Climate Change

Permafrost Melting in the Kashmir Himalayas

Context: Permafrost melting is emerging as a unique environmental threat in the Kashmir Himalaya. A new study has found that thawing permafrost could affect infrastructure projects (roads, households, hydropower projects) and alpine lakes in the mountainous region.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims:  Permafrost melting- Key Facts. 

What is Permafrost?

  • Permafrost is a layer of ground (soil, sediment, or rock) that remains frozen continuously for at least two consecutive years. 
  • It is mostly found in polar and high-altitude regions.
    • Present in Alaska, Canada, Russia, Tibet, and the Himalayas.
    • In India: Found extensively in the Kashmir Himalayas, Ladakh, and parts of Uttarakhand and Sikkim.
  • Composition: Stores vast amounts of organic carbon locked for thousands of years.
  • Significance: Crucial role in regulating water flows, maintaining ecosystem stability, and acting as a carbon sink. 

Highlights of the Study

  • Study by: Researchers from the University of Kashmir and IIT-Bombay.
  • As per the study, permafrost covers 64.8% of the total geographic area of Jammu & Kashmir (J&K) and Ladakh.
    • It is dominated by continuous permafrost (most of the soil remains frozen year-round), followed by discontinuous (more than half of the soil is frozen), and sporadic (intermittent patches of frozen soil) permafrost. 
  • 87% of Ladakh has permafrost, while the foothill plains of Jammu, Shigar Valley, and Siwaliks do not host any permafrost.

Factors causing Permafrost degradation: 

  • Global Warming: Surface temperatures are rising due to climate change, leading to faster thawing. Data from 2002-2023 shows a steady increase in permafrost melting.
  • Human Activities: 
    • Deforestation & Land-use change: Loss of vegetation reduces insulation, exposing permafrost to direct sunlight.
    • Tourism & Infrastructure development contribute to permafrost degradation.
  • Natural Disasters:
    • Earthquakes & Glacial Movements: Seismic-activity leads to permafrost breakdown. Rock-ice avalanches, like the Chamoli disaster (2021), are intensified due to permafrost degradation.
    • Wildfires: Burn vegetation cover, exposing the permafrost to solar radiation and higher temperatures.

Consequences of Permafrost Thawing: 

  • Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Permafrost contains huge amounts of carbon and methane, which releases on thawing, exacerbating global warming.
  • Positive Feedback Loop: More thawing → More methane emissions → Faster global warming → Increased thawing.
  • Formation of Proglacial Lakes: 332 proglacial lakes identified in J&K, with 65 at risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs).
  • Disruptions in River flow: Permafrost stores water, and slowly releases it into rivers. Thawing disrupts the water regulation system and affects groundwater recharge and river flows.
  • Landslides & Slope Failures: Permafrost degradation leads to weak soil stability and increases the risk of landslides.
  • Road & Infrastructure Damage (roads, households, hydropower projects). Military Installations in Ladakh face risks posing national security challenges.

Way Forward

  • Permafrost Mapping & Environment Impact Assessments (EIA) before construction.
  • Use of Satellite Remote Sensing to track temperature variations & permafrost loss.
  • Deploying Ground-based sensors to improve real-time data collection for accurate predictions.
  • Afforestation & Ecosystem Restoration- insulates permafrost from direct sunlight.
  • Implement resilient infrastructure designs to withstand permafrost thaw.
  • Enhanced Disaster Preparedness and early warning systems for landslides, GLOFs, and floods. 

Rising Heatwaves in India

Context: In the backdrop of rising temperatures pointing towards a new climate normal, India must develop a comprehensive national heat strategy and embed it within its National Adaptation Plan ahead of the 30th UN Climate Change Conference (COP30) in Brazil in November 2025.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Heatwaves- Facts

Mains: Heatwaves- Causes, Steps taken, Challenges, Way forward

What are Heatwaves?  

  • Heat waves are prolonged periods of excessively hot weather that can cause adverse impacts on human health, the environment, and the economy.
  • Definition: In India, IMD defines heatwave based on the following criteria:
    • Physiography of regions:
      • Plains: The maximum temperature recorded at a station is 40 degrees Celsius or more.
      • Coasts: The maximum temperature recorded at a station is 37 degrees Celsius or more.
      • Hills: The maximum temperature recorded at a station is 30 degrees Celsius or more.
    • Based on departure from Normal Temperature:
      • Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
      • Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C
    • Based on actual Maximum Temperature:
      • Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 45°C 
      • Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥47°C
  • Heat Wave is declared if above criteria are met in at least 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days.

