Context: Several beaches in Spain have been closed after a tiny species of sea slug began to wash ashore. These slugs called blue dragons are capable of delivering one of the most ferocious stings in the animal world.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Blue Dragons.
What are Blue Dragons?
Blue dragons are a small type of sea slug, barely four centimetres long.
They are typically found in tropical waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian ocean, and have been rarely seen in the Mediterranean Sea.
Their recent sightings in the Mediterranean Sea can be attributed to rising Mediterranean temperatures which brought more of their food sources like hydrozonas (E.g., Portuguese man o’ war) into the region.
Unique traits of Blue Dragons:
They live on the ocean surface and drift with the currents. While other sea slugs live on the seabed, blue dragons float upside down on the ocean surface. They can do so by swallowing and maintaining an air bubble in the stomach.
They camouflage themselves with the sea’s blue colour, and on their underside they are white, blending with sunlight when seen from below. It is a defensive strategy.
They feed on hydrozoans and jellyfish and incorporate the stinging cells of the jellyfish into multiple finger-like structures protruding from their bodies.
Their sting can be extremely painful to humans and cause redness, swelling, nausea, and vomiting. However, it cannot lead to death.
Note: The Mediterranean Sea is one of the fastest-warming water bodies. At the end of June, the temperatures exceeded 28 degrees Celsius with thermal anomalies of five degrees.
Context: After heavy rainfall in Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab two gates of the Madhopur Barrage downstreamof Ranjit Sagar Dam on Ravi river collapsed, leading to flooding in Pathankot and Gurdaspur.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Madhopur Barrage, Ravi River, Ranjit Sagar Dam etc.
What are Headworks?
Headworks are structures built across a river to divert water into canals for irrigation, drinking, or industrial use.
What is Barrage?
Barrage is one of the components of Headworks. It is a low, gated structure built across a river to regulate and divert its flow into canals.
How does Barrage differ from a dam?
A dam stores large quantities of water in a reservoir. A barrage regulates/diverts river flow (like a tap), without large storage.
About Madhopur Barrage:
Madhopur Barrage was built in the 19th century on the Ravi River in Gurdaspur district near Pathankot.
It is located on the border with Jammu and Kashmir.
It diverts water into the Upper Bari Doab Canal for irrigation in Punjab.
It supplies water to Gurdaspur, Amritsar, Tarn Taran, and nearby regions through canals.
Causes of the Breach:
Natural Factors:
Heavy Rainfall & Floods: Sudden cloudbursts in Ravi’s catchment caused massive inflows.
High Release from Ranjit Sagar Dam: Upstream dam (20 km away) discharged 2.21 lakh cusecs creating extreme pressure.
Debris & Siltation: Flow carried debris that jammed gates and increased stress.
Human / Negligence Factors:
Delayed Operation of Gates: Water was released late, leading to sudden pressure buildup.
Poor Maintenance: Gates were not used regularly; rusting and mechanical jamming occurred. Inadequate greasing, oiling, and rust-prevention.
Aging Infrastructure: Built in 1959, parts of the barrage had deteriorated like other old barrages (E.g., Hussainiwala).
Outdated Design Assumptions: Structures not upgraded for climate change induced rainfall extremes.
Context: In a major decision to curb environmental damage from sand mining, the Supreme Court ruled that no approval for riverbed mining can be granted without a scientific replenishment study.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Legal Framework for Sand Mining in India.
Background:
The ruling came in the backdrop of a case concerning sand and gravel extraction from the Shaliganga Nallah in Jammu & Kashmir, where mining was permitted to supply raw material for the construction of a four-lane Srinagar bypass project.
The J&K Expert Appraisal Committee had initially rejected the proposal citing over-exploitation and absence of replenishment data in the District Survey Report (DSR). However, environmental clearance was later granted despite these deficiencies, subject to shallow mining restrictions.
This clearance was challenged before the National Green Tribunal (NGT) by environmental activists who argued that the approval violated the Sustainable Sand Mining Guidelines.
