Disasters & Disaster Management

Lapses in the Disaster Management Bill

Context: Recently, the Lok Sabha has passed the Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill, 2024 to strengthen the working of National and State disaster management authorities. However, the bill is being criticised for removing the scope for participatory governance, accountability, and efficiency from the Act.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill: Scope and Challenges

The Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill 2024 aims to amend the Disaster Management Act, 2005.
Read the key provisions of the Bill: Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill, 2024 tabled in Lok Sabha

Lapses in the Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill:

1. Top-down Approach and Exclusion of Local stakeholders:

The Bill uses top-down terminology such as ‘monitor’ and ‘guidelines’, instead of inclusive terms such as ‘supervision’ and ‘direction’.
It ignores the role of local communities as the first responders to disasters, as recognised in the Yokohama Strategy, the Hyogo Framework for Action, and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.
- Evidence from Cyclone Aila in Sundarbans (2009), the Kedarnath glacial lake outburst flood (2013), or Kerala floods (2018) shows local people began rescuing people before the National Disaster Response Force or Coast Guards could reach the victims.

2. Neglects Intersectional Vulnerability:

Disasters increase the vulnerabilities of women, the disabled, lower castes, and LGBTQIA communities. The Bill is silent on addressing intersectional discrimination which undermines the inclusivity in disaster management.

3. No Accountability Mechanism for Authorities:

The bill fails to mandate performance evaluation of district disaster authorities. In the absence of such provision, there is no check for failure in disaster preparedness by such authorities.

4. Inconsistency in the Bill:

The Bill explicitly states that ‘man made causes of disasters’ do not include any ‘law and order’ related matters. (i.e., riots, communal violence etc. are not considered under the DM Act). However, the bill mandates the inclusion of State Director Generals of Police into the State Executive Committees (which are responsible for DM planning and implementation). This raises the questions of inconsistency on the amendment bill.

5. Omission of Relief Provisions:

Sections 12 and 13 of the DMA, which covered the minimum standards of relief for disaster victims and the possibility of loan repayment relief, have been omitted from the bill.
Section 19, which demanded that State governments follow guidelines on minimum standards of relief, has also been dropped.
- These Sections also carried special provisions for widows, orphans, the homeless, and provided ex-gratia assistance on loss of life, damage to houses and for restoration of means of livelihood. There is no replacement for this in the Bill.

6. Gaps in Animal Welfare:

The bill overlooks the plight of animals during disasters, despite the introduction of Animal Birth Control (ABC) Rules, 2023.

7. Urban disaster management concerns:

The Bill suggests the constitution of an Urban Disaster Management Authority (UDMA) for state capitals and cities with a municipal corporation. The Authority will comprise the Municipal Commissioner as the chairperson.
Given the fact that Municipal Corporation have overlooked encroachments over aquifers, water bodies, city forests, river beds and markets, the bill raises the questions about the necessity/role of an additional authority.

8. Lack of Regional Collaboration:

The bill does not address regional disaster response through groupings such as SAARC, BIMSTEC, and BRICS. It ignores agreements like the 2011 SAARC Agreement on Rapid Response to Natural Disasters. This weakens the scope for regional collaboration in the event of disaster.

The approach to Disaster management must be holistic, inclusive and participatory and aligning with the global standards.

Lessons from the 2004 Tsunami

Context: December 26, 2024, marks the 20th year since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. Disasters have always served as harsh reminders of nature’s overwhelming power and humanity’s vulnerability.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Disaster preparedness: Tsunami

The 2004 Tsunami

The 2004 tsunami is the deadliest tsunami in recorded history, till date.
The tsunami was generated by the earthquake of magnitude 9.1 which occurred 30 km below the ocean floor in the Sunda trench (where the Indo-Australian plate subducts beneath the Burma microplate, which is a part of the Eurasian plate).
It impacted 17 countries lining the Indian Ocean, killing more than 227,000 people and displacing thousands.
Regions impacted: India (particularly Tamil Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Indonesia, the Maldives, Sri Lanka, and Thailand etc.

Read more: Tsunami

Advancements since 2004

Enactment of the Disaster Management Act, 2005:
- The 2004 tsunami exposed critical gaps in India’s disaster management framework, catalysing the enactment of the DM Act, 2005.
- Key institutional developments included setting up of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA).
- State and district authorities were empowered to implement disaster management plans tailored to local needs and covering all phases of the disaster management cycle.
- Resilience measures were embedded in urban planning, infrastructure projects, and development policies.
Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre(ITEWC):
- established in 2007 by the Union Ministry of the Earth Sciences.
- Operates 24/7 from the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) at Hyderabad.
- ITEWC operates seismological stations as well as bottom pressure recorders and tidal stations across the Indian Ocean basin. These systems can transmit offshore and deep ocean tsunami observations that enable early warnings.

Real-time data sharing by Ocean monitoring systems:
- The Ocean monitoring systems, in about 10 minutes, can identify a potential tsunami-producing earthquake and issue tsunami alerts or warnings (depending on the expected severity) for countries bordering the Indian Ocean.
- India is the fifth country in the world, after the U.S., Japan, Chile, and Australia, to have such an advanced tsunami warning system.