Status of Heatwaves in India

  • Early onset of Summer and rising Temperatures:
    • February, classified as ‘winter’ by the India Meteorological Department (IMD), recorded unusually high temperatures. E.g., Heatwaves were officially reported in Goa and Maharashtra by late February. Odisha, Telangana, and Maharashtra recorded temperatures exceeding 40°C.
    • 31 States and Union Territories experienced night temperatures at least 1°C above normal, while 22 States and UTs reported night temperatures 3°C to 5°C above normal. These anomalies indicate shifting climate patterns and rising global temperatures.
  • Growing threat of Heatwaves:
    • Scientists have warned that global warming will lead to more frequent and intense heatwaves. According to IMD, between 1981 and 1990 there were 413 heatwave days in India. However, the heatwave days have increased to 600 days between 2011 and 2020.
    • Heatwaves also pose significant risks to public health, economy, and infrastructure. The number of deaths from heat-related causes increased from 5,457 between 1981 and 1990 to 11,555 between 2011 and 2020.

Factors behind the increase in Heatwaves in India

1. Natural Causes:

  • High Atmospheric Pressure systems: Heatwaves occur when high-pressure systems stall over a region. These systems trap warm air near the Earth’s surface and prevent the normal movement of air masses, leading to prolonged periods of hot weather.
  • Natural climate variations, such as El Nino and La Nina events, influence weather patterns and increase the likelihood of heatwaves. E.g., during El Nino events, warmer ocean waters in the tropical Pacific lead to changes in atmospheric circulation and weather patterns.
  • Prolonged periods of drought and lack of precipitation reduces the overall moisture of the soil, causing the land to heat up more quickly during heat waves.
  • Shifts in wind patterns transports hot air from one region to another which intensifies heat waves in areas that are not typically prone to such extreme temperatures.
  • Geographic features and topographical conditions also contribute to the development of heat waves. For example, landlocked valleys and regions surrounded by mountains trap hot air and lead to temperature spikes.

2. Human-Induced Factors:

  • Global Warming: The long-term increase in Earth’s average temperature, primarily driven by human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, contributes to the frequency and intensity of heat waves.
  • Urban Heat Island Effect: Urban areas with high population density, extensive concrete and asphalt surfaces, and limited vegetation tend to absorb and retain more heat, and have created localised zones of higher temperatures.

Steps taken by government to address Heatwaves: 

  • Heat Action Plans: Government has updated Heat Action Plans across 23 states, aiming to strategically combat and manage heatwaves.
  • Public Health Preparedness: Union Health Ministry reviews the preparedness for managing Heat-Related Illnesses (HRIs) periodically indicating a proactive approach to address the health impacts of heatwaves.
  • Focus on Vulnerable Groups: Government initiatives prioritize protecting high-risk groups like children, pregnant women, the elderly, and people with chronic diseases.
  • Awareness Campaigns: About 100 districts have initiated campaigns to raise awareness about heatwave risks and precautions.

Bottlenecks in Heatwave Strategies: 

  • Inadequate Preparedness for Heatwaves: A study by the Sustainable Futures Collaborative analyzed heat preparedness in nine Indian cities and found:
    • No long-term heat adaptation strategies.
    • Reliance on short-term emergency responses such as:
      • Providing drinking water stations.
      • Adjusting work hours during peak heat.
      • Boosting hospital capacity for heat-related illnesses.
    • Lack of long-term interventions to protect vulnerable populations.
  • Key Gaps in Heatwave Preparedness:
    • Limited access to cooling solutions for low-income and vulnerable groups.
    • No income protection for workers affected by extreme heat.
    • Inadequate fire management and electricity grid upgrades to handle increased cooling demands.
    • Poor urban heat monitoring and lack of heat island mapping.
    • Green cover and solar cooling efforts exist but are not targeted at high-risk populations.

Need for a National Heat Strategy: 

  • India must develop a comprehensive National Heat Strategy as part of its National Adaptation Plan.
  • This strategy should focus on:
    • Expanding weather monitoring systems.
    • Developing urban heat action plans.
    • Green infrastructure and sustainable cooling methods.
    • Ensuring social and financial safety nets for workers in heat-prone sectors.
  • India should present a well-structured plan ahead of the 30th UN Climate Change Conference (COP30) in Brazil (November 2025). 

Impact of Climate Change on Wheat Production

 Context: India's wheat production, primarily concentrated in the northwestern Indo-Gangetic plains, is under significant threat due to climate change. 

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Major crops, cropping patterns; Impact of Climate change. 

Wheat

  • Wheat is a rabi (winter) crop in India. 
  • Sown between October and December and harvested between February and April.
  • Requirements:
    • Optimum temperature: 15.5 degree Celsius. Warm and moist during the early stage, dry and sunny during late stage and harvest. Very sensitive to frost, requires frost free period. 
    • Moisture: between 45-65 cm. A light shower just before the harvest swells the grains and results in a good harvest. Excess of moisture can be detrimental to wheat. Cannot grow in areas of very low rainfall or with prolonged drought conditions.
    • Soils: Light clay, heavy loam. Peaty soils are least suitable.
  • Primarily grown in north-western parts of Indo-Gangetic plains.
  • Primary producers: Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh.
wheat growing

Impact of Climate Change on Wheat Production: 

1. Indian Ocean warming and monsoon variability: 

  • The Indian Ocean is experiencing rapid warming, leading to alterations in monsoon patterns. This warming is associated with a reduction in summer rainfall over central-east India by about 10–20% over the past century. 
  • Delayed or erratic monsoon can postpone the kharif harvest, subsequently delaying the sowing of wheat. If its sowing starts late, the later stages of plant growth will coincide with early heat waves in India. 