The NGT in 2022 quashed the clearance, holding it to be environmentally unsound and procedurally defective.
The Union Territory of J&K, NHAI, and the private project proponent appealed against this order, but the Supreme Court upheld the NGT’s decision, affirming that replenishment studies are a mandatory requirement for granting mining approvals.
What is Replenishment Study?
A replenishment study is a scientific assessment of the rate at which sand, gravel, and other riverbed materials are naturally replaced in a given stretch of a river or stream.
It determines how much sand is deposited annually by the natural processes of erosion, weathering, sediment transport, and deposition.
It determines the maximum permissible extraction limits so that mining does not exceed natural recovery.
Recent Ruling of Supreme Court:
The Supreme Court has described replenishment study as a mandatory requirement before giving clearance for sand mining.
The court stated- "Just as forest conservation requires assessment of tree growth rate before permitting timber harvesting, a replenishment study enables us to take an informed decision as to whether sand mining can be permitted without degrading the river’s natural balance.”
The absence of replenishment studies makes a District Survey Report (which identifies potential areas for sustainable mining of minor minerals like sand, gravel, and stones ) as fundamentally defective.
Legal Framework for Sand Mining in India
Constitutional Provisions:
Union List (Seventh Schedule) empowers Parliament to regulate mines and mineral development.
State List allows states to regulate mines and minerals, subject to Union control.
Mines and Minerals (Development & Regulation) Act 1957 (MMDR Act):
Provides the overarching legislative framework for mineral development in India.
Section 15 empowers state governments to frame rules for minor minerals, which include sand.
Environment Protection Act 1986 (EPA): Provides the basis for Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) notifications regulating sand mining activities.
EIA Notification 2006 and Amendments:
Made prior environmental clearance mandatory for all mining projects.
The Supreme Court in Deepak Kumar v. State of Haryana (2012) clarified that this requirement applies even to minor minerals irrespective of lease size.
The 2016 Amendment introduced the concept of District Survey Reports (DSRs) for scientific identification of mining sites, making them mandatory before granting ECs.
Issued under the EPA, these guidelines were the first comprehensive attempt to regulate sand mining sustainably.
They mandate the calculation of the annual rate of replenishment before any clearance is issued.
They also recommend restrictions on mining during monsoon season, cluster-based approaches for small leases, and the promotion of alternatives such as manufactured sand (M-sand).
Enforcement and Monitoring Guidelines for Sand Mining, 2020
These guidelines focus on strengthening compliance and monitoring. They recommend IT-enabled systems such as e-challans, GPS tracking of vehicles, drone surveillance, and satellite monitoring.
They direct states to constitute dedicated task forces and involve district-level authorities in enforcement.
Context: While following the directive of the Supreme Court to identify forests, the state government of Haryana has notified new definition of forest in the state. However, the environmental activists express concern that the new definition of forest would exclude most of the state’s remaining Aravalli forests from legal protection under the Forest Conservation Act.
Mains: Issues in defining forests; challenges in balancing conservation with development.
Supreme Court Directive
The Supreme Court, while hearing challenges to the 2023 amendment to the Forest (Conservation) Act in the Ashok Kumar Sharma vs Union of India case, directed all States and Union Territories to define what constitutes a “forest” and begin surveys to identify such areas.
It mandated the formation of expert committees within one month to map “forest-like areas,” “unclassified forests,” and “community forests,” and required these reports to be submitted to the Centre within six months.
Haryana’s definition of Forests
In a recent notification, Haryana’s Environment, Forest and Wildlife department stated: A patch of land shall be deemed to be ‘forest as per dictionary meaning’, if it fulfils following conditions:
It has a minimum area of five hectares (if it is in isolation).
It has a minimum area of two hectares (if it is in contiguity with the government notified forests); and
It has a canopy density of 0.4 (40%) or more.
All linear/ compact / agro-forestry plantations and orchards situated outside the government notified forests shall not be treated as forests under the above definition.