Critical lessons from the 2004 Tsunami

1. Role of Natural ecosystems:

Mangroves provide natural protection to coastal areas and serve as vital buffers against waves.
Concerns:
- Significant destruction of mangroves in India and other countries — to promote shrimp farming, meet basic wood and fuel needs, and for tourism — has disrupted the natural ecosystem.
- Construction of artificial barriers (brick and mortar walls) may increase people’s susceptibility to the damaging effects of waves.

2. Importance of Public Commons:

Coastal areas and common resources (such as beaches) should remain public to preserve livelihoods and promote community resilience.
Concerns (case study of Thailand):
- In Thailand, the privatisation of coastlines (1980s &1990s) allowed private interests to develop hotels and leisure activities which displaced local communities. This led to a large section of the population transitioning to informal sector jobs.

3. Disasters exacerbate Economic Inequalities:

The Tsunami was followed by an increase in the rents, the price of land, goods, and services that benefited only asset owners and service providers.
It caused disruption of local markets & interdependent local economies, replacement of local products with externally sourced goods. This caused people to transition from traditional livelihoods to casual, low-paid labour.

4. Inequality in relief and rehabilitation:

Evidence from tsunami-affected countries suggests a notable tendency to overlook the needs of vulnerable groups (including labourers, Dalits, tribes, immigrants, ethnic minorities, widows, and single women) in the distribution of relief and rehabilitation, unless some vocal groups advocated their cause.
Asset-based damage assessment tended to favour better-off segments of the affected.
Gender-insensitive relief and rehabilitation policies often accentuated the vulnerability of women.
- Widows from fish worker communities faced difficulties in receiving assistance, as they did not possess identity cards issued by the Fisheries Department.

5. Engagement with local structures:

It is crucial for relief agencies to respect community-based local institutions and long-term engagement with local structures, especially in coastal communities. E.g., Fishing communities operate through democratic practices such as kuppams.

Way Forward

Incorporating Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) measures:
- Construction of multi-hazard-resistant homes, supported by integrated risk transfer via comprehensive insurance.
- Establish disaster-ready infrastructure (health-care facilities, anganwadi centres, schools, community halls) which can be transformed into multi-hazard shelters.
- Coastal defences should be fortified with seawalls, shelter belt plantations, and multi-hazard shelters.
- Utilising technology like GIS mapping, AI-driven risk assessments, and mobile applications to enhance preparedness.
Post-Tsunami:
- Quick and dignified disposal of bodies should be prioritised to prevent disease outbreaks & coastal areas should be disinfected using microbial inoculants and chemicals.
- Revive livelihoods through self-help groups, empowering coastal communities with strengthened infrastructure, including modern ports, fishing harbours, and improved agricultural practices.
- Utilising non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to provide essential services such as medical aid, trauma counselling, sanitation, and livelihood restoration.
- Leveraging local knowledge and sharing regional expertise on disaster risk reduction can enhance community-level resilience.

Disaster management is no longer just about survival. It is about ensuring that the response system is well-rounded, looking at every aspect from natural systems to social structures. The learnings from disasters can be utilised for disaster preparedness and building a resilient future.

States got only 19% of funds sought from NDRF

Context: Between 2019 and 2024, states requested approximately ₹1.5 lakh crore from the Central government. However, the Central Government has released only ₹29,263 crore under the National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF).

Relevance of the Topic: Mains- Concerns with the present disaster financing framework.

Financial Assistance Framework for Disaster Management in India:

The Financial Assistance Framework for Disaster Management includes two primary mechanisms:

State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF):
- Centre provides 75% of the amount for general-category States.
- 90% for the north-eastern and Himalayan States.
- The remaining contribution is done by respective state governments.
National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF):
- Fully funded by the Central government to assist the States when SDRF funds are exhausted.

States got only 19% of funds sought from NDRF

Disaster Financing in India:

Role of State Governments:
- First response to disasters- organising rescue, evacuation and relief and providing people with assistance.
- Responsibility for recovery and reconstruction also lies primarily with State Governments.
- Fund these activities using SDRF.
- Can request additional financial assistance from NDRF, by submitting memorandums to the Union Government.
Role of Union Government:
- Extends secondary support to states via NDRF and Armed forces.
- NDRF replenishes and reinforces the State funds following a set of guidelines.

Funds created by Disaster Management Act, 2005:

Disaster Management Act, 2005 lays down the framework for disaster financing in India. The act establishes the following funds:

1. National Disaster Relief Fund (NDRF):

Supports the State Government in the event of severe calamities, where the requirement of funds for relief operations is beyond SDRF.
The State Government is required to submit a memorandum indicating the sector wise damage and requirement of funds.

2. State Disaster Relief Fund (SDRF):

The State Disaster Response Fund shall be used only for meeting the expenditure for providing immediate relief to the victims of cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunami, hailstorm, landslide, avalanche, cloud burst, pest attack, frost, and cold wave.

3. National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF) & State Disaster Mitigation Fund: (SDMF):

Though provided in the Disaster Management Act, 2005, these funds had not been operationalised.
The 15th Finance Commission has recommended the constitution of NDMF and SDMF.
The Mitigation Fund would be used for local level and community-based interventions to reduce disaster risks and promote environmentally friendly settlements.

