proglacial lake formed due to the retreat of Lhonak Glacier.
  • The National Remote Sensing Center showed a 40% increase in its size over the past three decades.

About Teesta River

  • Origin: Teesta river originates from the Tso Lhamo (lake) in North Sikkim.
  • Course: Flows through Sikkim and West Bengal in India and then enters Bangladesh. Here it merges with Brahmaputra river (known as Jamuna in Bangladesh). The total length is 414 km. 
  • Tributaries: Ranget, Lachung, Lachen and Dikchu rivers.
  • Hydropower project: Teesta-III, Teesta-IV and Teesta-V dams in Sikkim.
  • Water dispute: Teesta water sharing treaty with Bangladesh, a key bilateral agreement that has been pending between the two countries for over a decade.
image 108

Earth’s Inner Core may have Changed Shape

Context: New research has suggested that the Earth's inner core may have undergone a significant transformation in its shape over the past two decades. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Internal Structure of Earth: Crust, Mantle and Core. 

Internal Structure of Earth: Crust, Mantle and Core

  • The structure of Earth is divided into four major components: Crust, Mantle, Outer core, inner core. 
  • Each layer has a unique chemical composition, physical state, and can impact life on Earth's surface.
image 89

LAYERS OF EARTH

1. CRUST

  • It is the outermost solid part of Earth and is brittle in nature. 
  • Average density of outer and lower crust is 2.7 and 3.0, respectively. 
  • Oceanic crust is thinner (5 Km) as compared to continental crust (30 Km) 
  • Continental crust is thicker in areas of major mountain systems (it is as much as 70 km thick in the Himalayan region). 
image 90

MANTLE: 

  • The portion of interior beyond the crust is called mantle. It extends from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
  • The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are called lithosphere. Its thickness ranges from 10-200 km. 
  • The upper portion of the mantle (lower part of Lithosphere) is called Asthenosphere which is partially molten in condition whereby molten magma is in motion (it extends up to 400 km).
  • The lower mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere. It is in solid state.
  • Previously mantle was divided into two zones: 
    • Upper Mantle from Moho’s discontinuity to 1000 km depth 
    • Lower Mantle from 1000 to 2900 km depth. 

On the basis of discovery by the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, the mantle is now divided into three zones. 

  1. Zone 1: Moho’s discontinuity to 200 km depth
  2. Zone 2: 200 – 700 km depth
  3. Zone 3: 700 – 2900 km depth

3. CORE: 

  • The core-mantle boundary is located at the depth of 2,900 km. 
  • The outer core is in liquid state while the inner core is in solid state. 
  • Composition of Core: Core is made up of very heavy material mostly constituted by Nickel and Iron. It is sometimes referred to as the NiFe layer.

Significance of the Core: 

  • Contains information regarding earliest history of accretion of planet
  • Earth's core plays a vital role in sustaining life on our planet and generates a magnetic field that shields us from the Sun's harmful radiation. 
  • The inner core rotates independently of the liquid outer core and the rest of the planet, creating a dynamic motion that is essential for maintaining Earth's magnetic field. 
  • Without dynamic motion, our planet would be unable to support life, and would likely become a barren, Mars-like landscape.

Findings of the New Study: 

  • Research paper – “Annual Scale variability in both the rotation rate and near surface of Earth’s inner core”. 
  • It is published in the scientific journal Nature Geoscience.
  • Highlights of the Study: 
    • The inner core of the Earth may have noticeably changed shape over the past few decades.
    • Contrary to the long-held belief that the inner core is a perfect sphere, a team of scientists has proposed that its edges may have deformed by as much as 100 meters or more in certain areas. The change could have happened at the inner core’s outer boundary.
    • Previous studies have found that the inner core spins slightly faster than the outer layers, scientists believe that the pace of rotation is slowing down.
    • The researchers suggest that the liquid flow of the outer core, combined with the uneven gravitational field, may be causing the inner core to deform.

How was the study conducted?

