The Indian Express

India-EU Trade Talks

Context: India is set to raise concerns over the European Union’s controversial carbon tax, which seeks to impose tariffs as high as 30% on imports of carbon-intensive products such as Steel and Aluminium from January 2026.  

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism

Mains: India-EU Trade relations

About EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)

  • The EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism is a carbon tariff on carbon intensive products, such as steel, cement and some electricity, imported to the European Union. 
  • Legislated as part of the European Green Deal, it takes effect in 2026, while the current transitional phase lasts between 2023 and 2025.
  • Purpose: 
    • To put a fair price on the carbon emitted during the production of carbon-intensive goods that are entering the EU.
    • To prevent carbon leakage, i.e., shifting of the production of goods to non-EU countries, where there is a lower or no carbon cost associated with their production. 
    • To encourage cleaner industrial production in non-EU countries.
    • To ensure that the EU's climate objectives are not undermined.
  • CBAM is designed to be compatible with the rules of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). 

Key Features

  • Carbon Certificates:
    • EU importers will have to buy carbon certificates corresponding to the carbon price that would have been paid in the EU if the goods had been produced locally.
    • The price of the certificates would be calculated according to the auction prices in the EU carbon credit market.
    • The number of certificates required would be defined yearly by the quantity of goods and the embedded emissions in those goods imported into the EU.
    • EU importers will declare the emissions embedded in their imports and surrender the corresponding number of certificates each year.
    • If importers can prove that a carbon price has already been paid during the production of the imported goods, the corresponding amount can be deducted.
    • Companies in countries with a domestic carbon pricing regime equivalent to the EU’s will be able to export to the EU without buying CBAM certificates.
  • Coverage: CBAM will initially cover several specific products in some of the most carbon-intensive sectors at risk of carbon leakage: iron and steel (including some downstream products such as nuts and bolts), cement, fertilizers, aluminium, electricity, and hydrogen.

India’s concerns regarding CBAM

  • Violation of climate equity principles:
    • CBAM contradicts the Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) principle under multilateral climate agreements.
    • India argues that CBAM disproportionately affects developing economies like India.
  • Negative impact on Indian exports:
    • The EU accounts for 15% of India’s total exports ($75 billion in 2022-23).
    • CBAM could increase costs for Indian exporters, especially in the steel and aluminium sectors. Global Trade and Research Institute (GTRI) estimates a 20-35% tax on select Indian metal exports to the EU.
    • CEEW Report (2024) highlights that 43% of India’s exports to the EU could be at risk due to sustainability-focused regulations.
      • The product categories at risk include textiles, chemicals, selected consumer electronics products, plastics, and vehicles.
      • These items accounted for 32% of India’s exports to the EU in 2022, valued at approximately $27 billion. 
      • If CBAM sectors are added to the list, then the exports of at-risk sectors amount to $37 billion.
image 196
  • Negotiations at Risk: 
    • India is negotiating a free trade agreement (FTA), investment pact, and geographical indication (GI) treaty with the EU.
    • CBAM may nullify trade concessions under FTA if additional products are brought under its ambit.
  • Data compliance burden: 
    • CBAM demands over 1,000 data points for compliance, affecting small manufacturers who lack such records.

Response to EU’s CBAM

  • The Government of India termed CBAM an unfair measure.
  • Multilateral resistance: Countries like China, Russia, Brazil, South Africa have taken the EU to the WTO, but India is yet to formally file a case.
  • Negotiations through Trade and Technology Council (TTC): India and the EU have agreed to discuss CBAM-related concerns separately. 

NASA’s SPHEREx Telescope

Context: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is scheduled to launch its new space telescope SPHEREx on February 28, 2025 aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from California, the US.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about SPHEREx Telescope. 

SPHEREx Telescope

  • SPHEREx (Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of Reionisation, and Ices Explorer) is a planned two-year mission that will survey the sky in optical as well as near-infrared light.
  • Key Objectives:
    • Create a 3D survey/map of the entire sky
    • Investigate cosmic inflation
  • Location: Sun-synchronous Low Earth Orbit.
SPHEREx Telescope

Key Features

  • SPHEREx is equipped with a prism-like spectrophotometer that splits light into 102 colours and enables it to detect faint cosmic structures. 
  • It will scan the entire sky twice a year and conduct its 3D survey.
    • It will map more than 450 million galaxies and over 100 million stars in the Milky Way.
  • It will investigate cosmic inflation — a period of rapid expansion that occurred a fraction of a second after the Big Bang.
image 192

Significance

  • 3D map of entire Sky:
    • The mission will create a map of the entire sky in 102 different colour bands, far exceeding the colour resolution of previous all-sky maps. 
    • It also will identify targets for more detailed study by future missions, such as NASA's James Webb Space Telescope.
  • Identify Distribution of Essential Molecules: 
    • SPHEREx will locate frozen water and biogenic molecules — such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur — in interstellar clouds across the Milky Way.
    • Cataloging the location of these essential molecules will provide a deeper understanding of their distribution, and determine how these frozen compounds survive and accumulate over time. 
  • Evolution of Universe:
    • Better understand the elusive physics that propelled cosmic inflation (the nearly instantaneous ballooning of space within the first second after the Big Bang).
  • Planetary Formation:
    • SPHEREx will examine newly formed stars and protoplanetary disks surrounding them to understand how water and biogenic molecules transition from interstellar clouds into developing planetary systems.

The findings of SPHEREx Telescope will complement the findings of James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), which detects near-infrared and mid-infrared wavelengths to observe faint and distant objects. 

Enforce Exemplary Penalties to end Pradhan Pati Culture

Context: The Ministry of Panchayati Raj had created a Panel in 2023 to examine the issue of Women Pradhan being represented by their Male members of their families. The panel has recommended “exemplary penalties” for proven cases of proxy leadership as a measure to curb the practice of ‘Pradhan Pati’, ‘Sarpanch Pati’ or ‘Mukhiya Pati’ in Gram Panchayats across the country.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Issues concerning Panchayati Raj Institutions; Devolution of real power to women at panchayat.

Sarpanch Pati

  • It is a term used to describe the situation when women are elected as Sarpanch or Pradhan but their relatives act as sarpanch-pati or sarpanch-devar or pradhan-pati etc. wielding the actual political and decision-making power behind women. 
  • The term implies that where women are de jure elected, and their husbands de facto run the Panchayat. 