Concerns with the present disaster financing framework:

Lack of focus on Mitigation: Allocations made through the SDRF and NDRF help governments meet their contingent liabilities in the face of disaster. However, these allocations do not help in reducing contingent liabilities (failure to reduce disaster risk).
Lack of flexibility for states: Current guidelines for providing relief from the SDRF and NDRF are determined by the Central Government. States have been demanding greater flexibility for their unique needs of certain areas, especially remote and hilly terrains.
Limited list of disasters eligible: Many State Governments have been arguing for widening the scope for inclusion of several calamities in the eligible list of disasters for funding support from the SDRF and NDRF. However, most of these calamities are State-specific or region-specific and can be difficult to quantify. For example, Heatwaves, river and coastal erosion, fire hazards, lightning deaths are not eligible for ex gratia assistance.
Limited quantum of funds allocated to SDRF and NDRF: Current practice of allocating funds to SDRF and NDRF is based on past expenditures incurred by States and Union government on Disaster Management and Relief. The expenditure-based approach tends to favour better off states, which can allocate resources and show higher expenditures. Risk and vulnerability to disasters are currently not taken into consideration.
Inability of states to meet matching grants towards SDRF: Mandates relating to operating of disaster-related funds require the States to transfer their matching share towards the SDRF along with Union's share received by them. However, some States do not make transfers into the public account maintained by them in a timely manner. This results in inadequate funds being available with States to tackle disasters of a severe nature and they seek additional central assistance from the NDRF.
Exclusion of long-term or permanent restoration works from the ambit of NDRF/SDRF: Existing norms for disaster relief from SDRF and NDRF do not provide sufficient funds for reconstruction of housing and infrastructure, resettlement of people from floodplains, coastal and hilly areas. This forces states to look after the World Bank or Central Government for long term resettlement and recovery efforts.
Slow process: Current process of assessment for the determination of Union assistance through the NDRF as well as its release is slow. Often funds required for disaster relief are required immediately, especially after severe disasters.
GST regime: NDRF was financed by National Calamity Contingent Duty (NCCD). However, a substantial amount of NCCD has been subsumed under the GST. NCCD is currently being levied on very few products such as Tobacco and crude petroleum. This leaves very less fiscal space for the Union Government to finance the NDRF. Thus, the central government will have to incur additional fiscal deficit for financing NDRF.

Recommendations to strengthen disaster financing in India:

Focus on Disaster Mitigation: NDMF and SDMF should be operationalised which should amount for 20% of overall funds allocated to NDRF and SDRF.
Risk based fund allocation: Allocation to SDRF should be a combination of capacity (as reflected by expenditure), risk exposure (area and population) and hazard and vulnerability (risk index).
Separate window for long-term reconstruction: A separate Recovery and Reconstruction facility should be created with SDRF and NDRF with about 30% allocation. This will help people affected by disasters on a long-term basis.
Separate window for capacity building: Current disaster financing mechanism overlooks capacity building required to effectively respond to disasters in the States. Capacity building measures like early warning systems and emergency equipment etc. are essential for effective disaster management. Thus, a separate window for capacity building should be created in SDRF and NDRF.
Constitution of District level Disaster Response and Mitigation Funds: State Government can allocate resources to districts for preparedness and mitigation of disaster on an annual basis.
Using flex-fund component of CSS towards Disaster Management: States hit by severe disaster should be permitted to use more than the 25% flexi-fund component of centrally sponsored schemes to carry out post-disaster permanent restoration works.
Mainstreaming Disaster Insurance Pool: After the liberalisation of India's insurance industry, it is essential to leverage insurance sector to substantially reduce the financial burden of disaster management by households, particularly well-to-do ones.

As in Kerala, local climate processes can worsen climate extremes

Context – Wayanad landslides

Post-facto analyses of deadly disasters — like the landslides in Wayanad, Kerala, reminds us of the fact that broad warnings of risks can hardly be translated to specific actions.

For example, declaring whole of the western ghats to be landslide vulnerable won’t get rid of extreme events induced by climate change anytime soon.

Some landslides will occur anyway even if the Ghats enjoy the fullest protections from human perturbations because the risk is never zero.

Therefore predictions of disaster management and mitigation becomes important.

Need for long-term climate risk outlooks: extending up to a decade or more.
Improving accuracy of predictive models by understanding local factors that exacerbate climate effects. The relationship between local events and global warming complicates predictions. Local amplifiers often intensify the effects of distant climate drivers.
- Case Study - Coastal Influence on heavy rain in Wayanad: Coastal sea surface temperatures significantly influence heavy rain along India’s west coast. As monsoon winds approach the Western Ghats, coastal waters warm up, leading to increased rainfall.
Importance of Location-Specific Measures: such as preserving biodiversity, can help mitigate disaster risks.
Role of Governments and Monitoring: National and local governments must collaborate to monitor, report, and verify risks, and these efforts must be reflected in budgetary provisions.
Weather-Proofing the Country: Disaster mitigation is essential to making the country more resilient to climate change. Establishing a robust data network to map local extreme event amplifiers is urgently needed.

Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill, 2024 tabled in Lok Sabha

Context: Recently, the Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill 2024 was introduced in the Lok Sabha. The bill aims to amend the Disaster Management Act, 2005.