2. Rising temperatures and Yield reduction: 

  • India recorded its warmest February in 124 years in 2025. These conditions coincide with the wheat harvest season, where optimal temperatures should not exceed 30°C.
  • High temperatures cause early flowering and faster ripening, shortening the grain-filling period. This results in lighter grains with lower starch accumulation, reducing the total wheat output. 

3. High Input Cost and Economic losses: 

  • Low crop yield also tends to make farmers desperate and result in overuse of fertilisers, fungicides, etc. 
  • Extreme heat makes the wheat grain harder and affects the milling quality. Farmers may face lower market prices due to reduced grain weight and quality issues. 

Way Forward

  • Breeding heat-tolerant wheat varieties. Studies have shown that advanced breeding lines exhibit a smaller yield decline (3.6% per 1°C warming) compared to traditional varieties (5.5% decline), indicating superior climate resilience. 
  • Modifying sowing schedules to earlier dates can help wheat crops avoid late-season heat stress. This strategy requires region-specific research to optimise planting times in anticipation of climate variability.
  • Enhancing irrigation efficiency, adopting conservation tillage, and implementing integrated pest management. These practices improve soil health and moisture retention, making crops more resilient to temperature fluctuations.
  • Immediate policy support to farmers in the form of compensation. However, long term solutions (farmer education, R&D in heat-tolerant varieties, technology adoption, crop insurance) need to be incorporated into agricultural practices.

Climate change poses a significant threat to India's wheat production through altered monsoon patterns and rising temperatures. Ensuring food security necessitates proactive adaptation and mitigation strategies. 

Glacier Melting & Sea level Rise

Context: A newly published study highlights that melting ice from glaciers worldwide has led to the sea level rising by almost 2 cm this century alone.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends regarding climate change. 

Major Highlights of the Study

  • Study: Community estimate of global glacier mass changes from 2000 to 2023. 
  • Contributors: Scientists from the University of Edinburgh (Scotland) and the University of Zurich (Switzerland)

Findings:

  • Melting ice has led to the sea level rising by almost 2 cm this century alone.
  • Glaciers have been losing 273 billion tonnes of ice each year, equivalent to water Earth’s entire population would consume over a period of 30 years.
image 181

Glacial Melting and Sea Rise

  • According to the US agency National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA):
    • The rate of glacial melting has doubled from 0.18 cm per year in 1993 to the current rate of 0.42 cm per year. 
    • The global sea level has risen by about 21-25 cm since 1880. 
  • As per the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), global sea levels have risen by more than 10 cm between 1993-2024.
  • According to a World Meteorological Organisation report, sea level is not rising uniformly around the world (owing to local changes in ocean heat content and salinity). For example- the southwestern Indian Ocean region is seeing sea level rise at a rate of 2.5 mm per year, faster than the global average.

Indian Scenario

Data from the Center for Study of Science, Technology and Policy (CSTEP), Bengaluru. 

  • Mumbai has witnessed a rise of 4.44 cm between 1987 and 2021, the worst among Indian cities. 
  • West Bengal’s Haldia has witnessed a sea-level rise of 2.726 cm.
  • Andhra Pradesh’s Visakhapatnam has witnessed a sea-level rise of  2.381 cm.
  • Kerala’s Kochi has witnessed a sea-level rise of 2.213 cm.

Factors contributing to the Sea level Rise:  

Sea level rise is essentially the increase in the average height of the ocean’s surface, measured from the centre of the Earth.

  • Global Warming: This has resulted in increased melting of land-based ice, such as glaciers and ice sheets. According to the latest study, since 2000, glaciers have lost between 2% and 39% of their ice regionally, and about 5% globally.
  • Thermal expansion of seawater: With global temperatures rising, oceans are becoming warmer, and as a result, the volume of water is increasing as well. According to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) thermal expansion of seawater is responsible for one-third to half of global sea level rise.

Concerns associated with the rising sea levels

As per the study “Every centimeter of sea level rise exposes another 2 million people to annual flooding somewhere on our planet”.

  • Flooding and erosion of coastal areas:
    • Sea level rise leads to more frequent and intense coastal flooding, which exacerbates coastal erosion. 
    • According to a 2018 report by the National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR), between 1990 and 2016, the West Bengal coast alone lost almost 99 sq km of land.
  • More severe geophysical phenomenon: 
    • The rise results in more intense storm surges, allowing more water inland during tropical storms. 
    • This in turn can impact coastal ecosystems like mangroves, coral reefs and salt marshes, contaminate fresh water supplies etc.
  • Displacement of population: 
    • Submergence, erosion and intense climatic events may result in huge displacement of coastal populations, which in turn would adversely impact their livelihood and their age-old traditions. 
    • A 2024 study in the journal Scientific Reports found that 15% of the global; population lived merely 10 km away from water.
  • Changes in weather patterns: Addition of a considerable amount of freshwater into the ocean is concerning as this increase in freshwater has the potential to disturb the oceanic circulations, which is a crucial system of ocean currents responsible for shaping the Earth's climate and weather patterns.