  • Scientists study the behaviour of seismic waves to understand the earth's interior. They can infer the types of materials, density, and elasticity of rocks by analysing the speed and direction of seismic waves. 
  • This time scientists have examined seismic wave patterns from earthquakes that occurred repeatedly in the same location (South sandwich island, Southern Atlantic Ocean) between 1991 and 2023. 
image 91
  • By comparing these patterns over time, the researchers aimed to understand how the inner core has changed.

Significance of the research: 

  • Findings are not that significant from the perspective of daily lives. 
  • However, significance lies for the scientific community, so as to enable them to make more informed estimates of some important material properties, and to understand the earth’s interior and process therein. 

Crocodile Species in India

Context: Recently, the two-day long census to count the number of marsh crocodiles in Vishwamitri river has concluded and the data is being analysed.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about crocodile species in India. 

About Vishwamitri River

  • The Vishwamitri originates from the Pavagadh hills in Panchmahal district, Gujarat.
  • Primarily it is a rain-fed river. It flows around 80 kms, merges with Dhadhar river and eventually drains into the Gulf of Khambhat, Arabian Sea. 
  • The Vadodara-stretch of the Vishwamitri is home to a large population of mugger or marsh crocodiles. 
  • The river is highly polluted as it receives a large amount of sewage and industrial pollutants.

Crocodiles in India

  • India is home to three crocodile species – Gharial, Mugger, and Saltwater Crocodiles. 
  • Usually spotted on banks of the aquatic systems, crocodiles are cold-blooded animals.
  • Crocodiles are apex predators. These reptiles play a critical role in the ecosystem by maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance: they control the population of other aquatic animals. 
  • India launched the Crocodile Conservation Project in Odisha's Bhitarkanika National Park in 1975, with the aid from the United Nations Development Programme.
  • All three crocodile species in India are placed under the Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. 

1. Mugger: 

  • They have a broad-snouted nose.
  • They are also known as Marsh crocodiles. They are found in freshwaters like rivers and also in estuaries and marshy areas. 
  • Mugger has a diverse and broad diet. They are known to dig burrows or holes for nesting purposes.
  • Muggers have stronger legs which allow them to bask mainly on river banks choosing steeper slopes and elevated platforms.
  • Their tough keratin scales are known to be sensitive to even the slightest motion in the water and this helps them detect prey easily. 
  • IUCN status: Vulnerable
image 74

2. Gharials:

  • They are endemic to the Indian subcontinent. 
  • They are shy-natured and the most aquatic of all the species. 
  • They are the longest living crocodile species, native to northern India and are distinguished by their long, narrow snouts.
  • The gharials are predominantly a fish-eater.
  • Gharials prefer to bask on mid-river sand islands on gentle slopes as they have weaker legs and can only crawl. 
  • Chambal River (tributary of river Yamuna) holds the largest population of Gharials in the wild.
  • IUCN status: Critically Endangered
image 76
Note: Both the species are freshwater and have overlapping habitats in the northern rivers (Ganges, Chambal, Son, Ramganga and Girwa) and eastern (Mahanadi) river systems of India. They have shown systematic resource partitioning in their aquatic environments.
image 75

3. Saltwater crocodiles:

  • Largest crocodile species, also recognised as man eater. Largest reptile in the world. 
  • Also known as estuarine crocodiles. Its habitat includes regions such as Odisha’s Bhitarkanika National Park, West Bengal’s Sundarbans, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
  • IUCN status: Least concern. 

Parasnath’s Marang Buru

Context: There has been a controversy due to the development plan at Parasnath Hill leading to a tripartite dispute between the state government, Jain community and Santhal tribal group.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Parasnath’s Marang Buru; Jainism. 