About Disaster Management Act, 2005 (DM Act, 2005)

DM provides for effective management of disasters in India

The DM Act puts in place necessary institutional mechanisms for

(i) Drawing up and monitoring the implementation of disaster management plans.

(ii) Ensuring measures by various wings of government for preventing and mitigating the effects of disasters.

(iii) For under-taking a holistic, coordinated and prompt response to any disaster or threatening disaster situation.

Salient features of Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill

Inclusion of new definitions of disaster risk, evacuation, exposure, recovery, rehabilitation, resilience etc. in line with the Sendai principles on Disaster Risk Reduction.
Clarification on man-made disasters: The bill proposes to clarify that man-made disasters does not include any law-and-order issues. Thus, loss of lives, displacement, or property damage due to riots, violence etc. would not invoke the DM Act.
Bring more clarity and convergence in the roles of Authorities and Committees working towards disaster management.
Provide statutory status to centain pre-DM Act organisations like National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) and High Level Committee (HLC). (Note. NCMC is a nodal body to deal with major disasters & High Level Committee is the nodal body for the approval of financial assistance for recovery and rehabilitation from disasters).
Strengthen and efficient working of National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMA).
Empower the NDMA and the SDMAs to prepare the disaster plans at national level and state level instead of the National Executive Committee (NEC) and State Executive Committee (SEC), presently.
Provide for creation of a disaster database at national and state level. The database will collect information on assessment of disaster, fund allocation, expenditure, preparation and mitigation plans.
Provision for constitution of 'Urban Disaster Management Authority' (UDMA) for State Capital and large cities having municipal corporations. Currently, the DM Act only provides for District level District Disaster Management Authority. However, considering the economic importance of cities, large capacity and need for quick & decentralized response in the face of disasters. The bill proposes to create Urban Disaster Management Authority for large cities for unified and coordinated approach towards city level disasters such as urban flooding.
Provisions for constitution of 'State Disaster Response Force' by State Governments. Currently, many states have raised disaster response forces on the lines of NDRF. However, the state level disaster response forces have not been mandated under the DM Act, which this amendment aims to provide for.

Need for Empowerment of National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

Disaster Management to be separate department or ministry:
- Given the growing role and importance, NDMA should be elevated to the status of a full-fledged government department or a separate ministry.
- Currently, the NDMA functions as an agency under Ministry of Home Affairs. Therefore, all its communication and coordination is done through Union Home Ministry, which is the nodal ministry for NDMA.
- Climate change has increased the frequency of extreme climate events and resultant disasters in large parts of country. This means NDMA is active throughout the year and regularly coordinates with central and state governments and their agencies.
Lack of financial or administrative powers: Currently, NDMA does not any administrative or financial powers. This makes it dependent on the Union Home Ministry for even small decisions leading to slow decision making and inefficiencies.
Vacancy in office of Vice-Chairperson of NDMA: Though the PM is the chairperson of NDMA, the day-to-day functioning of NDMA is the responsibility of vice-chairperson, who has a rank of cabinet minister. However, the post of vice-chairperson of NDMA has remained vacant for more than decade, this deprives NDMA of necessary leadership and political heft to deal with states and other central government agencies.
Shortage of staff: NDMA is severely short-staffed at the top with only three members overlooking the entire gamut of disasters in the country. Earlier, NDMA used to have 6-7 members, each in charge of a specific type of disaster.

Early warning system

Context: In response to a calling attention motion on Wayanad landslides in Parliament, Home Minister makes several claims on early warning systems in India and how they are utilized to alert the Kerala government ahead of the tragedy.

What is Early Warning system?

An early warning system is a set of tools and processes designed to provide advance notice of potential hazards or threats, allowing individuals, communities, and governments to take proactive measures to mitigate damage and ensure safety.
These systems are crucial for managing and responding to a variety of risks, including natural disasters, technological accidents, and public health emergencies.

What are components of Early warning system?

Early warning system need four components:
- Disaster risk knowledge based on the systematic collection of data and disaster risk assessments.
- Detection, monitoring, analysis and forecasting of the hazards and possible consequences.
- Dissemination and communication, by an official source, of authoritative, timely, accurate and actionable warnings and associated information on likelihood and impact.
- Preparedness at all levels to respond to the warnings received.

What is the status of Early warning system (EWS) In India?

According to Council on energy, environment and water (CEEW), the status of early warning system are as follows:
- Approximately 66 per cent of individuals in India are exposed to extreme flood events; however, only 33 per cent of the exposed individuals are covered by flood EWS. Meanwhile, 25 per cent of individuals in India are exposed to cyclones and their impacts, but cyclone warnings are available to 100 per cent of the exposed population.
- More than 88 per cent of Indian states exposed to floods and 100 per cent of the states exposed to extreme cyclone events have a high teledensity ratio (means to access early warnings through telecommunications).
- 9 states with high exposure to extreme flood events have highly effective flood EWS. 10 states with high exposure to extreme cyclone events also have high to moderately effective cyclone EWS.
- 14 out of 32 flood-exposed states, and 9 out of 17 cyclone-exposed states, are highly resilient owing to the availability, accessibility, and effectiveness of EWS.

What are the different types of Early warning systems?