Criticism of Haryana’s Definition:
High Canopy Density Threshold (40%):
Environmentalists argue that Haryana’s definition creates an unreasonably high threshold for recognising land as forest.
The requirement of a minimum canopy density of 40% is seen as problematic because the Aravallis naturally consist of scrub and thorn forests adapted to low rainfall conditions of 300-600 millimetres annually.
These ecosystems, though ecologically valuable, would fail to meet the high canopy density criterion and thus risk exclusion from legal protection under the FCA.
Large Minimum Area Requirement (2-5 hectares): In a dry state like Haryana, smaller forest patches are ecologically significant. The threshold of 2-5 hectares is unreasonably high and risks ignoring these smaller but vital ecosystems.
Exclusion of Plantations and Orchards: Excluding plantations and orchards from the definition of forests undermines their ecological contributions such as soil conservation, carbon sequestration, and micro-climate regulation.
By setting such restrictive thresholds, Haryana’s definition risks excluding large portions of the Aravallis from legal protection under the Forest Conservation Act (FCA).
Forest Conservation Act 1980:
Enacted in 1980 to check rapid deforestation. Aimed at maintaining ecological balance, preserving biodiversity, and preventing indiscriminate diversion of forests for non-forests produce without the prior approval of the Centre.
Definition of Forest
In 1996, the Supreme Court in T.N. Godavarman v. The Union of India ruled that the word “forest” under the Forest Conservation Act 1980 must be understood in its dictionary meaning, covering all statutorily recognised forests i.e., reserved, protected, or otherwise. This landmark judgment meant that any forested land irrespective of size, ownership, or official status could be deemed a forest, thereby expanding the scope of the FCA.
Criticism: This broad interpretation of forest was later criticised for obstructing even small-scale developmental and public utility projects.
Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023: To address this, the 2023 amendment to the FCA restricted its applicability only to:
Notified forests, and
Lands recorded as “forest” in government documents.
The amendment was challenged by retired IFS officers and NGOs like Vanashakti and Goa Foundation, who argued it diluted the Act and weakened protections.
Context: As per the latest survey, the estimated population of saltwater crocodiles, one of the largest reptiles in the world, has increased in the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve (SBR).
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about crocodile species in India; Sunderbans.
About Sundarbans
The Sundarbans is a cluster of low-lying islands in the Bay of Bengal. Located in the delta of Rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra in India & Bangladesh.
Sunderban is the largest delta and mangrove forest in the world. It is the only mangrove forest in the world where tigers are found.
Area: covering ~10,000 sq km of which around 40% lies in India (rest in Bangladesh).
Indian Sunderban is bounded on the west by river Muriganga and on the east by rivers Harinbhahga and Raimangal. Other major rivers flowing through this eco-system are Saptamukhi, Thakuran, Matla and Gosaba.
Protection status:
Listed as UNESCO World Heritage Site
UNESCO Biosphere Reserve
Ramsar Site (2019)
Important Bird Area (IBA) under BirdLife International
Part of Sundarbans Tiger Reserve has been declared a critical tiger habitat under national law, and Tiger Conservation Landscape of global importance.
Fauna: Critically endangered northern river terrapin (Batagurbaska); endangered Irrawaddy dolphin; Other species include- Gangetic dolphins, Fishing cat, Olive Ridley Turtle, Tiger, Saltwater crocodile.
Flora: Dominated by Sundari tree (from which Sundarbans gets its name); Mangroves.
Crocodiles in India
India is home to three crocodile species- Gharial, Mugger, and Saltwater Crocodiles.
Crocodiles are cold-blooded animals usually spotted on banks of the aquatic systems.
Crocodiles are apex predators and play a critical role in the ecosystem by maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance: they control the population of other aquatic animals.
Conservation:
All three crocodile species are placed under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972.
India launched Crocodile Conservation Project in Odisha's Bhitarkanika National Park in 1975 with aid from United Nations Development Programme.
1. Saltwater Crocodile:
Largest of all crocodile species and the largest reptile in the world. Recognised as a man eater.