Glacier Ice Algae accelerating Greenland Ice Sheet melting

Context: Recent studies highlight the role of dark-pigmented microalgae in intensifying Greenland Ice Sheet melting process, which is a critical contributor to global sea-level rise.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Trends in Climate Change- Greenland Ice Sheet, Glacier ice algae. 

About Greenland Ice Sheet

  • Greenland Ice Sheet contains the equivalent of 7.4 meters of global sea level rise, currently frozen atop the world’s largest island.
  • Greenland Ice Sheet gains mass chiefly from snow accumulation, and loses mass through meltwater runoff and discharge of solid ice into the ocean.
    • It has experienced net-annual mass loss for 27 years, every year since 1998. 
    • The melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet is the single largest contributor of freshwater to global sea-level rise.
  • Ice sheet mass loss affects human and natural environments worldwide through:
    • Coastal erosion
    • Saltwater intrusion
    • Habitat loss
    • Heightened storm surges
    • Tidal flooding
    • Permanent inundation 

About Glacier Ice Algae: 

  • Glacier algae are dark-pigmented microalgae capable of surviving extreme glacier environments. 
  • This algae plays a significant role in altering the surface properties of Greenland Ice Sheet, contributing to accelerated melting.
    • The algae grows on melting glacier and ice sheet surfaces across the cryosphere. This causes the ice to absorb more solar energy and consequently melt faster. 
    • This also results in cycling of carbon and nutrients within the ecosystem.  
image 177

Key findings of the study

  • Efficient nutrient uptake: 
    • The microalgae possess an extraordinary ability to absorb essential nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus at high rates. 
    • This efficiency allows them to sustain growth even in environments with limited nutrient availability.
  • Adaptation mechanism: 
    • The algae’s survival strategy involves maintaining high carbon-to-nutrient ratios and storing phosphorus internally. 
    • This adaptation is crucial for thriving on the nutrient-poor glacier surfaces, where traditional nutrient sources are scarce.
  • Expansion potential: 
    • As the Greenland Ice Sheet continues to melt, more bare ice is exposed, providing new surfaces for colonisation. 
    • The algae’s ability to persist without significant external nutrients enables them to rapidly expand their coverage, further intensifying the melting process.
  • Albedo reduction: 
    • The dark pigmentation of the algae significantly decreases the reflectivity (albedo) of the ice surface. 
    • With less sunlight reflected back into the atmosphere, more heat is absorbed, leading to a higher rate of ice melting.
  • Melt rate amplification: 
    • Algal blooms along the western margin of the ice sheet have been shown to increase melt rates by 10 to 13%. 
    • This substantial contribution underscores the critical role of biological factors in the ice sheet’s mass loss.

Environmental and Climatic Implications

  • Sea-level rise: The enhanced melting driven by algal colonisation adds to the volume of freshwater entering the oceans, directly contributing to global sea-level rise. 
  • Climate modeling: The study emphasises the necessity of incorporating biological processes, such as algal growth and spread, into climate models that predict ice sheet melt. 
  • Urgency in mitigation: Understanding the biological drivers of ice melt is crucial for formulating effective climate mitigation and adaptation strategies. 

Teesta Dam and Climate Change

Context: The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) has approved the proposal for rebuilding the Teesta-III dam, despite concerns over its design and stability. The new structure will be a 118.64-metre-tall concrete gravity dam.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Questions based on rivers, tributaries and dams associated.

About Teesta-III Chungthang hydroelectric dam

  • In October 2023, the original 1,200 MW Teesta-III Chungthang hydroelectric dam was destroyed in a flash flood. 
  • The flood was triggered by a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) from the South Lhonak Lake, which washed away the 60-metre-tall concrete dam, claiming 40 lives.
  • Reason for failure of dam: Moraine on the South Lohank lake’s flank suffered a slope failure, weakening the terminus. The failure sent rocks tumbling into the lake generating strong ripple, the event also set off multiple landslides about 30 to 40 kilometers downstream.
image 2

Links between dam failure and global warming: 

  • Reducing albedo: Particulate matter, especially black carbon, also known as soot, reduces the albedo of ice and leads to absorption of solar insolation.
  • Accelerating melting of ice: Global warming and rise in the global average temperature accelerates the melting of ice and glaciers, this leads to the rise in the water levels. (E.g., South Lhonak lake itself was formed in the early 1960s and grew to 167 hectares by 2023)
  • High rate of glacial retreat: Glacial retreat has also been known to destabilise extant geological formations and create new sources of risks.
  • Rise in glacial lakes: As per the Central Water commission, the number of glacial lakes in Himalayan region grew by 10.8% from 2011 to 2024.