Constitutional and Legal Provisions in the context of Women Reservation

  • 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992:
    • One-third reservation for women in PRIs.
    • 21 States and 2 UTs increased this to 50% reservation for women.
    • Legal loophole: The Act does not explicitly prohibit proxy leadership, allowing male relatives to misuse power.
  • Supreme Court’s Order (July 2023):
    • In Mundona Rural Development Foundation Vs Union of India, SC directed the Ministry of Panchayati Raj (MoPR) to investigate and recommend steps to curb proxy leadership.
  • Panchayati Raj Act (State-specific variations):
    • Some states have stronger gender-inclusive policies, for example:
      • Kerala: Reserved seats for women in Panchayat subject committees and ward-level committees.
      • Madhya Pradesh & Chhattisgarh: Regular monitoring of women’s participation in PRIs.

Key Issues involved with respect to Women Reservation in Panchayats

  • Proxy Leadership in PRIs: 
    • Despite a high number of women elected representatives (WERs) in Gram Panchayats, many do not exercise real power due to proxy leadership by male relatives (husbands, fathers, or brothers).
    • These male relatives, referred to as ‘Sarpanch Pati’, ‘Pradhan Pati’, or ‘Mukhiya Pati’, informally assume control over governance decisions.
    • Example: In Rajasthan, cases have been reported where elected women representatives are rarely seen at Panchayat meetings, while their husbands take all major decisions.
  • Regional Disparities: 
    • Proxy leadership is more prevalent in Northern states, particularly in: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana and Rajasthan. 
    • Example: In a study conducted in Bihar, it was found that over 60% of elected women panchayat leaders had their husbands or male relatives attending meetings and making decisions on their behalf.
  • Lack of Effective Participation
    • Although women make up 47% of elected representatives in PRIs, their real decision-making power remains low.
    • Reasons being:
      • Societal norms discourage women from taking leadership roles.
      • Women often lack confidence, education, and training in governance.
      • Family pressure forces them to delegate responsibilities to male relatives. 
      • Example: A survey in Haryana found that most women Sarpanches did not even know the details of their Panchayat’s budget, as their husbands handled financial matters.
  • Weak accountability mechanisms: 
    • No strict legal provisions or penalties to deter proxy leadership.
    • Complaints about proxy leadership rarely lead to action due to lack of proper complaint mechanisms.
    • Example: In Rajasthan, a woman Pradhan who attempted to report her husband’s interference was threatened by community leaders and forced to withdraw her complaint.
  • Insufficient training and support for Women leaders: Women Elected Representatives are often first-time leaders, lacking:
    • Governance knowledge.
    • Awareness of their rights and responsibilities.
    • Administrative experience.
    • Example: In a Panchayat in Madhya Pradesh, a woman Sarpanch struggled to understand official documents, forcing her to rely on her husband for all official correspondence.
  • Lack of technology-based interventions:
    • No structured digital tracking system to monitor whether the elected women representatives are actually attending meetings and making decisions.
    • Example: While Kerala has a system where Panchayat meetings are live-streamed, ensuring transparency, most Northern states lack such mechanisms.

Key Recommendations to address Proxy Leadership

  • Legal and Policy reforms: Strict penalties for proxy leadership as recommended by the panel.
    • Exemplary penalties should be enforced for proven cases.
    • Standardisation of legal measures: A uniform national policy should be framed to prevent proxy leadership. 
    • Example: In some Gram Panchayats in Maharashtra, proxy leadership cases have resulted in disqualification of elected women representatives, but such penalties are not consistently applied across India.
  • Helpline and Whistleblower Protection Mechanisms: 
    • Setting up confidential helplines where women representatives can report proxy leadership without fear.
    • Whistleblower rewards: Incentivizing verified complaints. Example: Kerala has a Women’s Helpline for elected representatives, which helps report gender-based issues, including proxy leadership.
  • Gender-Exclusive Quotas: 
    • Reserved seats in Panchayat subject committees and ward-level committees to ensure women’s representation in governance. 
    • Example: Kerala’s model of women-only committees in Panchayats has improved decision-making and participation.
  • Women Ombudspersons for PRIs: 
    • Appoint women’s ombuds-persons to handle complaints related to gender-based discrimination and proxy leadership.
    • Example: In Odisha, a few districts have introduced women ombudspersons in PRIs, leading to better grievance redressal.
  • Mandatory Public Swearing-In of Women Pradhans: 
    • Women must take an oath of office publicly in Gram Sabha meetings, reinforcing their accountability.
  • Capacity building and leadership training: 
    • Mandatory training in governance, financial management, and legal rights. Training in vernacular languages for accessibility.
    • Example: Tamil Nadu introduced a mandatory induction program for all first-time WERs, which significantly improved their participation.
  • Direct mentorship by Women MLAs and MPs: 
    • Elected women Pradhans should be directly mentored by experienced women leaders.
    • Example: A pilot mentorship program in Karnataka helped new women Pradhans gain confidence and effectively perform their duties.
  • Gender Resource Centers in Panchayats: 
    • Centers offering legal advice, leadership coaching, and networking opportunities for women representatives.
    • Example: West Bengal’s Self-Help Group model integrates women’s leadership training with Panchayat governance.
  • Use of technology and Digital Governance: 
    • Virtual Reality (VR)-based training to simulate real-life governance situations and build confidence.
    • AI-driven legal and governance guidance in local languages. Example: Some urban local bodies in Telangana have started using AI chatbots to assist first-time leaders in governance queries.
  • Digital tracking of Women’s participation:
    • Panchayat Nirnay Portal: Citizens can track the attendance and participation of elected women representatives.
    • WhatsApp Groups for Women Representatives linked with officials for real-time issue resolution. Example: In Gujarat, a mobile app tracks Panchayat meeting attendance, helping curb proxy participation.
  • Institutional oversight and community involvement: 
    • Formation of Women-Only Monitoring Councils. District and block-level councils comprising experienced women ERs and retired officials to monitor proxy leadership cases.
    • Annual awards for anti-proxy initiatives: Recognising individuals and organisations that actively combat proxy leadership.

Also Read: Role & Challenges of Women in Panchayati Raj Institutions 

Proxy leadership severely undermines women’s political empowerment in Panchayati Raj Institutions. By implementing strict penalties and public accountability measures, the government can ensure that elected women leaders truly exercise their democratic mandate. 