It is a hypercarnivorous apex predator that keeps flowing water ecosystems clean by feeding on the carcasses and wild remains in the water.
Also known as estuarine crocodiles. It is distributed across the swamplands, rivers, mangroves of Odisha (Bhitarkanika National Park) and West Bengal (Sundarbans) and the coastal areas of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
IUCN status: Least concern
Concern: Increasing salinity may reduce the suitability of their habitat and may threaten their conservation, particularly in the Sundarbans which is vulnerable to climate change.
Conservation Effort: Bhagabatpur Crocodile Project (conservation and breeding facility in West Bengal).
2. Mugger:
They have a broad-snouted nose. They are also known as Marsh crocodiles. They are found in freshwaters like rivers and also in estuaries and marshy areas.
Mugger has a diverse and broad diet.They are known to dig burrows or holes for nesting purposes.
Muggers have stronger legs which allow them to bask mainly on river banks choosing steeper slopes and elevated platforms.
Their tough keratin scales are known to be sensitive to even the slightest motion in the water and this helps them detect prey easily.
IUCN status: Vulnerable
3. Gharials:
They are endemic to the Indian subcontinent.
They are shy-natured and the most aquatic of all the species.
They are the longest living crocodile species, native to northern India and are distinguished by their long, narrow snouts. The gharials are predominantly a fish-eater.
Gharials prefer to bask on mid-river sand islands on gentle slopes as theyhave weaker legs and can only crawl.
Chambal River (tributary of river Yamuna) holds the largest population of Gharials in the wild.
IUCN status: Critically Endangered
Note: Both Mugger and Gharials are freshwater species and have overlapping habitats in the northern rivers (Ganges, Chambal, Son, Ramganga and Girwa) and eastern (Mahanadi) river systems of India. They have shown systematic resource partitioning in their aquatic environments.
Context: A new study has identified at least two native plants that have joined invasive species to alter the riverine ecosystem of eastern Assam’s Dibru-Saikhowa National Park (DSNP).
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Dibru-Saikhowa National Park.
About Dibru-Saikhowa National Park
Location: Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts, Assam.
The park is an island-like formation bounded by the Brahmaputra and Lohit River to the north and Dibru River in the south.
It is the largest salix swamp forest in north-eastern India.
Key Fauna: Only habitat of feral horses in India; Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, clouded leopard, Malayan giant squirrel, Chinese pangolin, Ganges dolphin, capped langur, Hoolock gibbon, Asian elephant, barking deer, Wild water buffalo.
Invasive species and native grassland invaders (flowering trees known as Simalu and Ajar in Assamese).
Recurring Brahmaputra river floods.
Increasing anthropogenic pressures from villages located within its boundaries.
The degradation of riverine ecosystems and forests in DSNP can lead to loss of biodiversity, threaten the survival of local fauna, reduce carbon storage and potentially intensify climate change.
The study recommended a targeted grassland recovery project that would encompass the control of invasive species, improved surveillance, increased staffing, and the relocation of forest villages and support community-based conservation efforts.
Context: Recently, France’s Gravelines Nuclear Power Station (Europe’s largest) had to shut down four reactors after a massive swarm of jellyfish clogged its cooling system.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: How do Jellyfish disrupt Nuclear Plants; Jellyfish.
Similar incidents have been reported globally since the 1990s. In 2011 alone, jellyfish paralysed plants in Israel, Japan, and Scotland. Such incidents are now on the rise as climate change and marine pollution have increased the jellyfish population.
How do Jellyfish disrupt Nuclear Plants?
Nuclear power plants require a continuous inflow of millions of gallons of water per minute to cool their reactors, turbines, and boilers.
To ensure smooth functioning, the water intake pipes of these plants are fitted with screens that block solid waste and aquatic organisms from entering.
The problem arises when a massive bloom of jellyfish (millions of individuals) is sucked into the intake system. Within minutes, these jellyfish clog the intake screens, cutting off the essential flow of cooling water.