Weather and Climate:
- Examples: Flood warnings, hurricane alerts, heatwave advisories.
- Purpose: To inform people of severe weather conditions that could lead to dangerous situations.
Seismic:
- Examples: Earthquake early warning systems.
- Purpose: To provide immediate alerts before the shaking from an earthquake reaches a location.
Tsunami:
- Examples: Tsunami warning systems.
- Purpose: To detect underwater earthquakes and send alerts about potential tsunami waves.
Public Health:
- Examples: Epidemic or pandemic alerts.
- Purpose: To notify the public of emerging health threats or disease outbreaks.
Technological:
- Examples: Industrial accident warnings, chemical spill alerts.
- Purpose: To provide advance notice of potential technological hazards.

What are the benefits of having early warning system?

Saving Lives: By providing advanced notice of potential hazards, early warning systems enable timely evacuations and other protective measures, significantly reducing the risk of injury and death.
Economic Protection: These systems help minimize economic losses by allowing businesses and individuals to take preventive actions, such as securing property and assets.
Enhanced Preparedness: Early warning systems improve community preparedness by increasing awareness and understanding of potential risks, leading to better response strategies.
Resilience Building: They contribute to building more resilient communities by promoting proactive risk management and fostering a culture of preparedness.

Environmental Protection: By predicting and mitigating the impacts of natural hazards, early warning systems help protect ecosystems and biodiversity.

Case study Of Kerala Early warning system

In Kerala, early warning systems are crucial for managing natural hazards such as floods and landslides.

Early Warning System Framework

Monitoring and Data Collection:
- IMD Forecasts: The IMD provides forecasts and warnings based on weather models and real-time data from meteorological instruments.
- Regional Forecasts: Regional centers, such as the IMD’s Meteorological Centre in Thiruvananthapuram, issue localized forecasts.
Alerts and Warnings:
- Types of Alerts: IMD issues alerts categorized as yellow (watch), orange (warning), and red (alert) based on the severity of weather conditions.
- Communication Channels: Alerts are disseminated through media, official websites, and direct messages to local authorities.
Response and Action:
- Preparedness Plans: Local authorities and emergency services develop and implement preparedness plans based on forecasts and alerts.
- Public Awareness: Education and drills are conducted to ensure the public knows how to respond to warnings.

In July 2024, Kerala faced significant landslides in Wayanad. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) issued several warnings: an initial flash flood risk alert on July 18, updates on July 23 and 25 forecasting heavy to very heavy rainfall, and an orange alert for July 29. However, the landslides occurred early on July 30. IMD’s forecasts for July 26 predicted light to moderate rainfall, and an experimental landslide forecast from July 29 indicated a low chance of landslides.

Home Minister claimed an early warning for 20 cm of rainfall and landslides was issued on July 26, but no such warning appeared in official IMD releases. Kerala Chief Minister criticized the accuracy of these forecasts and highlighted funding cuts to early warning systems. This case underscores the need for accurate forecasting, timely alerts, and adequate resources for effective disaster management.

Kallakkadal: A coastal Hazard

Context: Kallakkadal, a coastal flooding phenomenon caused by distant ocean storms, has recently affected Kerala, India. The current event, triggered by a low-pressure system from South Atlantic Ocean, has flooded hundreds of houses in Alappuzha, Kollam, and Thiruvananthapuram districts.

Kallakkadal differs from tsunamis and can now be predicted by the INCOIS Swell Surge Forecast System. The swell surge is expected to continue for the next two days before weakening.

Kallakkadal

Kallakkadal is a Malayalam term that combines "Kallan" (meaning thief) and "Kadal" (meaning sea). This term was formally approved by UNESCO in 2012.
It refers to the phenomenon of coastal flooding during the pre-monsoon season (April-May) along the southwest coast of India, caused by ocean swells generated by distant storms.
The latest instance of Kallakkadal took place after a low atmospheric pressure system moved over the region around March 25 from the South Atlantic Ocean — 10,000 kilometres off the Indian coast.
Swell surge is another term used to describe the coastal flooding caused by Kallakkadal.

Causes and Formation

Energy transfer from air to water during distant storms
- Kallakkadal events are triggered by the energy transfer from air to water during distant storms, such as hurricanes or intense low-pressure systems.
- During these storms, winds can reach speeds of over 100 km/h, leading to the formation of high waves.
Wave propagation
- The high waves generated by distant storms can travel thousands of kilometers from the storm center to eventually reach the shore.
- Swell waves associated with Kallakkadal can propagate at speeds of up to 50 km/h and cover distances of over 10,000 km.

Affected Areas

Kerala: The state of Kerala, particularly the districts of Alappuzha, Kollam, and Thiruvananthapuram, is among the worst affected by Kallakkadal. During these events, hundreds of houses are flooded, and relief camps are opened to accommodate the affected population.
Lakshadweep: The low-lying coral atolls of Lakshadweep are vulnerable to sea-level rise and coastal flooding associated with Kallakkadal events. The unique geography of these islands makes them particularly susceptible to the impacts of swell surges.
Tamil Nadu coast: The Tamil Nadu coast, which has a coastline of over 1,000 km, is another region that is expected to be impacted by Kallakkadal events. INCOIS has stated high waves will move to the Tamil Nadu coast.