NAKSHA Scheme

Context: Union Rural Development Minister launched the Central government’s new initiative- ‘NAtional geospatial Knowledge-based land Survey of urban HAbitations’ (NAKSHA).

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: NAKSHA Scheme

About NAKSHA Scheme

  • NAKSHA (National Geospatial Knowledge-based Land Survey of Urban Habitations) is a geospatial technology-driven city survey initiative under the existing Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme (DILRMP). 
  • Aim: To create and update land records in urban areas to ensure transparency, efficiency, and accuracy in property ownership documentation.
  • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Rural Development.
  • Implemented by: Department of Land Resources, in collaboration with Survey of India, and National Informatics Centre Services Inc. (NICSI)

Objectives:

  • Modernise urban land records: Ensure accurate, updated, and digitalized land ownership records.
  • Enhance urban planning: Facilitate smart city development and infrastructure planning.
  • Reduce land disputes: Minimize property disputes through clear, verifiable records.
  • Foster transparency: Establish a Web-GIS-based IT system for land record management.
  • Support sustainable development: Improve urban governance and land resource management.

Key features

  • Launched as a pilot project in 152 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs): Across 26 States and 3 Union Territories (UTs).
    • Cities selected meet two criteria: area less than 35 sq km, and population less than 2 lakhs. The pilot project will be completed in a year.
    • As per the Census 2011, India has 7,933 towns covering 1.02 lakh square km of the total 32.87 lakh square km geographical area of the country. NAKSHA will cover 4,142.63 square km of area.
  • Estimated cost of pilot project: ₹194 crore (100% funded by Government of India).
  • Drone-based land survey: High-precision aerial surveys for accurate mapping.
  • Web-GIS platform: End-to-end IT-based land record management system.
  • Public accessibility: Citizens can access digital land records for ease of living.

How will the Survey be conducted?

  • Use of drone technology:
    • Aerial photography using two types of cameras: Simple cameras & Oblique angle cameras (5 cameras with LiDAR sensors).
    • Mounted on drones with 5 cm resolution, much sharper than satellite imagery.
  • Three-Stage survey process:
    • Drone Survey & Data Collection:
      • Select survey area and create a flight plan for drone survey.
      • Drones capture images, from which data is extracted.
    • Field Survey & Data Verification:
      • Ground verification of property tax, ownership, and registration records.
      • 2D/3D models are created, and draft land ownership details are published.
    • Public Review & Finalisation:
      • Claims and objections are reviewed.
      • Grievance redressal is conducted.
      • Final maps are published.

Potential benefits:

  • Will provide comprehensive digital urban land records.
  • Reduce land disputes and facilitate faster and efficient urban planning.
  • Improve property tax collection and simplify property transactions.
  • Enhances access to credit by streamlining ownership records.

Need for Urban Land Record Updation: 

  • While rural land records have improved due to efforts like Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme (DILRMP), urban land records remain fragmented, outdated or incomplete in many Indian cities.
    • As of 2024, around 95% of rural land records have been computerised, covering over 6.26 lakh villages. 
  • Lack of cadastral map (detailed property maps within a specific area) in urban areas results in:
    • Difficulty in verification of land ownership
    • Disputes and delays in urban infrastructure projects
    • Inefficiencies in governance and loss of tax revenue for municipal bodies.  

US votes against UN Resolution on Ukraine War

Context: For the first time, after three years of supporting Ukraine, the United States made a sharp turn and voted against a United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) resolution condemning Russia for its invasion. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about the United Nations General Assembly.

Mains: Russia-Ukraine War: Key trends & developments.

Brief Background

  • The US has voted to block a UN General Assembly resolution (UNGA) brought in by Ukraine calling for the de-escalation, an early cessation of hostilities and a peaceful resolution of the war against Ukraine.
    • The resolution, titled “Advancing a comprehensive, just and lasting peace in Ukraine”, was backed by Ukraine and European allies, calling for de-escalation and adherence to international law. 
    • The final vote saw 93 countries, including major European powers and the G7 (minus the US), voting in favour, while 18, including Russia, the US, and Israel, opposed it. 
    • India abstained from voting on this UN General Assembly (UNGA) resolution.
  • The US also filed its own resolution that did not explicitly blame Russia for the conflict and called for an end to the war on neutral terms.
  • Note: UN General Assembly resolutions/decisions are not binding for Member States. Rather they are viewed as expressions of the will of the international community on a given topic. 

Previously passed UNGA resolutions on Ukraine-Russia War:  (“Trivia: Just to know Background”)

  • March 3, 2022: 141 countries, including the US, voted in favour of a resolution condemning Russia’s declaration on February 24, 2022, of a “special military operation” and reaffirming that territorial acquisition by force is illegal. The resolution demanded that Russia cease its use of force against Ukraine and withdraw its troops from the territory. Five countries voted against it.
  • March 24, 2022: The US joined 139 countries and voted in favour of a resolution which reaffirmed its “commitment to the sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial integrity of Ukraine”, calling on Russia to withdraw its troops.
  • April 2022: 93 countries, including the US, voted in favour of an UNGA resolution suspending Russia’s membership in the Human Rights Council.
  • October 2022: US supported an UNGA resolution that won with 143 condemning the Russian annexation of Ukrainian territory.
  • November 2022: US voted in favour of an UNGA resolution calling on Russia to pay reparations to Ukraine, while also calling on Russia to cease use of force and withdraw troops.
  • February 23, 2023: A resolution calling territorial acquisition by force illegal and asking Russia to withdraw its troops from Ukraine passed by 141-7. US voted in favour of this resolution.

India’s Position

India along with China have abstained from the voting which is seen as a strategic balancing act.

  • India along with 65 other nations, including China, Brazil, and South Africa abstained from voting.
  • The US has shifted its stance by abstaining on the final vote, marking a break from Europe’s position. India also abstained from the US-tabled rival resolution, which was ultimately adopted with amendments.

Geopolitical Analysis

  • Evolving Multipolar world: India’s abstention highlights the evolving multipolar world order, where regional powers seek to maintain independent foreign policies. 
  • Emerging powers: The alignment of BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) in abstaining suggests a broader trend of emerging economies resisting Western-led narratives. 
  • Regional stability: The abstention by Gulf nations, including Saudi Arabia and the UAE, signals their shifting geopolitical calculus, prioritizing regional stability over alignment with Western policies. 