About Parasnath’s Marang Buru

  • Parasnath Hill is the highest peak in Jharkhand (1,365 meters). It is named after Lord Parshvanatha, the 23rd Jain Tirthankara. 
  • It is located towards the eastern-end of Chota Nagpur Plateau. 
  • It falls within the Parasnath Wildlife Sanctuary and is part of the Madhuban Forest Area.
  • Significance in Jainism: 
    • It is known as Sammed Shikharji, one of the most sacred pilgrimage sites for Jains.
    • According to Jain beliefs, 20 out of 24 Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers) attained Moksha (liberation) here.
  • Marang Baru: 
    • The Santhal tribe considers the hill as Marang Buru, their Supreme Deity and Chief God.
    • The site is an important place of worship for tribals, where they perform traditional rituals and celebrations during the Sohrai festival.
image 57

Disputes regarding the location

  • Religious conflict between Jain community and Santhal tribals on developing location as pilgrimage site.
  • Opposition to Tourism and commercialisation of the location, as the Jain community consider it as sacred.
  • Declaration of eco-sensitive zones by the government neglects the traditional rights of the Santhal tribal communities.

About Jainism

  • Origin & Founders: Rishabhanatha (1st Tirthankara) and Mahavira (24th Tirthankara, 540-468 BCE). 
  • Core Beliefs: 
    • Triratnas: Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct.
    • Five Vows: Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Aparigraha.
    • Anekantavada: Multiple perspectives of truth. 
  • Sects: 
    • Digambara: No clothes (skin clad).
    • Shwetambara: Wear white clothes. 
  • Jain Literature & Architecture: 
    • Texts: Kalpasutra, Tattvartha Sutra.
    • Temples: Dilwara (Rajasthan), Gomateshwara (Karnataka).
  • Patronage: Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela, Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas

Fort William to be renamed as Vijay Durg

Context: In the latest step toward eliminating colonial practices and mindsets within the armed forces, Fort William in Kolkata, the headquarters of the Eastern Army Command, has been renamed Vijay Durg. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Fort William; Vijay Durg.

Major Highlights: 

  • The new name, Vijay Durg, is derived from the oldest fort along the Sindhudurg coast in Maharashtra. It served as a naval base for the Marathas under Chhatrapati Shivaji.
  • Additionally, Kitchener House inside Fort William has been renamed Manekshaw House, and South Gate, formerly known as St. George’s Gate is now Shivaji Gate.

About Fort William

image 49
  • Location: It is situated on the banks of Hooghly River, Kolkata, West Bengal.
  • Built: The fort was completed between 1696-1702, by the British East India Company.
  • Construction work started under the supervision of John Goldsborough. 
  • It was named after King William III of England.

The fort was built twice:  

  • Old fort building:
    • Built in 1696 CE. The permission to build the fort at this location was granted by Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
    • It was associated with the infamous ‘Black hole tragedy’(1756). In 1756 the then Nawab of Bengal, Siraj Ud Daulah, took over the fort and the city by conquering the British East India Company. 
    • He named the city Alinagar after his grandfather Aliwardi Khan.
  • New Fort Building:
    • Robert Clive along with Admiral Charles Watson took the fort back in 1757. Siraj Ud Daulah was defeated and killed in the Battle of Plassey (1757) and Bengal came entirely under the control of the British East India Company. 
    • The foundation to rebuild the fort was laid in 1758 by Robert Clive (the first British Governor of Bengal).  
image 50
  • The fort also remained as a centre for Indian Ordinance factories since 1775.
  • At present Fort William is the property of the Indian Army and is the headquarters of Eastern Army Command. It has provisions for accommodating 10,000 army personnel. 

Vijaydurg Fort, Maharashtra

  • It is situated in the Sindhudurg District of Maharashtra.
  • This fort was built in the 12th century and was conquered by Chhatrapati Shivaji in the 17th century.
image 51
  • It is the oldest fort on the Sindhudurg coast, constructed during the regime of Raja Bhoja II of the Shilahar dynasty (construction period 1193-1205). 
  • The fort was earlier known as “Gheria”, as it is situated close to the village of “Girye”.
  • Shivaji captured this fort from Adil Shah of Bijapur in 1653 and renamed it as “Vijay Durg”.
  • Vijaydurg Fort was called the “Eastern Gibraltar”, as it was virtually impregnable.
  • It served as a naval base for the Marathas under Chhatrapati Shivaji.