Concerns in the construction of Teesta-3 2.0 Dam: 

  • The dam’s design and structural aspects are still pending approval from the Central Water Commission (CWC), the Geological Survey of India, and the Central Soil and Materials Research Station.
  • Reports on the risk assessment fail to account the erosion, sediment transport and riverbank collapse that have a significant impact on the flood behaviour.
  • Local communities and environmental groups like affected citizens of Teesta have highlighted potential risks like Glacial lake outburst floods during project planning stages.

Measures Undertaken

  • Enhanced spillway design: 
    • The dam design is altered from a concrete face rockfill dam (a commonly used structure worldwide) to a concrete gravity dam, a design that relies on its own weight to bear loads. 
    • The company claims that the complete concrete design will lead to a rise in the spillway capacity from 7000 cubic metres per second (cumecs) to 19946 cumecs. This enhancement will offer greater resilience to flash floods and GLOFs.

Suggested Measures: 

  • Development and implementation of a robust Early Warning System (EWS) for flood alerts in the river catchment.
  • Conduct thorough environmental impact assessments (EIA) that incorporate climate change projections, glacial behaviour and potential GLOF risks to inform project design and location decisions.

About South Lhonka Lake

  • South Lhonak lake is a glacial lake in North Sikkim.
  • Formation: The proglacial lake formed due to the retreat of Lhonak Glacier.
  • The National Remote Sensing Center showed a 40% increase in its size over the past three decades.

About Teesta River

  • Origin: Teesta river originates from the Tso Lhamo (lake) in North Sikkim.
  • Course: Flows through Sikkim and West Bengal in India and then enters Bangladesh. Here it merges with Brahmaputra river (known as Jamuna in Bangladesh). The total length is 414 km. 
  • Tributaries: Ranget, Lachung, Lachen and Dikchu rivers.
  • Hydropower project: Teesta-III, Teesta-IV and Teesta-V dams in Sikkim.
  • Water dispute: Teesta water sharing treaty with Bangladesh, a key bilateral agreement that has been pending between the two countries for over a decade.
image 108

Why is India warming slower?

Context: According to the latest report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the temperature rise over the Indian subcontinent is lower as compared to the global average. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends related to climate change (global as well as India-specific). 

Key trends regarding Global Temperature Rise

  • The annual mean temperature of the world is known to have increased by 1.1 degree Celsius, from the average of the 1850-1900 period.
    • Over land, the annual mean temperatures have risen by as much as 1.59 degree Celsius since preindustrial times. 
    • Oceans have warmed by about 0.88 degree Celsius.
image 126

Warming trends over Indian Subcontinent

  • As per the assessment of climate change over the Indian subcontinent, published by the Ministry of Earth Sciences in 2020 - Annual mean temperatures had risen by 0.7 degree Celsius from 1900.
    • This is significantly lower than the 1.59 degree Celsius rise for land temperatures across the world. 

Reasons for lower warming over India

  • Location of India:
    • India is located in the tropical area, quite close to the equator. 
    • The increase in temperatures is known to be more prominent in the higher altitudes, near the polar regions, than near the equator, because:
      • heat transfers take place from the tropics to the poles 
      • melting of ice has led to reduced albedo and increased absorption of solar radiation
      • release of greenhouse gasses from the melted ice further increasing the temperatures. 
  • Higher Aerosol concentration: 
    • Aerosol concentration over the Indian region is quite high, due to natural (tropical location, arid climate, greater amount of dust) as well as man-made reasons (heavy pollution). 
    • Aerosols have a cooling effect because they scatter sunlight back into space, such that lesser heat is absorbed by the land. 
    • Aerosols also affect cloud formation. Clouds, in turn, have an impact on how much sunlight is reflected or absorbed.

Conclusion: Incidentally, while the maximum temperatures over India have shown a significant increase since 1900, the rise in minimum temperatures has not been much. Expanding the weather observation network and strengthening of computing and analysis capabilities is a pre-requisite. 

What is Climate Smart Agriculture?

Context: Natural farming is one of the key strategies to reduce input costs and the government is promoting this practice to encourage farmers to move to chemical-free agriculture as part of efforts to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change.