Interpretation of India’s Vote

  • Since the beginning of the Russia-Ukraine conflict in 2022, India has consistently maintained a neutral stance in international forums. This position stems from its strategic imperatives, where it seeks to balance its deep-rooted ties with Russia and its growing partnership with the West. 
  • Abstention allows India to avoid antagonising any major power bloc while preserving its strategic autonomy.
  • It reflects a pragmatic approach to global diplomacy rather than a moral endorsement of either side. While India acknowledges Ukraine’s sovereignty, it also recognizes Russia’s critical role in its defense sector and energy security. 
  • At the same time, India’s close economic and strategic ties with the US and Europe prevent it from outright opposing Western resolutions.
  • A key observation from this vote is India’s continued neutrality despite the US shifting its stance.
    • The US's decision to abstain indicates a recalibration of its own foreign policy under Trump, acknowledging the limitations of direct confrontation with Russia. 
    • This also aligns with a broader global trend where middle powers are asserting greater autonomy in their diplomatic choices rather than being subsumed into traditional Western or Eastern alliances.

From India’s perspective, maintaining neutrality serves the following purposes

  • Strategic autonomy: India continues to reinforce its status as a key player that does not align blindly with any major power bloc.
  • Defense and energy interests: With Russia being a significant defense partner and oil supplier, India’s stance avoids jeopardising these crucial ties.
  • Engagement with the West: By abstaining rather than voting against, India ensures that its growing engagements with the US and Europe remain unaffected.
  • Positioning for peace mediation: As a country that has maintained communication with both Russia and Ukraine, India can position itself as a potential mediator should peace talks become a realistic possibility.

India's abstention underscores India’s effort to navigate the complex geopolitical landscape while upholding its foreign policy doctrine of non-alignment. India’s approach is likely to remain cautious, pragmatic, and centered on its national interests rather than any ideological alignments. 

About United Nations General Assembly

  • The UN General Assembly (UNGA) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN).
  • It  is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the UN. 
  • It provides a unique forum for multilateral discussion on international issues covered by the Charter of the United Nations. Discussions on global issues like peace, security, human rights, and other international challenges.
  • It comprises all member states of the UN (193 members).
    • UNGA is the only UN organ where all member states have equal representation (vote).
    • UNGA can grant observer status to the non-member States.
  • Functions of UNGA:
    • Responsible for the UN budget
    • Appointing the non-permanent members to the UN Security Council
    • Appointing the UN secretary-general
    • Making recommendations through resolutions (non-binding).
  • Key Achievements:
    • Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
    • Millennium Development Goals (2000)
    • Agenda for Sustainable Development (2030)
    • Global Compacts on Refugees and Migration (2018)
    • The presidency rotates annually among five geographic groups: African, Asian, Eastern European, Latin American and Caribbean, Western European and others.

Also Read: UNITED NATIONS 

Time use survey 2024: NSO

Context: Recently, the National Statistics Office (NSO) has released the findings of the Time Use Survey 2024, conducted during January – December 2024. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Time Use Survey 2024.

Mains: Issues associated with Unpaid care work. 

Time Use Survey

  • Time Use Survey (TUS) measures time dispositions by the population on different activities. 
  • The primary objective of the Survey is to measure the participation of men and women in paid and unpaid activities.
  • Time Use Survey 2024 (January-December) covered over 4.5 lakh people belonging to 1.3 lakh households (both rural and urban). Information on time use was collected from each member of age 6 years and above of the selected households. 
  • Released by: Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI)
    • National Statistics Office, MoSPI conducted the first all-India Time Use Survey during January – December 2019. 
    • January – December 2024 is the second such All-India Survey.
image 188

Major findings of the Time Use Survey 2024

  • The gap between the minutes spent by females than males in a day is the sharpest for unpaid domestic work, followed by unpaid caregiving services for household members.
    • Females spent 289 minutes in unpaid domestic services for household members than 88 minutes spent by males in 2024. 
    • Time spent by females in a day on unpaid domestic services for household members reduced by 10 minutes to 289 minutes in 2024, from 299 minutes in 2019. 
  • For unpaid caregiving services for household members, females spent 137 minutes a day, while males spent 75 minutes in 2024.
  • For employment and related activities, men spent 132 minutes more than females (341 minutes by females, 473 minutes by males).
    • During 2024, 75% of the males and 25% of the females in the age group 15-59 years, participated in employment and related activities during the reference period of 24 hours. 

What are Unpaid Activities?

  • Paid work includes self-employment for production of goods and services; regular wage or salary or casual labour for production of goods and services.
  • Unpaid activities include:
    • care for children, sick, elderly, differently-abled persons in own households;
    • production of other services for own consumption
    • production of goods for own consumption
    • voluntary work for production of goods & services in households and market/non-market units
    • unpaid trainee work and other unpaid work for production of goods and services.

Also Read: Empowering Women: Unpaid Care Work's Influence on Labor Force Engagement

Tea Horse Road

Context: China’s Ambassador to India posted about the historic Tea Horse Road which spanned more than 2,000 km, and connected China to India via Tibet.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Tea Horse Road.

Tea Horse Road/ Ancient Chama Road

  • Origin: It can be traced back to the 618-907 CE during the rule of Tang Dynasty.
  • Route: It was not a single road, but a network of paths that started from Southwest China and ended in the Indian Subcontinent.
    • The main pathways passed through Chinese cities like Lijiang in Yunnan Province and Chengdu in Sichuan Province. 
    • Then it reached Lhasa in Tibet, from where it branched into India, Nepal and Bangladesh.
  • Though it is not known as the Silk Road (China- Europe), the Tea horse road was a crucial commercial trade route for centuries.
image 184

Significance of the route in Trade

As per the writings of Buddhist Monk and traveler I-Tsing/ Yijing (635-713 CE): 

  • From China to India: Products like Sugar, Textiles and Rice Noodles were transported from Southwestern China to Tibet and India.
  • From India to China: Horses, leather, Tibetan Gold, Saffron and medicine herbs.
  • From the times of Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) trade mainly focused on Tea from China and Horses from India.
  • By 1912, the route gained significance as it became a tool for bringing new techniques and goods to the less developed mountainous regions of Yunnan (China) which helped in expanding the tea industry rapidly.
  • During World War II, Japan gained control over the entire Chinese coastline and airspace. The road became crucial for transporting supplies to the frontline battlefield in China.
image 186
  • Decline in significance: With establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the road witnessed decline in significance. This happened mainly because of Mao Zedong’s land reforms, after which porters mostly stopped the backbreaking work of carrying the loads.
  • Contemporary significance: China has promoted tourism along the historic path and Lijiang became a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1997.