Gyan Bharatam Mission: Mission for Manuscript Conservation

Context: The Union Budget 2025-26 announced a special mission for the survey, documentation, and conservation of India’s manuscript heritage, launched as the ‘Gyan Bharatam Mission’.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about ‘Gyan Bharatam Mission’.

Gyan Bharatam Mission

Gyan Bharatam Mission
  • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Culture
  • Objective: To focus on the survey, documentation and conservation of India’s manuscript heritage. 
  • Coverage: To cover more than one crore manuscripts held by academic institutions, museums, libraries, and private collectors.
  • A National Digital Repository of Indian knowledge systems for knowledge sharing will be set up.
  • The mission will be executed under National Mission for Manuscripts (NMM), which was launched in 2003.
  • Budget allocation for the NMM has been increased from ₹3.5 crore to ₹60 crore.
image 26

National Mission for Manuscripts (NMM)

  • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Culture
  • Establishment: 2003.
  • The Mission has the mandate of identifying, documenting, conserving and making accessible the manuscript heritage of India.
  • Objectives: 
    • Locate manuscripts through national level Survey and Post-Survey.
    • Document each and every manuscript and manuscript repository, for a National Electronic Database.
    • Conserve manuscripts incorporating both modern and indigenous methods of conservation and training a new generation of manuscript conservators.
    • To train the next generation of scholars in various aspects of Manuscript Studies. 
    • To promote access to manuscripts by digitizing the rarest and most endangered manuscripts.
    • To promote access to manuscripts through publication of critical editions of unpublished manuscripts and catalogues.
  • To facilitate the public's engagement with manuscripts through lectures, seminars, publications and other outreach programmes.
  • The National Mission for Manuscripts presently functions as a unit under the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA). 
  • The NMM uses technology for preservation and digitization of manuscripts. 
  • The digitized manuscripts are uploaded to an online portal (https://www.pandulipipatala.nic.in)
  • Methodologies for preservation: Lamination, restoration, and deacidification of manuscripts.

Challenges before the Mission:

  • Manuscript wealth of India is estimated at around ten million manuscripts and is perhaps the largest collection in the world. Manuscripts are found in a vast number of languages and scripts many of which can no longer be read.
  • Manuscripts are found in different kinds of repositories - ranging from museums, institutions of learning to private homes and houses of worship, big and small.
  • Manuscripts are often found to have been neglected for decades and in very poor physical state - insect ridden, fungus infected or brittle, fading and fragile.
  • Scholars who can study and use manuscripts are fast disappearing and a new generation of scholars is not able to rise to the challenge.
  • Often, the knowledge in manuscripts is not seen as relevant to our times, thus neglected.

Manuscript

  • A manuscript is a handwritten composition on paper, bark, cloth, metal, palm leaf or any other material dating back at least seventy-five years that has significant scientific, historical or aesthetic value.
image 27
  • These writings deal with a wide range of subjects like Veda, Vedanta, Darshan, Ayurveda, Aesthetic, Astronomy, Astrology, Yoga, Vaastu, Mathematics, Linguistics etc.
  • Lithographs (drawing on a flat surface i.e. stone/metal and then transferring the image to paper) and printed volumes are not manuscripts. 
  • Manuscripts are found in hundreds of different languages and scripts.
    • 70% of manuscripts are in the Sanskrit language. 
    • Other 30% of manuscripts are in languages like Assamese, Bengali, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Meithei /Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Newari/ Nepal Bhasa, Odia, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Chakma etc.
    • Manuscripts are distinct from historical records such as epigraphs on rocks, firmans, revenue records which provide direct information on events or processes in history. Manuscripts have knowledge content.

How does UCC regulate Live-in Relationships in Uttarakhand?

Context: Uttarakhand’s Uniform Civil Code passed by the State Assembly in February 2024, it mandates the registration of live-in relationships both at their commencement and termination.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about live-in relationships; Uniform Civil Code. 