A sudden disruption in water flow creates a risk of overheating and potential reactor damage, forcing operators to shut down the reactors to avoid accidents.
The situation worsens when dead jellyfish decompose into a gel-like substance, which can sometimes bypass the screens and reach deeper parts of the plant’s cooling system.
Cleaning these clogged pipes is a time-consuming process that may take up to 48 hours, during which power generation remains suspended.
Why are such incidents rising?
Climate Change: Rising ocean temperatures have boosted plankton growth, the main food of jellyfish, and extended their breeding season leading to population surges.
Overfishing: Depletion of predators like tuna and turtles has removed natural checks on jellyfish, while reducing competition for plankton.
Plastic Pollution: Jellyfish tolerate low-oxygen waters caused by pollution. Floating plastic waste often serves as a breeding surface, enabling jellyfish to reproduce close to coastlines and near power plant intake systems.
About Jellyfish
Jellyfish are marine invertebrates. They are spineless, soft-bodied, and mostly transparent.
About 95-98% of their body consists of water.
Jellyfish have two main stages in life: the polyp (attached to surfaces) and the medusa (free-swimming).
They are tolerant to low-oxygen environments and polluted waters which allows them to thrive where other species decline.
Some jellyfish can glow in the dark due to bioluminescence.
Some species are edible and used in Asian cuisine.
Their numbers increase rapidly during “blooms”, often triggered by warm waters (climate change), abundant plankton, or low predation (due to overfishing) and marine pollution.
Ecological role:
They feed on plankton, small fish, and other microscopic organisms.
Serve as food for sea turtles, some fish, and other predators.
Act as bioindicators of changes in marine ecosystems.
Context: The ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) has documented a nearly tenfold rise in whale strandings along India’s south-west coast over the past decade.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Species in news (Bryde’s whale, Blue whale); Whale strandings.
Whale Stranding or beaching is the phenomenon where whales or other mammals (E.g., dolphins), either dead or alive, often come onto the shore because they are old, sick, injured and/or disorientated.
Key Findings of the Study
The annual proportion of whale strandings along the south-west coast of India increased nearly tenfold to around 3% per year during 2014-2023.
Primary Hotspots: Kerala, Karnataka, and Goa emerged as the primary hotspots together accounting for the majority of reported whale strandings.
Stranded species:
Bryde’s Whale (IUCN: Least Concern) was identified as the most commonly stranded species
Blue Whale (IUCN: Endangered) strandings were recorded only occasionally.
Causes behind rise in Whale Strandings :
High vessel traffic, intense fishing activity, noise pollution, and shallow coastal shelves significantly contributed to the increased stranding risk.
Elevated Chlorophyll-A levels during the South-West monsoon, indicating higher ocean productivity, were linked to whales moving closer to the coast to feed.
Rising sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and climate change.
Way Forward
Real-time alerts and marine megafauna conservation networks, training for fishers and officials and improvement of citizen science platforms for data collection.
Expedited building robust marine mammal conservation infrastructure, especially in biodiversity hotspots like the southwest coast.
Context: Scientists have identified the bacterium Vibrio pectenicida as the cause of a decade-long wasting disease that killed billions of starfish along North America’s Pacific coast.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Starfish and the cause behind its wasting disease.
Mass Mortality of Starfish
Since 2013, starfish populations along the Pacific coast of North America have been devastated by a mysterious wasting disease leading to the death of over 5 billion sea stars.
The disease caused disintegration of their bodies, leaving only organic mush, and triggered major ecological imbalances.
For years, scientists suspected viruses like densovirus. Recently, researchers discovered that the disease was caused by bacterium Vibrio pectenicida, related to cholera-causing Vibrio cholerae.
About Starfish (Sea Stars):
Habitat & Distribution: Found in all world oceans, from tropical coral reefs to cold deep-sea habitats. Most abundant in intertidal and subtidal zones.
Feeding & Ecological Role:
Carnivorous Predators: Feed on bivalves (clams, mussels), snails, and other invertebrates.