Panchayat Devolution Index 2024

Context: The Ministry of Panchayati Raj has recently published the Panchayat Devolution Index 2024. The index was last published in 2014. Over the past decade, the national average score has increased from 39.92 to 43.89.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Panchayat Devolution Index 2024. 

Mains: Challenges faced by Panchayats.

About Panchayat Devolution Index (PDI)

  • PDI is a tool to assess the devolution of powers and resources to Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) across Indian states and Union Territories. 
  • The index measures the performance of India’s panchayat system across states based on six key parameters:
    • Framework: Legal and policy framework supporting Panchayati raj institutions.
    • Functions: Extent of devolution of functions to panchayats.
    • Finances: Availability and allocation of financial resources.
    • Functionaries: Availability of trained personnel and administrative capacity.
    • Capacity building: Training and skill development of panchayat members.
    • Accountability: Transparency and effectiveness in governance.
  • Developed by: Indian Institute of Public Administration. 
image 182

Key findings of the 2024 report

  • Top performing States: Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
  • The national average score rose from 39.92 in 2013-14 to 43.89 in 2024.
    • The PDI was last published in 2014. The slight improvement in national average score indicates modest progress in devolution efforts. 
  • Improvements and Declines:
    • 18 states and Union Territories improved their scores, while 11 recorded declines. 
    • Uttar Pradesh and Bihar showed the biggest improvement compared to their past performance.
    • Maharashtra, despite ranking fourth overall in 2024, is the only top-10 state to register a decline.
  • Lowest-ranked states: Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and Jharkhand, with Manipur, Arunachal, and Haryana experiencing the steepest declines over the past decade.
image 183

Representation and demographics of Panchayats in 2024

  • Total number of panchayats in India:
    • Numbers have increased from 2.48 lakh (2013-14) to 2.62 lakh (2024).
    • States with the highest number of panchayats are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.
  • Average rural population per panchayat:
    • Increased from 3,087 (2013-14) to 4,669 (2024), indicating a trend of fewer but larger panchayats.
    • West Bengal, Assam, and Bihar have the most densely populated panchayats.

Women's representation in Panchayats

  • Women’s reservation in panchayats:
    • Most states follow the 50% reservation quota for women in panchayat seats.
    • However, seven states and UTs fall below their mandated quota, E.g., Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, and Tripura.
  • Highest representation of women:
    • Odisha (61.51%)
    • Himachal Pradesh (57.5%)
    • Tamil Nadu (57.32%)
  • Lowest representation of women: Uttar Pradesh (33.33%), which aligns with its one-third reservation policy for women rather than the 50% quota followed by most states.
  • Overall progress:
    • The national average of women representatives has risen slightly from 45.9% (2013-14) to 46.44% (2024). 
    • The number of states with 50% or more women representatives has increased from 11 (2013-14) to 16 (2024).

Representation of Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC): 

  • Highest representation of marginalised groups in panchayats: 
    • Scheduled Castes (SCs): Punjab (36.34%)
    • Scheduled Tribes (STs): Chhattisgarh (41.04%).
    • Other Backward Classes (OBCs): Bihar (39.02%)
  • National averages for representation of marginalised groups in 2024: 
    • SC representation: 18.03%
    • ST representation: 16.22%
    • OBC representation: 19.15%
  • Arunachal Pradesh: Reported 100% ST representation (2013-14), but did not provide 2024 data.

Challenges faced by Panchayats

1. Funding: 

  • Despite allocations, actual release of funds is often delayed. For instance, in 2023-24, only Rs 10,761 crore out of Rs 47,018 crore allocated was released as of November 2023.
  • Poor internal resource generation: Most panchayats lack the ability to generate their own revenue, exacerbating their financial constraints.

2. Infrastructure shortfalls: 

  • Many panchayats lack basic infrastructure like pucca buildings, computers, and internet access. E.g., Arunachal Pradesh has only 5% pucca buildings and no panchayat with computers.
  • Digital Infrastructure: 100% computer availability in panchayats was reported in 12 states and UTs, while:
    • Arunachal Pradesh had 0% computer availability.
    • Odisha had only 13% of panchayats with computers.
  • Internet access in panchayats:
    • 14 states and UTs reported 100% internet access.
    • Haryana (0%) and Arunachal Pradesh (1%) had nearly no internet connectivity in their panchayats.

3. Administrative challenges:

  • Inadequate devolution of Powers: Many states have not fully devolved functions and authority to panchayats, limiting their scope of work.
  • Lack of skilled functionaries: There is a shortage of trained and skilled personnel, including elected representatives and support staff.
  • Interference from higher authorities: Interference by MPs and MLAs is seen to have undermined the autonomy and decision-making capacity of panchayats.

4. Women representation:

While 21 states and UTs meet or exceed the 50% reservation threshold for women, seven states fall below it.

5. Social Challenges:

  • Gender and social biases: Despite reservations, women and marginalized groups often face challenges in exercising their roles effectively due to patriarchal attitudes and biases.
  • Illiteracy among the functionaries: Illiterate or semi-literate sarpanch struggle to represent their panchayats effectively.

Way Forward

  • Enhanced funding and infrastructure: Ensure timely release of allocated funds to panchayats and empower panchayats to generate their own revenue There is a need to invest in basic infrastructure like buildings, computers, and internet connectivity.
  • Capacity building and training: Provide regular training and capacity-building programs for panchayat functionaries to enhance their skills and knowledge.
  • Improved accountability and transparency: Implement robust accountability mechanisms to ensure transparency in decision-making and resource allocation.
  • Strengthening framework and devolution of functions: Regularly review and update the legal framework to ensure it aligns with evolving needs and supports effective decentralization.
  • Streamline administrative processes: Reduce interference from higher authorities and ensure clear devolution of powers.

Also Read: Panchayati Raj Movement is in Distress 

The PDI 2024 findings underscore the need for renewed efforts in financial devolution, administrative capacity-building, and infrastructure development to strengthen Panchayati Raj Institutions as the backbone of India’s rural democracy.

Glacier Melting & Sea level Rise

Context: A newly published study highlights that melting ice from glaciers worldwide has led to the sea level rising by almost 2 cm this century alone.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends regarding climate change. 