Uniform Civil Code & Live-in Relationship Registration

  • The Uttarakhand Uniform Civil Code (UCC) mandates compulsory registration of live-in relationships at both commencement and termination.
  • The law applies to both residents of Uttarakhand and individuals from other states residing in the state.
  • The rules came into effect on January 27, 2025, introducing stringent documentation and verification requirements.

Key provisions of the Law

  • Registration of live-in relationships:
    • Mandatory registration is required at both the beginning and end of a live-in relationship.
    • Couples can register online through a designated portal or offline by submitting a 16-page form with supporting documents.
    • Only unmarried, heterosexual couples are allowed to enter into a live-in relationship, under this law. A person cannot get into a live-in relationship with someone who is already married or is in another live-in relationship. 
  • The registrar is legally bound to notify the parents/guardians of such individuals about the relationship registration or its termination.
  • Relationship history & prohibited relationships:
    • The law equates live-in relationships with marriage, imposing a similar degree of restrictions.
    • Couples must provide:
      • Proof of any prior live-in relationships. 
      • Current relationship status (single, married, divorced, annulled, separated, or widowed)
    • If the couple falls within degrees of prohibited relationships (as per Schedule 1 of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955), they must obtain approval from a religious/community leader certifying eligibility for marriage. Prohibited relationships refer to blood relations, unless allowed by custom.

Housing & landlord obligations:

  • Couples already living together must provide proof of shared accommodation (e.g., latest electricity or water bill).
  • Couples not yet living together must apply for a provisional certificate. After receiving this certificate, they must secure accommodation within 30 days (extendable by 15 days).
  • Final registration is granted after submitting proof of new residence.
  • Landlord Responsibilities:
    • Must ensure the couple has a valid registration certificate before renting the property. Failure to comply may result in penalties.

Penalties & Legal Consequences

Failure to Register:False Information or Concealment of Facts:Summary Inquiry:Non-Registration Complaint Mechanism:

If a couple does not register their live-in relationship within one month, they may face: Up to 3 months’ imprisonment₹10,000 fineOr both
If a couple provides false information, penalties increase to: Up to 3 months’ imprisonment₹25,000 fineOr both
The registrar has the power to verify submitted documents and check if the relationship was formed through: Coercion, Undue influence, Misrepresentation, Fraud
The registrar can Suo motu (on its own) or upon complaint issue a notice for compliance.False complaints may attract fines, with higher penalties for repeat offenders.

Benefits of registering a Live-in Relationship

  • Legal rights for women: A woman abandoned by her live-in partner can seek maintenance, as if they were married. The law applies the same provisions of maintenance as in marriage.
  • Legitimacy of children & inheritance rights: A child born out of a live-in relationship will be legally recognised as legitimate, ensuring such children have inheritance rights.
  • Protection against housing discrimination: Landlords cannot refuse tenancy solely because a couple is unmarried.
    • If a couple has a registration certificate (provisional or final), they cannot be denied housing on that basis.

Concerns & Criticism

  • Violation of Right to Privacy: Experts argue that mandatory registration of live-in relationships violates Article 21 (Right to Privacy) of the Constitution.
  • The Justice K.S. Puttaswamy vs Union of India (2017) case established that:
    • Informational privacy and decisional autonomy are fundamental rights.
    • The state cannot intrude disproportionately into an individual’s private life.

Risk of Social Surveillance & Harassment:

  • The law enables third-party access to personal data without proper safeguards.
  • It could lead to large-scale surveillance of personal relationships.
  • No penalties for third-party data leaks, increasing risk of harassment.
  • Interfaith & inter-caste couples could face disproportionate targeting.

Conclusion

  • Uttarakhand’s live-in relationship registration law is the first of its kind in India, bringing marriage-like regulations to such unions.
  • While the law aims to prevent fraud and exploitation, it has sparked constitutional and privacy concerns.
  • Experts argue that compulsory state monitoring of live-in relationships could set a precedent for further encroachment on personal liberties.