Early Warning System

Swell Surge Forecast System by INCOIS (2020)
- This system provides forewarning of Kallakkadal events seven days in advance, allowing coastal communities to prepare and take necessary precautions.
- The forecast system uses numerical ocean models, observations, and artificial intelligence techniques to generate accurate predictions.
Challenges in forecasting Kallakkadal
- Forecasting Kallakkadal events is challenging because they often occur without precursors or local wind activity.
- In such situations, the traditional knowledge of fishermen and coastal communities plays a crucial role in identifying and responding to these events.

Different between Tsunami and Kallakathal

Characteristic	Tsunami	Kallakkadal
Definition	A series of enormous waves created by underwater disturbances, usually associated with earthquakes	Coastal flooding during the pre-monsoon (April-May) season by swell waves on the southwest coast of India
Wave Height	Can reach heights of over 30 meters	Typically range from 2-6 meters
Wave Speed	Can travel at speeds of up to 800 km/h	Travel at speeds of up to 50 km/h
Cause	Sudden displacement of a large volume of water, often due to seismic activity or underwater landslides	Energy transfer from distant storms to the ocean surface
Recent Events	- Tsunami that hit Tonga's largest island, Tongatapu, due to a volcanic eruption- Powerful magnitude 7.4 earthquake that struck Taiwan, prompting nearby Japan to issue a tsunami warning	The latest instance took place after a low atmospheric pressure system moved over the region around March 25 from the South Atlantic Ocean
Terminology	The term "tsunami" is derived from the Japanese language, meaning "harbor wave"	- The term "Kallakkadal" is a combination of two Malayalam words, "Kallan" (meaning thief) and "Kadal" (meaning sea)- Formally approved by UNESCO in 2012

INCOIS Alerts

Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) has issued alerts for coastal areas vulnerable to sea erosion, advising communities to take necessary precautions and ensure the safety of their property and lives.
It is observed that 33.6% of the Indian coastline was vulnerable to erosion, 26.9% was under accretion (growing), and 39.6% was in a stable state.
This long-term shoreline analysis indicates that out of 550 km of coast in Odisha, 28% of the coast is eroding, 21% is stable, and 51% is accreting.
To protect the coastal areas from erosion, initiatives such as mangrove plantation, shelterbelt plantation, and installation of Geo-Tubes in 500 m (Pentha Village Odisha) have been carried out.

Climate Change and Kallakkadal

Rising sea levels due to climate change
- According to NASA, the global mean sea level has risen by about 0.3 inches (0.76 centimeters) from 2022 to 2023, a relatively large jump due mostly to a warming climate and the development of a strong El Nino.
- The total rise is equivalent to draining a quarter of Lake Superior into the ocean over the course of a year.
Warmer ocean temperatures
- Climate change is also leading to warmer ocean temperatures, which can contribute to more intense storms and larger swell waves.
- As the ocean surface warms, it provides more energy for storms to intensify, potentially leading to stronger winds and higher waves.
Increased risk for coastal communities
- The extent of coastal flooding has increased over the past 20 years as a result of sea level rise, meaning 14 million more people worldwide now live in coastal communities with a 1-in-20 annual chance of flooding.

Mitigation and Adaptation Measures

Strengthening early warning systems and disaster preparedness
Coastal protection and management measures can help reduce the vulnerability of coastal areas to flooding and erosion.
Hard engineering structures, such as seawalls and groins, can be built to protect the shoreline from the impact of waves and current.
Nature-based solutions, like mangrove restoration and beach nourishment, can also help to buffer the coast against erosion and provide additional ecosystem benefits.
In the long term, mitigating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions is essential to limit the extent of sea-level rise and ocean warming.
Promoting sustainable development and climate-resilient infrastructure in coastal areas
On the international level, India updated its climate action plans at the CoP26 Leader's Summit, demonstrating a renewed commitment to the Paris Agreement's goal of reducing GHG emissions intensity of GDP by 33-35 percent by 2030.

Rising temperature of Oceans

Context: The report by Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) indicates that average sea -surface temperature has reached a new high in February 2024. This unusual warming of oceans is gradually acquiring a usual color, thereby posing grave threat for ocean ecosystem and biodiversity in particular and the Earth in general.

Reasons for warming of oceans:

Increasing absorption of greenhouse gases emissions: The average global temperature has risen by at least 1.2 degree Celsius above pre-industrial times on account of high levels of GHGs emissions. Consequently, oceans have absorbed around 90% of the extra heat trapped by the GHGs, thereby leading to the excess warming of oceans.
Impact of El-Nino: This phenomenon results in temperature rise in eastern equatorial pacific ocean.
Saharan impact on Atlantic: The blowing of dust from Sahara desert acted as a giant umbrella to shade the Atlantic water and reduces ocean temperatures. But now this dust umbrella has partially folded, resulting in the increased heating of the Atlantic ocean.
Impact of Sulphate aerosols: Sulphate aerosols on account of SO2 emissions act like a cloud, preventing solar radiation from reaching the ocean surface. But the decline in SO2 emissions on account of decline in Sulphur in marine fuels has negated this favorable impact.
Weakening of Ocean Current: Weakening of ocean currents has impacted the heat regulation in oceans.