Unique Feeding Method: Evert their stomachs outside their body to digest prey externally.
Help regulate populations of prey species like sea urchins, thereby maintaining kelp forest ecosystems.
Reproduction: Starfish reproduce both sexually (external fertilization) and asexually (regeneration).
Regeneration: Can regrow lost arms; in some cases, a single arm can regenerate an entire new body.
Threats: Many species face threats from:
Marine diseases (e.g., Vibrio pectenicida in wasting disease)
Ocean warming and acidification.
Habitat destruction and pollution.
Sunflower Sea Star is listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN (2020) after a 90% population decline.
Other Key Facts:
Starfish do not have a brain. Instead, they possess a nerve ring around the central disc, from which radial nerve cords extend into each arm to coordinate movement and sensory responses.
They also lack a heart and blood. Circulation of nutrients, gases, and immune cells is carried out through coelomic fluid, aided by the water vascular system.
No specialised excretory organs; nitrogenous waste is removed by diffusion through body surfaces.
Ecological Significance:
Keystone Species Role: Starfish regulate sea urchin populations; their loss destabilises the marine food web.
Maintains Kelp Forest Health: Overgrazing by unchecked urchin populations leads to kelp decline, reducing biodiversity and climate resilience. Kelp forests act as major blue carbon sinks; their destruction indirectly increases atmospheric CO₂.
Conservation Implications:
Identification enables targeted interventions:
Probiotic treatments for wild starfish.
Breeding Vibrio-resistant starfish in labs for reintroduction.
Informs marine disease management protocols and biosecurity measures.
Context: India has mandated E20 petrol (20% ethanol, 80% petrol) and aims for E27 in the future, achieving the E20 milestone five years ahead of the original 2030 target.
However, concerns are emerging over mileage loss, engine damage, and lack of consumer choice, especially for vehicles manufactured before 2023.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: About E20, Flex fuel vehicles.
Mains: E20 Fuel in India: Challenges, Concerns & Lessons from Brazil
Ethanol Blending
Ethanol Blending refers to the process of mixing ethanol, a biofuel derived from plant-based sources, with petrol to create a more sustainable and cleaner fuel.
Ethanol is often produced from renewable sources such as corn, sugarcane, or other biomass.
India's Ethanol Blending Programme
The Government of India launched the Ethanol Blended Petrol Programme in 2003 to promote ethanol use in transportation fuel.
2003: EBP launched in 9 States & 4 UTs with 5% ethanol blend (E5).
2013: National Policy on Biofuels notified.
2018: National Policy on Biofuels revised — target of 20% blending by 2030.
2021: The target of 20% blending advanced to 2025-26.
2023: E20 fuel introduced in select cities.
2025-26: Pan-India rollout of E20 planned.
Objectives:
Reduce Crude Oil Import Bill: India imports >85% of crude oil needs. Blending ethanol with petrol helps reduce dependence on non-renewable fossil fuels.
Enhance Energy Security: Diversify fuel sources.
Lower Carbon Emissions: Ethanol contains oxygen which can improve the combustion of fuel. This aids the complete burning of fuel and lowers emissions of certain pollutants like Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
Waste Utilisation: Use damaged grains, surplus rice and stubble will reduce waste.
Boost Farmer Income: Assured procurement of surplus crops and farm residue will boost farmers' income.
What is E20 Fuel?
E20 is a fuel blend that comprises 20% ethanol produced from plant products such as sugarcane, rice, and maize, and 80 % gasoline.
Challenges and Concerns with E20 in India:
Engine Compatibility Issues:
The majority of vehicles manufactured before 2023 are designed for E10 fuel only.
Ethanol’s higher water content can corrode metals and damage non-ethanol-rated rubber seals, valves, and pistons.
Cold-start problems in winter due to ethanol’s higher ignition temperature.
Performance and Mileage Loss: Ethanol has a lower energy density (around 33% lower calorific value) than petrol and may cause a marginal decrease in mileage (fuel economy).