Major Highlights of the Study

  • Study: Community estimate of global glacier mass changes from 2000 to 2023. 
  • Contributors: Scientists from the University of Edinburgh (Scotland) and the University of Zurich (Switzerland)

Findings:

  • Melting ice has led to the sea level rising by almost 2 cm this century alone.
  • Glaciers have been losing 273 billion tonnes of ice each year, equivalent to water Earth’s entire population would consume over a period of 30 years.
image 181

Glacial Melting and Sea Rise

  • According to the US agency National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA):
    • The rate of glacial melting has doubled from 0.18 cm per year in 1993 to the current rate of 0.42 cm per year. 
    • The global sea level has risen by about 21-25 cm since 1880. 
  • As per the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), global sea levels have risen by more than 10 cm between 1993-2024.
  • According to a World Meteorological Organisation report, sea level is not rising uniformly around the world (owing to local changes in ocean heat content and salinity). For example- the southwestern Indian Ocean region is seeing sea level rise at a rate of 2.5 mm per year, faster than the global average.

Indian Scenario

Data from the Center for Study of Science, Technology and Policy (CSTEP), Bengaluru. 

  • Mumbai has witnessed a rise of 4.44 cm between 1987 and 2021, the worst among Indian cities. 
  • West Bengal’s Haldia has witnessed a sea-level rise of 2.726 cm.
  • Andhra Pradesh’s Visakhapatnam has witnessed a sea-level rise of  2.381 cm.
  • Kerala’s Kochi has witnessed a sea-level rise of 2.213 cm.

Factors contributing to the Sea level Rise:  

Sea level rise is essentially the increase in the average height of the ocean’s surface, measured from the centre of the Earth.

  • Global Warming: This has resulted in increased melting of land-based ice, such as glaciers and ice sheets. According to the latest study, since 2000, glaciers have lost between 2% and 39% of their ice regionally, and about 5% globally.
  • Thermal expansion of seawater: With global temperatures rising, oceans are becoming warmer, and as a result, the volume of water is increasing as well. According to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) thermal expansion of seawater is responsible for one-third to half of global sea level rise.

Concerns associated with the rising sea levels

As per the study “Every centimeter of sea level rise exposes another 2 million people to annual flooding somewhere on our planet”.

  • Flooding and erosion of coastal areas:
    • Sea level rise leads to more frequent and intense coastal flooding, which exacerbates coastal erosion. 
    • According to a 2018 report by the National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR), between 1990 and 2016, the West Bengal coast alone lost almost 99 sq km of land.
  • More severe geophysical phenomenon: 
    • The rise results in more intense storm surges, allowing more water inland during tropical storms. 
    • This in turn can impact coastal ecosystems like mangroves, coral reefs and salt marshes, contaminate fresh water supplies etc.
  • Displacement of population: 
    • Submergence, erosion and intense climatic events may result in huge displacement of coastal populations, which in turn would adversely impact their livelihood and their age-old traditions. 
    • A 2024 study in the journal Scientific Reports found that 15% of the global; population lived merely 10 km away from water.
  • Changes in weather patterns: Addition of a considerable amount of freshwater into the ocean is concerning as this increase in freshwater has the potential to disturb the oceanic circulations, which is a crucial system of ocean currents responsible for shaping the Earth's climate and weather patterns.

Tariff reduction on Agricultural Products in India-US Trade Negotiations

Context: Agricultural goods receive high protection in India and have largely remained outside trade agreements. India is considering a range of items for tariff reductions on US products, however, the United States is particularly interested in reduction of tariffs in the agricultural sector to export more agricultural goods to India.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends in the US-India Trade relations. 

India-US trade in Agricultural products

  • High protection in India:
    • India has traditionally maintained high tariffs on agricultural imports to protect its domestic farming sector, which is highly sensitive and politically significant.
    • Despite tariff reductions on select products in recent Union Budgets, agriculture remains a protected sector.
  • US Agricultural export interests:
    • The American agricultural sector (especially in the Midwest) forms a key voter base for former President Donald Trump, influencing US trade policies.
    • Increasing agricultural exports is an offensive interest for the US, aiming to support domestic farmers and strengthen economic ties.
  • Tariff rates comparison:
    • India’s average applied Most Favoured Nation (MFN) tariff on agricultural goods: 39%
    • The US average applied MFN tariff on agricultural goods: 5%
  • Implications:
    • High Indian tariffs on agricultural products lead to trade imbalances and hinder the growth of US exports to India.
    • The disparity prompts US demands for reciprocal tariff reductions, which could potentially benefit both sides through enhanced trade volumes.
image 179

India’s agricultural exports to the US

  • Key export items: Basmati rice, spices, cereals, dairy, and poultry products.
  • Export value: Approximately $4 million annually.
  • Potential gains from tariff reductions:
    • Lowering tariffs could improve the market access for Indian agricultural goods in the US.
    • Enhanced access could particularly benefit sectors like basmati rice, processed foods, and spices.

Sectoral vulnerabilities in Indian agriculture from US Reciprocal Tariffs (As per GTRI Report): 

  • Seafood (Fish, Meat, Processed Seafood): 
    • Exports worth $2.58 billion face a 27.83% tariff differential.
    • Shrimp, a key export item, is likely to lose competitiveness in the US market.
  • Processed Foods, Sugar, and Cocoa:
    • Exports worth $1.03 billion affected by a 24.99% tariff increase.
    • Indian snacks and confectionery products will become costlier and less attractive to US consumers.
  • Edible Oils: Coconut and mustard oil exports valued at $199.75 million face a 10.67% tariff increase.
  • Alcohol, Wines, and Spirits: Exports of $19.20 million affected by a steep 122.10% tariff hike.
  • Live Animals and Animal products: $10.31 million in exports face a 27.75% tariff differential.
  • Tobacco and Cigarettes: Despite a high US tariff of 201.15%, Indian exports worth $94.62 million remain largely unaffected due to an already negative tariff differential (-168.15%).

Also Read: Reciprocal Tariffs by the U.S. 