Impact of Warming of oceans:

Ocean Stratification: Warmer oceans lead to an increase in ocean stratification i.e. the natural separation of ocean water into horizontal layers by density with warmer, lighter, less salty and nutrient-poor water layering on top of heavier, colder, saltier, nutrient-rich water.
Impacting the Ocean biodiversity: Due to ocean stratification, nutrients are not able to travel up to the surface of the ocean and so there is no intermixing. This threatens the population of the phytoplankton that thrive on the ocean surface and are base of several marine food webs.
Rising sea levels: Warming of oceans leads to thermal expansion of water and also melting of glaciers in the polar areas. This leads to coastal inundation of low lying areas and also saline intrusion in groundwater reservoirs.
Rising frequency of Marine Heat Waves (MHWs): MHWs are the abrupt rise in the surface temperature of a particular region of the sea by around 3 to 4 degrees Celsius above the average temperature for at least five days. Ex: Between 1982 and 2016, MHWs have doubled in frequency and have become more intense (IPCC report).
Coral bleaching: Excessive warming of oceans has led to the discharge of zooxanthellae algae by Corals, thereby bleaching them to white color. This coral bleaching reduces the productivity of corals and makes them more vulnerable to life-threatening diseases like white band disease and black band disease.
Loss of marine life: MHW events have also contributed to the sudden and unexpected death of many fish and other aquatic animals over a short period of time.
Impact on migration of marine species: Warming of oceans has impacted the migratory patterns like early migration of heat loving marine species northwards, shifting of mangroves such as in Atlantic northwards towards moderately warmer areas.
Intensification of the cyclones: The excessive warming of oceans has contributed to higher rate of evaporation and in turn more latent heat of evaporation as fuel for intensifying the cyclonic wind.

Way Forward:

WMO in its State of Global Climate report has highlighted that there is 66 percent chance that at least one of the years between 2023 and 2027 would cross the threshold of 1.5 degree Celsius (Paris target)
In this regard, it is important to achieve the goals set out in programs like Mangroves for Future
Limiting greenhouse gas emissions: There is an urgent need to achieve the mitigation targets set by the Paris Agreement on climate change and hold the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels. This will help prevent the massive and irreversible impacts of growing temperatures on ocean ecosystems and their services.
Protecting marine and coastal ecosystems: Well-managed protected areas can help conserve and protect ecologically and biologically significant marine habitats. This will regulate human activities in these habitats and prevent environmental degradation.
Restoring marine and coastal ecosystems: Elements of ecosystems that have already experienced damage can be restored. This can include building artificial structures such as rock pools that act as surrogate habitats for organisms or boosting the resilience of species to warmer temperatures through assisted breeding techniques.
Improving human adaptation: Governments can introduce policies to keep fisheries production within sustainable limits, for example by setting precautionary catch limits and eliminating subsidies to prevent overfishing. Coastal setback zones which prohibit all or certain types of development along the shoreline can minimise the damage from coastal flooding and erosion. New monitoring tools can be developed to forecast and control marine disease outbreaks.
Strengthening scientific research: Governments can increase investments in scientific research to measure and monitor ocean warming and its effects. This will provide more precise data on the scale, nature and impacts of ocean warming, making it possible to design and implement adequate and appropriate mitigation and adaptation strategies.

Indian Meteorological Department

Context: A yearlong celebration on the occasion of 150 years of IMD, will begin on 15th January 2024 and conclude on 15th January 2025. A logo commemorating 150 years of IMD will be unveiled by Honourable Minister of the Ministry of Earth Sciences.

History of Indian Meteorological Department (IMD):

In 1864, two formidable cyclones wreaked havoc in India, with one hitting Kolkata and the other striking the Andhra coast, causing the loss of more than one lakh lives.
The Kolkata cyclone alone claimed an estimated 80,000 lives, marking it as one of the most destructive events at that time.
Subsequently, in 1866, India faced severe drought and famine, leading to malnutrition and starvation among the population.
While such calamities were not uncommon in 19th-century India, the severity of these events exposed the absence of a systematic approach to monitor atmospheric parameters and predict changes.
These circumstances catalysed the establishment of the India Meteorological Department (IMD), which celebrates its 150th anniversary on January 15, 2024.

Evolution of Meteorological observations (1850s-1875):

The British East India Company established meteorological observatories in Calcutta (1785) and Madras (1796).
The Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded in 1784, played a key role in promoting meteorological studies.
Captain Harry Piddington coined the term ‘cyclone’ in the mid-19th century.
On January 15, 1875, the IMD officially commenced operations, employing Englishman HF Blanford as the Imperial Meteorological Reporter.

Organization:

Headed by the Director General of Meteorology, the IMD operates through six Regional Meteorological Centres located in Chennai, Guwahati, Kolkata, Mumbai, Nagpur, and New Delhi.
These centres focus on various functions, ranging from surface observations to processing satellite data and seismic monitoring.
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), is an agency under the Ministry of Earth Sciences.

Developed into a comprehensive organization:

Over the years, the IMD has evolved into a comprehensive organization, managing numerous permanent observatories and thousands of automatic weather stations nationwide.

While weather forecasting remains its core function, the IMD now extends its services to encompass a variety of specialized areas, providing crucial inputs for activities ranging from general elections and examinations to sporting events and space launches.