Lack of Consumer Choice: Petrol pumps rarely disclose the blending percentage. No option for customers to buy pure petrol or lower blends like E10.
No Price Incentive: Unlike Brazil, where ethanol is 25-35% cheaper, E20 in India is priced at parity with petrol, reducing consumer motivation.
Warranty and Liability Risks: Car manuals of popular models (Hyundai i20, Mahindra Thar, etc.) explicitly warn against using >10% ethanol; damage may void warranties.
Rapid Policy Transition: Moving from E10 to E20 in a short time frame has created adjustment challenges for both manufacturers and consumers.
Infrastructure and Awareness Gaps: Limited roll-out of flex-fuel compatible vehicles and inadequate readiness of service and repair networks to address ethanol-related issues.
Feedstock and Environmental Concerns: High dependence on water-intensive crops like sugarcane for ethanol production may exacerbate water scarcity and raise food-versus-fuel debates.
Case Study: Brazil’s Ethanol Blending Success
Brazil is a global leader in ethanol fuel adoption, offering a valuable model for India’s E20 programme. It launched its Ethanol blending scheme (EBS) in 1975 in response to the global oil crisis.
The scheme leveraged Brazil’s abundant sugarcane resources to create a sustainable alternative to petroleum fuels. Key points of Brazil’s EBS:
Phased Rollout: Gradual progression from E10 to E27, alongside introduction of E100 (pure ethanol), avoiding sudden stress on existing vehicle stock.
Flex-Fuel Technology: Cars capable of running on any blend of petrol and ethanol; by the late 1980s 90% of new cars were ethanol-compatible.
Transparent Consumer Choice: Fuel pumps display ethanol content; consumers select blends based on price and preference.
Economic Incentives: Ethanol priced 25-35% lower than petrol at the pump.
Public Engagement: Strong awareness campaigns highlighting both environmental and performance benefits.
Way Forward
Phased Rollout: Introduce E15 as an intermediate step for older fleets before full E20 coverage.
Mandate Flex-Fuel Engines: All new vehicles should be compatible with higher ethanol blends.
Transparent Labelling: Display blending levels at every pump.
Introduce Price Incentives: Ensure ethanol blends are cheaper to encourage voluntary adoption.
Consumer Awareness Campaigns: Address myths, highlight benefits, and explain precautions.
Independent long-term studies on E20’s impact on older engines.
India’s ethanol push is a strategic step towards energy self-reliance and climate goals, but its success will depend on harmonising policy ambition with market readiness.
Context: India is home to 15 species of the cat family (Felidae). Smaller wild cats like the Fishing Cat remain lesser-known yet ecologically significant. The species faces growing threats from habitat loss and human-wildlife conflict, particularly due to the degradation of wetlands.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Fishing Cat.
Fishing Cat
Description: An elusive nocturnal cat, twice the size of the domestic cat. It weighs 7-12 kgs, and has a greyish brown fur lined with black spots.
Behaviour:
In its territory, this cat is often the apex predator meaning no other creature preys on it.
The diet is primarily fish; it also hunts on rodents, chickens, small animals.
Well adapted to water with webbed paws, a waterproof coat, ability to swim underwater, and claws that stay out to help grip mud and catch fish.
Habitat: Wetlands i.e., river floodplains, mangroves, marshes, swamps.
Distribution in India: Terai region, marshes of western India, Sundarbans, East coast, Chilika Lake (Odisha), Sri Lanka; rediscovered in Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan).
The fishing cat spends 50% of its hunting time standing, sitting or crouching near the edge of water. Barely 5% of hunting time is spent submerged in water.
Protection Status:
IUCN Red List: Vulnerable
CITES: Appendix II (trade regulated to avoid threats to survival)
Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule I (the highest level of legal protection in India)
Fishing cat numbers are rapidly declining in the Sundarbans and were once thought extinct in Rajasthan until recent sightings in Keoladeo National Park.