Comparison in Global Context

  • United States - Mexico - Canada Agreement (USMCA):
    • Signed during Trump’s tenure to replace North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and expand the US agricultural market access.
    • Key Provisions:
      • Removal of Canadian Class 6 and 7 milk pricing programs to prevent undercutting of US dairy prices.
      • Reforms in Canada’s wheat grading system to ensure fair competition for US wheat growers.
    • Impact: Significant increase in the US dairy and wheat exports to Canada.
  • US-China Trade Deal (2020-2021):
    • Focused on boosting US agricultural exports amid the trade war.
    • Key Provisions:
      • China agreed to purchase US agricultural products worth $12.5 billion above the 2017 baseline in 2020 and $19.5 billion above the same baseline in 2021.
      • Removal of non-tariff barriers, such as lifting age restrictions on US beef imports.
    • Outcome: Enhanced market access and increased agricultural trade between the two economies.

Liquefied Natural Gas and Energy Diplomacy

Context: The recent state visit of Qatar’s Amir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al-Tjani to India saw a target to double the bilateral trade between the countries by 2030. Central to achieving the target is India’s import of Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) from Qatar. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: LNG, extraction processes, Uses.

Mains: India’s transition to gas-based economy: Prospects and Challenges.

About Liquefied Natural Gas: 

  • Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is a natural gas that has been cooled to about -162 degree celsius to convert into liquid state. This process significantly reduces its volume by 600 times.
  • LNG is composed of methane (as predominant component), small amounts of ethane, propane and other hydrocarbons. 

LNG Production Process: 

  1. Gas extraction: Natural gas is extracted from underground reservoirs.
  2. Gas processing: Removing impurities like water, carbon dioxide and sulfur.
  3. Liquefaction: The gas is cooled to -162 degree celsius, turning gas into liquid.
  4. Storage and transportation: LNG is stored in isolated tanks and transported using specialised carriers. 
  5. Regasification: At the destination, LNG is heated and converted back to the gas for distribution. This is done using ‘heat transfer fluid’.
  • Uses of LNG: 
    • Power generation using gas-fired power plants to generate electricity. E.g., Hazira and Pipavav power plants.
    • Transportation: LNG is used as a fuel for ships, trucks and buses.
    • Industrial use in sectors like manufacturing and refining, as LNG is a cleaner-burning alternative to coal and oil.

Difference between LPG, CNG and LNG

Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
Components Propane and ButaneMainly methaneMainly Methane
SourceDerived from crude oil refining.Extracted from natural gas fields.Extracted from Natural Gas fields. 
Energy DensityHigher than CNG but lower than LNGLower than LPGHighest per unit volume
Environmental impactProduces carbon dioxide but less than diesel.Lower emission than LPG and petrolCleanest burning fossil fuel.

India and LNG

  • The share of Natural gas (including LNG) in India's energy basket of India is about 6%, which is lower than the global average. 
  • Expected LNG demand rise in India: 
    • To promote clean energy transition, the government has set an ambitious target to increase the share of natural gas in the country's primary energy mix to 15% by 2030, from the present level of about 6%.
      • Only 54% of CO2 is emitted in producing electricity from Natural Gas as compared to what is emitted in producing the same amount of electricity from coal. 
      • Natural gas is seen as a key transition fuel in India’s journey towards green energy and future fuels. However, there is high import dependence on Natural gas (50% of the total gas consumed is imported).
    • Aligns with India’s climate commitments under the Paris Agreement and net-zero emission goals.
      • Reducing emissions intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030, compared to 2005 levels. 
      • Achieving the target of net zero emissions by 2070. 
  • Government Initiatives for LNG expansion: 
    • To promote the usage and distribution of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), the Government has put LNG imports under Open General Licensing (OGL) category. 
      • India imports LNG from Qatar, USA, UAE and Angola, thus diversifying its imports and reducing dependency on one supplier. 
    • Urja Ganga pipeline aims to expand the natural gas grid and promote cleaner energy solutions, ensuring efficient natural gas (including LNG) distribution. 
    • Establishment of LNG infrastructure including LNG terminals under 100% FDI (automatic route).
image 175

LNG and Energy Diplomacy

  • Tool for trade: India and Qatar’s trade is dominated by the LNG imports by India.
    • LNG imports consist of 60% India-Qatar trade by value.
    • Qatar accounts for 40% of India’s total LNG imports. 
  • Enhances bargaining power: 
    • India is emerging as one of the biggest markets for LNG. Both the USA and Qatar have interests in tapping the Indian market. 
    • The situation provides India with an opportunity to leverage it as a bargaining of interests. E.g., India can leverage this to bargain habitable and humane conditions for Indian labour in Qatar for the exchange of natural gas. 

Also Read: India Qatar elevate ties to Strategic Partnership 

Challenges to transition to a gas-based economy

India has set an ambitious target of increasing the share of natural gas in its energy basket from 6% to 15% by 2030. However, India faces following challenges in becoming a gas-based economy:

  • Insignificant domestic gas production, which has further shrunken over the past few years.
  • Inadequate gas-pipeline infrastructure and regional imbalance. E.g., Pipelines remain significantly low in central, southern and eastern India.
  • Limited market for natural gas due to a small number of producers (largely state players), shippers and limited consumers, and lacking liquidity and transparency.
  • Lack of Non-discriminatory/open access for private sectors to gas-pipeline networks.
  • Affordability issues as prices for India’s gas supplies (majorly) are government-controlled and set arbitrarily rather than market-determined.
  • Lack of an integrated Energy ministry and multiple departments governing the fuel sector causes lack of coordination, disconnect in policymaking, and incoherence in implementation.

Way Forward

  • Expanding pipeline infrastructure by targeting regional markets with the biggest capacity gap.
  • Unified and integrated ministry to fix accountability and reform energy governance structure.
  • Independent System Operator in gas markets to manage gas-grid collaboratively, promote efficiency, and for neutral allocation of pipeline usage.
  • Inclusion of natural gas under GST for better pricing, boosting trade through gas markets.
  • Rationalisation of gas pipeline tariffs or adopting single-zone tariff will promote affordability by reducing transportation costs and attract investments in gas-infrastructure.
  • Deregulation of pricing for domestically produced gas can provide freedom to price and market domestic gas and in turn boost domestic production.
  • Strategic Energy agreement with energy-rich countries for energy security. E.g., Investments in Russian-Far East.
  • Import diversification and Alliance with major importing countries like Japan for better-negotiating power against Asian premium.
  • Expedite gas-pipeline projects. E.g., TAPI.

Special Marriage Act 1954: Provisions and Concerns

Context: The recent incident of violence against an interfaith couple in Madhya Pradesh, marrying under the Special Marriage Act 1954, has raised concerns about its provisions and efficacy.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Special Marriage Act 1954. 