INSV Tarini crosses Point Nemo

Context: Two female officers from the Indian Navy touched a new milestone as they crossed Point Nemo - the most remote location on Earth - aboard the Indian Naval Sailing Vessel (INSV) Tarini.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Point Nemo, Indian Naval Sailing Vessel (INSV) Tarini.  

Major Highlights: 

image 241
  • INSV Tarini's passage through Point Nemo was achieved entirely under sail. This event marks a significant milestone in the Navika Sagar Parikrama II mission.
  • The water samples were collected from the point, which will be analysed by the National Institute of Oceanography. 
  • Significance: Analysis of water samples is expected to provide valuable data on oceanic conditions, including marine biodiversity and the chemical composition of the water, contributing to ongoing oceanographic research.

Navika Sagar Parikrama II

  • Navika Sagar Parikrama II is a circumnavigation journey around the world, being undertaken by the two officers of the Indian Navy, as part of India's naval exploration initiative.
  • Objectives: To support scientific exploration and collaboration. 
  • The mission onboard INSV Tarini from Goa began on October 2, 2024, and would last for 8 months (May 2025).
    • It comprises destinations- Goa → Lyttelton Port in New Zealand → Point Nemo → Port Stanley in Falkland Islands → Goa. 
  • Note: Navika Sagar Parikrama I was an expedition for circumnavigation of the globe on INSV Tarini by a six-member team of Indian Navy's Women Naval Officers, in 2017-18. 

Point Nemo: Earth's Most Remote Location

image 242
  • Point Nemo is known as the Oceanic Pole of Inaccessibility.
  • Location: South Pacific Ocean. 
  • It is the most remote location on Earth, situated approximately 2,688 kilometres from the nearest landmass.
    • Due to its isolation, it is often considered the farthest point from any human habitation.
    • The closest human presence to Point Nemo is the International Space Station, which orbits above the region.
  • Decommissioned Spacecraft Cemetery: Point Nemo is a designated area where space agencies intentionally guide decommissioned spacecraft, including satellites and space stations, to re-enter Earth's atmosphere and fall into the ocean to avoid harm to populated areas.

About INSV Tarini

image 243
  • Indian Naval Sailing Vessel (INSV) Tarini is a 56 foot sailing vessel.
  • Built by: Aquarius Shipyard Ltd., Goa (under Make in India initiative)
  • It was inducted in the Indian Navy in February 2017.
  • It is fitted with advanced features such as satellite communication system, Raymarine navigation suite, emergency steering, and is capable of sailing in extreme conditions. 

Need for Substantive Equality in Child Marriage Laws

Context: The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (PCMA), 2006 allows different timeframes for men and women to seek annulment of a child marriage, which reinforces the patriarchal notions.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: MCQ based on Prohibition of Child Marriage Act.

Mains: Detailed questions on lacunae in Prohibition of Child Marriage Act.

Issue of Child Marriage

  • Child marriage remains a significant social issue in India despite of legal prohibition. (102 million girls got married before age of 18 years: Census 2011)
  • There are various reasons of Child Marriage;
    • Patriarchy: The notion of patriarchy considers a girl child as a liability, leading to early marriage.
    • Social taboos: Many Indian societies consider the premarital sex as a taboo, leading to marriage children before achievement of adolescence.
    • Poverty and financial pressure: Poor families and ruralisation of poverty, especially in the agricultural societies, leads to dowry concerns often pushing parents to marry daughters at a younger age.
    • Safety concerns: Fear of sexual violence and lack of security infrastructure for women leads to the early marriage of girls.
    • Weak legal enforcement: Poor implementation of law and conflict with personal laws make it challenging to curb the issue of child marriage.
child marriage prohibition act

About Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006

  • The Government has passed the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006, making child marriage illegal and criminalises it. 
  • The Act allows any party who got married as a child to seek annulment of the marriage, as long as the petition is filed within two years of attaining majority.
    • The ‘Child’ in PCMA means a girl below 18 years and a boy below 21 years of age.  
    • Women can annul marriage before attainment of 20 years of age, whereas, men can annul marriage before attainment of 23 years of age.
prohibition of child marriage act 2006