Factors responsible for Decline:
Habitat loss: The decline is largely on account of habitat loss. It has been estimated that 30-40% of India’s wetlands have been lost or severely degraded in the last four decades. Protecting wetland ecosystems is therefore crucial for the fishing cat.
Human encroachment on wetlands and revenge killings of cats by humans.
Scientific Research & Monitoring:
Fishing Cat Project (Tiasa Adhya): Extensive surveys, community engagement.
Wildlife Institute of India’s Godavari Estuary Project: GPS collar tracking in Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary (Andhra Pradesh) to map habitat use and human interaction zones.
Community-Based Conservation: Awareness campaigns to reduce animosity and promote co-existence.
Context: A recent simulation study by Japanese researchers using an ocean circulation model has affirmed that Fukushima wastewater release is safe.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key idea about Nuclear contamination; Key facts about Tritium.
Japan releases wastewater from Fukushima Nuclear Plant
An earthquake followed by a tsunami in 2011 wrecked the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan, destroying its cooling system and causing reactor cores to overheat and contaminate water within the facility with highly radioactive material.
Since the disaster, power plant company TEPCO has been pumping in water to cool down the damaged reactors' fuel rods. Every day the plants produce contaminated water which is stored in around 1,000 tanks, which are already filled to 98% of their 1.37 million-ton capacity.
This water has been treated to remove most radioactive contaminants but still contains tritium (a radioactive isotope of hydrogen) and Carbon-14 which are difficult to separate from water.
In 2021, Japan’s government announced plans to release over one million tonnes of contaminated water from the Fukushima nuclear plant into the Pacific ocean over the next 30 years.
Rationale to release wastewater
There is a lack of available space for additional storage tanks, as well as due to safety risks and expense of managing the accumulating water.
Japan states that the water has been treated and diluted before releasing it into the ocean. The water contains about 190 becquerels of tritium per litre, below the World Health Organisation drinking water limit of 10,000 becquerels per litre (Bq/L). (Becquerel is a unit of radioactivity).
Associated Concerns:
The release has raised concerns among China and South Korea, as well as environmental and anti-nuclear groups regarding its potential impact on public health (increase the risk of cancer), seafood and marine environment.
Waste water released into the ocean off Fukushima will not be contained to waters surrounding Japan. It will be carried by ocean currents, particularly the cross-Pacific Kuroshio current, to other parts of the world.
Marine animals that migrate great distances, phytoplankton (free-floating organisms) and microplastics can all act as Trojan horses to spread radionucleotides far away.
Findings of the latest Research by Japanese Researchers:
Low radiation levels: As the nuclear facility is releasing tritiated water gradually, the Tritium levels (radiation level) is even lower than that due to natural and historical sources. The peaks from the routine discharge never exceed 0.002 Bq/L, which is 25x (25 times) lower than natural background radiation levels.
Impact of Warming: Warmer oceans might shift the Kuroshio Current a little North and strengthen eastward flow, speeding up tritium dispersion in the mid-Pacific. However, Tritium concentrations will still remain three orders of magnitude below detection threshold.
Since, Tritium has a half life of around 12 years, natural decay reduces long-term risk. Even under extreme warming or a worst-case eddy transport scenario, the levels of the Tritium would remain undetectable across the wider Pacific Ocean by 2099.
About Tritium:
Tritium is a radioactive isotope of Hydrogen with a half-life of about 12 years. Hydrogen has three isotopes:
Protium- one proton and zero neutron
Deuterium - one proton and one neutron
Tritium - one proton and two neutrons
Occurrence: Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare on Earth. The atmosphere has only trace amounts, formed by the interaction of Nitrogen with cosmic rays. It can be produced artificially as a low-abundance byproduct in nuclear reactors.
Uses:
Energy source in radioluminescent lights for watches, gun sights, numerous instruments and tools.
Radioactive tracer in a medical and scientific setting.
Nuclear fusion fuel, along with more abundant deuterium, in tokamak reactors and hydrogen bombs.
Concerns: Tritium is easily absorbed by the bodies of living creatures and rapidly distributed via blood.