Integral role:

The IMD's influence is evident across several sectors, including agriculture, railways, airways, shipping, power plants, and water management agencies.
In the telegraph age, it made extensive use of weather telegrams for collecting observational data and sending warnings.
Later IMD became the first organisation in India to have a message switching computer for supporting its global data exchange.
India was the first developing country in the world to have its own geostationary satellite, INSAT, for continuous weather monitoring of this part of the globe and particularly for cyclone warning.
Recent additions to IMD's portfolio include services for organizing major events, such as general elections. Notably, IMD's expertise is sought by the Election Commission of India for deciding election dates.
The IMD has also played a crucial role in predicting favourable weather conditions for significant events, such as the launch of India's first moon mission, Chandrayaan-1, in 2008.
The monsoon system, inherently complex, has become more erratic and difficult to predict. Despite these challenges, the last 15 years have witnessed significant improvements in IMD's capabilities, evident in more accurate forecasts.
The IMD's dedication to preventing the recurrence of disasters, such as the 1999 Odisha super cyclone, has led to substantial investments in time, manpower, and technology.
The IMD holds immense significance by directly supporting the farming community through accurate monsoon predictions and aiding disaster management with timely forecasts of extreme weather events.
It is a key player in offering precise weather predictions, studying climate change effects in India, and contributing to various nation-building activities.

Recent Initiatives:

Introduced by the Ministry of Earth Sciences, the Mausam app enhances the dissemination of weather forecasts and warnings, providing accessible weather information to the general public.
IMD has commissioned ten indigenously built X-Band Doppler Weather Radars, designed and developed by ISRO. These radars, strategically placed over the Himalayas, monitor atmospheric variations and extreme weather events, offering timely forecasts and warnings for disaster preparedness.
Launched in 2012, the National Monsoon mission aims to develop a cutting-edge dynamical prediction system for monsoon rainfall on different time scales, fostering partnerships between Indian and foreign institutes.

While celebrating its 150th anniversary, the IMD continues its commitment to advancing meteorology in India. The emphasis on understanding and predicting the monsoon remains a core objective, driven by advancements in technology, investments in personnel, and a dedication to preventing disasters.

Arogya Maitri Disaster Management Cube - BHISHM

About Arogya Maitri Disaster Management Cube - BHISHM

It is a cube which will function as world's first portable hospital.
This cube is a part of the broader initiative named “Project BHISHM” – Bharat Health Initiative for Sahyog, Hita and Maitri to develop a world-class disaster hospital.
It is tailored to treat up to 200 casualties, emphasizing rapid response and comprehensive care.
It integrates Artificial Intelligence (AI) and data analytics to facilitate effective coordination, real-time monitoring, and efficient management of medical services in the field.
The Aid Cube is equipped with several innovative tools such as a mini-ICU, an operation theatre, cooking station, food, water, a power generator, blood test equipment, an X-ray machine, and more, designed to enhance disaster response and medical support during emergencies.
The whole unit contains 72 easily transportable components that can be conveniently carried by hand, cycle, or even drone, providing unmatched flexibility.
In the face of mass casualty incidents (MCIs), where requirements range from basic aid to advanced medical and surgical care, the Aid Cube stands out with its ability to be deployed within 12 minutes.
These cubes are robust, waterproof, and light, designed for various configurations, making them ideal for diverse emergency scenarios. From airdrops to ground transportation, the cube can be rapidly deployed anywhere, ensuring immediate response capability.
Two such ‘Aarogya Maitri’ mother cubes combine to form a “brick” to complete the kit. The design of these cubes draws inspiration from the “Rubik’s Cube.

Issues in Disaster Financing in India

Context: The destruction caused by Cyclone Michaung in Tamil Nadu has resulted in Tamil Nadu Government demanding extra funds from the Central Government to meet the relief and reconstruction demands. Tamil Nadu has been demanding declaring Cyclone Michaung as a 'National Disaster'. Central Government has replied that there is no provision in the current disaster management financing framework which allows for declaration of disaster as a national disaster. Centre has agreed to send team to assess the damage in Tamil Nadu to provide excess grants to Tamil Nadu government from the NDRF. All this brought about the issue of Disaster Financing in India into spotlight.

Disaster Financing in India

The mechanism of disaster risk financing in India reflects the distribution of responsibility in respect of disaster management.
State Governments respond immediately to disasters - organizing rescue, evacuation and relief and providing people with assistance. After the disaster event, the responsibility for recovery and reconstruction also lies primarily with State Governments.
State Governments incur most of the expenditure on disaster management. These expenditures are met through SDRF. When States exhaust their SDRF resources, they can request financial assistance through the NDRF by submitting memorandums to the Union Government.
Union Government extends secondary support to states through deploying the National Disaster Response Fund and armed forces at the request of State Governments. NDRF replenishes and reinforces the State funds following a set of guidelines.
Climate change is expected to significantly increase the frequency of adverse weather events severely increasing magnitude of disasters. India has been witnessing many large-scale floods (Tamil Nadu, Kerala); Cyclones (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh); droughts and floods. This necessitates focusing on disaster management.

Funds created by Disaster Management Act, 2005