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Climate-smart Agriculture- Need, Benefits, Strategies, Initiatives, Way Forward

About Climate Smart Agriculture

  • Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach that helps guide actions to transform agri-food systems towards green and climate resilient practices. 
  • Objectives: CSA aims to tackle three main objectives:
    • sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; 
    • adapting and building resilience to climate change; 
    • reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emissions, where possible.
  • CSA supports the FAO Strategic Framework 2022-2031 based on the Four Betters:
    • better production
    • better nutrition
    • better environment 
    • better life for all, leaving no one behind. 
  • What constitutes a CSA practice is context-specific, depending on local socio-economic, environmental and climate change factors. 
image 103

Dimensions of Climate Smart Agriculture

  • Water-smart: Access to water for production, including:-
    • increasing the soil’s capacity to absorb and store moisture (green water)
    • rainwater harvesting and storage
    • wastewater reuse
    • supplementary small-scale irrigation.
  • Weather-smart:
    • Growing crops based on agro-ecological conditions
    • Use science and technology for creating climate resilient crops and seeds. 
    • Example: Drought resistant crops.
  • Energy-smart:
  • Carbon-smart practices:
    • Reduced or no-till farming practices help minimize soil disturbance, which can reduce the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the soil into the atmosphere.
    • Planting cover crops during periods when the main cash crop is not growing provides ground cover, prevents soil erosion, and enhances carbon sequestration.
    • Agroforestry and Organic farming practices, which avoid synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.

Need for Climate Smart Agriculture

  • Ensuring food security: Agriculture production should be increased by 60% to meet the food demand. 
  • Reduce yield loss: In India, crop yield decline owing to climate change (between 2010 and 2039) could be as high as 9%.
  • Enhance resource efficiency: CSA activity like no-tillage is advantageous for fertilizer management and can boost yield, nutrient usage efficiency, and profitability while lowering GHG emissions.
  • Meet SDG: UN’s SDG aims to end hunger and enhance environmental management.
    • CSA helps in achieving these goals through sustainable agriculture and rural development.
  • Combat climate change: CSA promotes crop diversification, increases water efficiency, and integrates drought-resistant crop types, all of which help lessen the disruptive effects of climate change.
  • Meet international obligation: Paris Agreement goal of limiting global warming by reducing GHG emissions is tied directly to the success of the CSA.
    • Agroforestry and carbon sequestration could help India meet its international obligations and contribute to the global fight against climate change.

Strategies to boost Climate-smart Agriculture

Govt. Initiatives to boost Climate Smart Agriculture: 

  • Cooperatives as a vital tool: Leveraging cooperatives in building climate-smart agriculture in rural India.
  • Role of NABARD: NABARD aims to build a more resilient and sustainable agricultural sector through:
    • data-driven solutions
    • new financial mechanisms, such as Agri Fund and the upcoming Carbon Fund
    • forming strategic partnerships with multilateral agencies and State governments
  • National Innovation on Climate Resilient Agriculture: aims to enhance resilience of Indian agriculture to climate change and climate vulnerability through strategic research and technology demonstration.
  • Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana: extending the coverage of irrigation (‘Har Khet ko pani’) and improving water use efficiency (‘More crop per drop’) in a focused manner.
  • Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana: aims at supporting and promoting organic farming, in turn resulting in improvement of soil health.
  • Biotech-KISAN:
    • a scientist-farmer partnership scheme that empowers farmers, especially women farmers for agriculture innovation. 
    • It aims to understand the problems of water, soil, seed and market faced by the farmers and provide simple solutions to them.
  • Climate Smart Village: It is an institutional approach to test, implement, modify and promote Climate smart agriculture locally and enhance farmers’ abilities to adapt to climate change.

Way Forward

  • Promote Agro-ecological Practices: Encourage the adoption of biodiversity-enhancing and soil-friendly agro-ecological techniques.
  • Develop Resilient Crop Varieties: Invest in research and dissemination of climate-resistant crop varieties.
  • Improve Water Use Efficiency: Implement water-efficient irrigation systems and rainwater harvesting.
  • Optimise Livestock Management: Promote climate-resilient livestock practices and breeding for heat tolerance.
  • Enhance Weather Forecasting: Provide farmers with accurate and timely weather information for better planning.
  • Implement Conservation Agriculture: Advocate minimal soil disturbance, cover cropping, and crop rotation for soil health.
  • Integrate Agroforestry: Combine trees with crops and livestock for biodiversity and climate resilience.
  • Community-Based Adaptation: Involve local communities in developing and implementing climate adaptation strategies and provide training to farmers.
  • Financial Incentives: Implement policies offering financial support and incentives to access affordable, sustainable agricultural technologies.
  • Tap into the potential of Cooperatives to boost climate resilient agriculture in rural India.

What is the Polar Vortex?

Context: Large swathes of Canada and the USA were hit by a massive winter storm. At least five people have died in the United States over the weekend and the storm has led to mass school closures, dangerous road conditions and power cuts. The extreme weather has been caused by the expansion of the polar vortex southwards.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Polar Vortex. 

What is Polar Vortex?

  • Polar vortex is a circulation of strong, upper-level winds that normally surround the Northern Pole, moving in a counter-clockwise direction, i.e., a polar low-pressure system. 
  • These winds tend to keep the bitter cold air locked in Arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere. On occasion, this vortex can become distorted and dip much farther South, allowing the cold air to spill Southwards.
  • There are two types of Polar Vortex: Tropospheric and Stratospheric:
  • Tropospheric polar vortex occurs at the lowest layer of the atmosphere — it extends from the surface up to about 10 km to 15 km — where most weather phenomena occur.
  • Stratospheric polar vortex occurs at around 15 km to 50 km high. Unlike the tropospheric polar vortex, the stratospheric polar vortex disappears during the summer and is the strongest during the autumn.