Issues in Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (PCMA) 2006

  • Limited scope: The Act only criminalises the child marriage but lacks the comprehensive approach to address roots causes like social customs, economic pressure and gender biases.
  • Legal contradictions: Various personal laws challenge and contradict the PCMA Act 2006. Eg; Muslim Personal laws allows marriage with attainment of puberty 
  • Biased law: The Act itself is biased against women as it allows annulment of marriage by boys at the age of 23 years while marriage annulment age for girls is less, bringing girls to a stage of disadvantage. 
  • Inconsistencies of law: Law is inconsistent as it allows a different age of marriage for boys (21) and girls (18) reinforcing gender inequality.

Way Forward

Suggestions for attaining Substantive Equality in Marriage Laws:

  • Uniform marriage age: The minimum age of women can be made at par with the males i.e., 21 years to address the deep rooted patriarchal conception in legal measures.
  • Increasing annulment age: If minimum marriage age of males and females can not be equated then, age of annulment can be made equal to enhance rights.

Other measures to reduce Child Marriage:

  • Strengthening law: Enforcing PCMA 2006 for stricter penalties and powers to override religious personal laws to avoid legal loopholes Eg; Karnataka (2017), the government amended laws to declare all child marriages void
  • Education reforms: Higher studies for the girls should be motivated to reduce child marriage. Eg; KIRAN initiative to increase women in STEM higher education 
  • Enhancing security: Enhancing women safety and security should be enhanced to reduce early marriage. Eg; Prevention of Sexual Harassment at workplace act and safety infrastructure like CCTV.
  • Rehabilitation: Providing immediate relief for the rehabilitation of child marriage. Eg; One Stop center to support child brides by offering shelter.

A substantive equality approach in reforming child marriage laws involves not only legal prohibition but also proactive measures to address the socio-economic factors that contribute to child marriage, thereby ensuring true equality and empowerment for young girls in India.

Kailash Mansarovar Yatra

Context: India and China have decided to resume the Kailash-Mansarovar yatra in June 2025. Since 2020, the yatra was suspended due to COVID-19 pandemic and following military stand-off along the LAC, including the Galwan incident. Resuming the yatra is considered a significant step in improving relations between the two nations.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Kailash Mansarovar Yatra; Mount Kailash.

About Kailash Mansarovar Yatra

  • The yatra includes visits to Mount Kailash and Mansarovar Lake in Tibet.
  • The Ministry of External Affairs, India organises the Yatra during June to September through two different routes:
    • Lipulekh Pass (Uttarakhand)
    • Nathu La Pass (Sikkim).
  • It is open to eligible Indian citizens holding valid Indian passports.
  • The Yatra is organised with the support from state governments of Uttarakhand, Delhi, and Sikkim; and cooperation of Indo Tibetan Border Police.
  • MEA does not provide any subsidy or financial assistance to Yatris.
Kailash Mansarovar Yatra

Location

  • Mount Kailash is located in the Kailash Range (forms part of the Transhimalaya) in Tibet.
  • Lake Manasarovar is a high altitude freshwater lake near Mount Kailash in Tibet.
  • Four rivers emerge from the Kailash-Mansaorovar region: Sutlej, Brahmaputra, Indus and Kamali (Karnali).

Religious Significance

  • Hindus believe Mount Kailash is the abode of Lord Shiva. Mansarovar lake is said to be one of Goddess Sati’s 51 Shaktipeeths.
  • Tibetans, Buddhists and Jains revere it as the ‘Stairway to heaven’.
  • Jains hold that Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankar (Jains’ spiritual preacher), found enlightenment at Mount Kailash. 
  • The Mount is referred to in Jain literature as “Ashtapada,” or “the eight steps,” which can pave the way to enlightenment and spiritual advancement.