Formation of Polar Vortex:

  • Polar Vortex forms every winter because of the temperature difference between Equator and Poles. 
  • In the polar stratosphere, sunlight basically gets cut off during the late fall and early winter—and that makes it cold, while the equator remains quite warm.
  • A jet forms to balance this temperature difference. This jet is what we call the Polar Vortex or Polar Night Jet.

Distortion of Polar Vortex:

  • When the pressure difference gets lower, the jet streams get weakened and follow a much wavier path. This change in intensity allows the dense Arctic cold wind to spill down to the lower latitudes and lead to major cold air outbreak in the US, parts of Europe, and Asia.
  • This oscillation is known as the Arctic Oscillation, and it can switch from a positive phase to negative phase a few times per year. This oscillation -- namely the Negative phase, where the polar winds are weaker, tends to lead to major cold air outbreaks in one or more regions of the planet.
Polar Vortex

Climate Change and Polar Vortex

  • Scientists are still researching the precise impact of climate change on the polar vortex. Some researchers believe that as the poles are getting warmer at a faster rate than the rest of the Earth, the polar vortex and jet stream are becoming weaker. Warmer temperatures make it easier for the polar vortex and jet stream to get disrupted.
  • This can be understood through following:
    • Jet streams are propelled forward by temperature differences and the Earth's rotation. Warm air is less dense than cold air and rushes to fill in low-pressure regions. Wider temperature differences create faster moving winds.
    • Earth is warming more quickly at the poles than at the mid-latitude regions, meaning the temperature contrast that drives jet streams has decreased.
    • Complex sequence of events involving sea ice, which is rapidly diminishing in the Arctic. As ice retreats, summertime heat is absorbed by the dark ocean that lies underneath. This heat is released into the atmosphere during winter, spurring winds that can disrupt the polar vortex.

Global Water Monitor Report 2024

Context: According to the Global Water Monitor Report 2024, climate change has been wreaking havoc on Earth’s water cycle by disrupting how water circulates between the ground, oceans and atmosphere.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Water Cycle; Global Water Monitor Report 2024. 

Water Cycle

  • It involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system. 
  • There are many processes involved in the water cycle, the most important are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. 
Water Cycle
  • Although the total amount of water within the cycle remains essentially constant, its distribution among the various processes is continually changing.
  • Most water cycles through the planet because of the energy from the Sun and changes in temperatures.
  • The water cycle is crucial as it not only enables the availability of water for all living organisms but also regulates weather patterns on the Earth. 

Components and Processes of the Water Cycle

ComponentsProcesses
Water storage in oceansEvaporation, Evapotranspiration, Sublimation
Water in the atmosphereCondensation, Precipitation
Water storage in ice and snowSnowmelt runoff to streams
Surface runoffStream flow, freshwater storage, infiltration
Groundwater storageGroundwater discharge springs

What is Climate Change?

  • Climate change refers to long-term shifts in weather patterns and average temperatures on Earth, primarily caused by human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes.
  • Characterised by: Increase in greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide, which traps heat in the Earth's atmosphere and leads to global warming.
  • Impacts: Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, melting glaciers and polar ice caps, sea-level rise, and altered ecosystems.
  • Consequences: Far-reaching consequences for human societies, ecosystems, agriculture, water resources, and natural disasters, posing significant challenges to global sustainability and the well-being of future generations.

Global Water Monitor Report 2024

  • Report: Global Water Monitor Report – 2024
  • Published by: Consortium of researchers from universities and organisations in countries like Australia, Saudi Arabia, China, Germany, Austria, USA, Netherlands and Denmark etc.

Key Global Findings

  • Climate change has intensified the water cycle by increasing the rate of evaporation, driven by rising air temperatures. This has resulted in increasing the strength, duration and rainfall intensity of monsoons, cyclones and other storm systems, causing severe flooding across the world.
  • Water-related disasters caused major damage in 2024. They caused over 8,700 deaths, displaced 40 million people, and inflicted more than US$550 billion in damages. Flash floods, landslides, and tropical cyclones were the worst types of disasters in terms of casualties and economic damage.
  • Both High rainfall and Drought are becoming more extreme. In 2024, months with record-low precipitation were 38% more common than during the baseline period of 1995-2005, while record-high 24h rainfall extremes were 52% more frequent.
  • Rainfall records are being broken with increasing regularity. For instance, record highs for monthly rainfall were set 27% more often in 2024 than in the year 2000, and daily rainfall records were set 52% more frequently.
  • Global temperatures continue to increase rapidly. Average air temperature over land area hit an all-time high, reaching 1.2°C above the 1995-2005 average. Over 111 countries experienced their warmest year yet, while 34 countries set new maximum temperature records.
  • Last year, most of the world’s dry regions experienced ongoing low values of the terrestrial water storage (TWS). However, the values increased in western, Central and Eastern Africa.
  • The outlook for 2025 shows increased risks. Seasonal climate forecasts and current catchment conditions signal potential worsening of droughts in northern South America, southern Africa, and parts of Asia. Wetter regions like the Sahel and Europe may face elevated flood risk. 

Other Reports Cited

  • Nature journal – Study titled ‘Observed poleward freshwater transport since 1970’ (published in 2022) found that climate change had intensified the global water cycle by up to 7.4%.
  • The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) - In its sixth assessment report in 2021 said climate change will cause long-term changes to the water cycle. This would lead to more frequent and intense droughts and extreme rainfall events, the report added.

Read More:  Impacts of Climate Change 

Nexus Report: Interconnection among Global Crises

Context: The ‘Nexus Report’, has been recently published by Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). 

It examines the interlinkages among 5 major global challenges- climate change, biodiversity loss, food insecurity, water scarcity, health risks. Addressing these challenges separately is not only ineffective but also counterproductive. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: PBES, Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.

Mains: Global Crises- Interconnection. 

image 10

Role of IPBES

  • Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) is an international platform that deals with protection of biodiversity and natural ecosystems.
  • IPBES periodically examines all existing scientific knowledge on biodiversity and nature to assess its current state.
  • IPBES does not produce new science- it only evaluates existing knowledge to make assessments.
  • IPBES informs several multilateral environmental processes- UN Convention on Biological Diversity, Convention on Combating Desertification, Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species and Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. 
  • Information provided by the IPBES report is the basis for the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.
    • This agreement set 23 targets to be met by 2030 to halt and reverse biodiversity loss’
    • This includes the ‘30 x 30 targets’ which aim to protect 30% of land, freshwater and marine ecosystems, and restore at least 30% of degraded ecosystems by 2030. 
image 144

Interconnected Global Crises: 

  • The Nexus report says that five key crises—climate change, biodiversity loss, food insecurity, water scarcity, and health risks— are interconnected and amplify one another. For Example: 
    • Efforts to boost food production (a positive action to deal with hunger and malnutrition) often strain land and water resources, undermining biodiversity and exacerbating climate change. 
    • Initiatives to mitigate climate change through land-based carbon sequestration can reduce the availability of arable land, worsening food insecurity.
  • Economic cost of damaging biodiversity: 
    • Biodiversity is declining at the rate of about 2-6% on an average every decade. More than half of global GDP (~58 trillion dollars) is moderately to highly dependent on nature.
    • Deterioration of natural ecosystems could directly hurt productivity and adversely impact economic output. 
    • The world's current economic direction negatively impacts all global challenges, causing an unaccounted cost of at least $10-25 trillion annually. 
image 147

Thus, it is important to adopt synergetic approaches that deliver benefits across the spectrum. Responses to the global challenges- climate change, biodiversity loss, food insecurity, water scarcity, health risks- need to be harmonised such that positive actions taken on any one of these does not result in negative impacts on others.

Key Recommendations in the Report:

  • Restoration of carbon-rich ecosystems like forests, soils and mangroves can simultaneously address biodiversity loss, climate mitigation and food security.
  • Effective management of biodiversity to reduce risks of diseases spreading from animals to humans.
  • Reliance on Nature-based solutions and integrated landscape management. 
  • Promotion of sustainable healthy diets and supporting Indigenous food systems.

Conclusion: The aim must be to find and implement actions that focus on sustainable production and consumption, while also conserving and restoring ecosystems, reducing pollution, and mitigating impacts of climate change. 

Arctic Tundra emits more Carbon than it Absorbs

Context: Recently, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration released the Arctic Report Card with interesting facts about the Arctic Tundra ecosystem. 

Relevance of the topic: Prelims: Scope of question on reports, their findings and changes in ecosystem. 

Major Highlights:

  • The Arctic tundra ecosystem holds 1.6 Trillion metric tonnes of carbon. This carbon is in the form of non-decomposed biomass that is frozen in permafrost. 
  • In recent findings, scientists observed that the Arctic region is emitting more carbon than it absorbs. 
Arctic Tundra emits more Carbon than it Absorbs

Reasons for this inverted trend

  • Global Warming: The rising temperature is leading to the thawing of the permafrost in the region. This is activating the decomposers and microbes.
    • Due to microbial action the carbon dioxide and methane is synthesised from biological form to gaseous form leading to emissions. 
  • Wildfires: Another major reason for rising emissions is the high frequency of wildfires in the year 2024. 

Both these reasons contributed to a hike in emissions from the Arctic region. 

arctic-wild headlines

Way Forward: The prime way forward suggested is to reduce carbon emission. This can be achieved by moving towards green technology like hydrogen fuel cells, and renewable energy sources. 

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