Mains: Special Marriage Act 1954: Provisions and Concerns.

About Special Marriage Act, 1954: 

  • The Special Marriage Act (SMA), 1954 was enacted to provide a secular legal framework for marriages between individuals belonging to different religions, castes, or communities. 
  • SMA enables marriage between inter-faith or inter-caste couples without them giving up their religious identity or resorting to conversion.

Objective of the Act: 

  • To decolonise the pre-independence marriage laws, which were largely based on religious personal laws.
  • To empower individuals to marry outside their religion without converting to another faith.
  • To offer a legal mechanism for interfaith marriages (particularly significant in the post-Partition period when religious divisions were sharp).

Eligibility criteria for Marriage: 

The Act prescribes specific conditions that both individuals must fulfill to legally solemnise their marriage:

  • Age requirement and eligibility:
    • The male partner must be at least 21 years old.
    • The female partner must be at least 18 years old.
    • People of any faith can marry across India.
  • Marital status:
    • Neither party should have a living spouse at the time of marriage, ensuring that monogamy is upheld.
  • Mental capacity:
    • Both individuals must be of sound mind and capable of giving valid consent to the marriage.
    • Individuals with severe mental illnesses or disabilities affecting their ability to consent are disqualified.
  • Prohibited relationships: The Act prohibits marriage between close relatives as per customary restrictions, unless allowed by the personal laws of the individuals involved.

Mandatory Public Notice Requirement: 

  • One of the most controversial provisions of the Act is the requirement for public notice before the marriage can be registered.
AD 4nXcQHpQ70HZTncS0uM3BR12wkf10JMH59x9tOZXtyaxmVIbuo3kE7HoeI Hy6vQ3fnFKVKGhVpZZ02iP8tQrPGaJ42707EiEYCwz2sf 4HTiBG1yQ 1c z5L4FaryUepAaX OMci0ZodT3sRQnXIpQ?key=URCTzyK EFGbT2ScbZBc6FoR
  • This provision was intended to allow for transparency and objections, ensuring that no fraudulent or unlawful marriages take place. However, it has led to serious privacy concerns and the misuse of personal information, particularly in cases of interfaith marriages.

Provision for raising objections to Marriage: 

Under Section 7 of the Act, any person can raise an objection to the marriage within the 30-day notice period.

  • Valid grounds for objection include:
    • Either party is below the minimum legal age.
    • One of the partners is already married.
    • The marriage falls within prohibited relationships as per their customs.
    • One or both parties are incapable of giving valid consent due to mental incapacity.
  • If an objection is raised:
    • The Marriage Officer is required to investigate the claims and decide whether the marriage can proceed.
    • If the objection is found valid, the couple cannot get married under the Act.
  • While this provision was introduced as a safeguard against unlawful marriages, it has been frequently misused by families, religious groups, and vigilantes to disrupt interfaith marriages.

Registration and legal recognition of Marriage:

  • If no valid objections are raised within the notice period, the couple can proceed with the marriage.
  • The marriage is solemnised in the presence of the Marriage Officer and three witnesses.
  • After the ceremony, a marriage certificate is issued, which provides legal recognition to the marriage under Indian law.
  • Unlike religious marriages, no religious rituals or conversions are required under this Act.

Issues with the Special Marriage Act, 1954:

1. Violation of Privacy: 

  • The public notice requirement reveals the personal details of the couple to family members, society, and vigilante groups, compromising their right to privacy.
  • In Justice K.S. Puttaswamy vs Union of India (2017) case:
    • The Supreme Court has ruled that privacy is an inalienable fundamental right.
    • It recognised that individuals have the right to make autonomous decisions about their personal lives, including marriage.
    • The public display of marriage notices violates this right, making couples vulnerable to social backlash.

2. Risk of harassment and physical violence:

  • The recent incident at Bhopal (2024) highlights the dangers posed by this provision:
    • The couple’s personal information was allegedly leaked, making them targets of violence.
  • Many interfaith couples face threats, family pressure, and even forced separation due to public disclosure.
  • The state’s failure to provide security to interfaith couples exacerbates the issue.

3. Weaponisation of Section 7 (Objection Clause):

  • Objections to marriage are frequently misused by:
    • Family members who disapprove of interfaith marriages.
    • Religious extremists and vigilantes who claim to be protecting religious purity.
    • Individuals with personal grudges or vested interests.
  • There are no safeguards to prevent false, malicious, or communal objections, leading to unnecessary delays and harassment.

4. Gender bias and patriarchal control:

  • Women, especially from the Hindu community, are often portrayed as incapable of making independent decisions.
  • The assumption that Muslim men manipulate Hindu women reinforces patriarchal and communal biases.
  • Women often face pressure from families, society, and law enforcement to withdraw from interfaith marriages.

5. Legal and social consequences of Public Notice Requirement:

  • Threats from Family and Society: Many couples go into hiding or run away to escape backlash from their families and communities.
  • Forced marriages and honor killings: There have been cases where women are forcibly married off or subjected to honor crimes to prevent interfaith unions.
  • State inaction: Law enforcement agencies often fail to protect couples from threats and violence, allowing moral policing by the vigilante groups to thrive.

Suggested reforms in this Context:

  • Abolishing the Public Notice Requirement: In 2021, the Delhi High Court has ruled that public notice is not mandatory, but this needs to be uniformly implemented across India. Privacy should be protected, and only relevant legal authorities should have access to marriage records.
  • Strengthening protection for couples: Acting against vigilante groups and not allowing them to interfere in lawful marriages.
  • Regulating the Objection Mechanism: Only valid legal objections (age, mental capacity, existing marriage) should be allowed. Authorities must reject objections based on religion, personal beliefs, or social biases as it goes against the spirit of the Act.
  • Raising awareness and legal literacy: Public awareness campaigns should challenge misconceptions about interfaith marriages. Couples should be informed about their rights and legal protections under the Special Marriage Act.
  • Strict action against moral policing: Vigilante groups should be criminally prosecuted for interfering in private matters and authorities leaking personal data should also face legal consequences.

The Special Marriage Act, 1954, was meant to protect interfaith and inter-caste couples, but certain provisions have turned it into a tool of harassment. Unless these issues are addressed, the fundamental rights of individuals to choose their partners will remain under threat.

Trending now

Captagon
B’nei Menashe: Identity, Migration, and the “Lost Tribes” Debate
Bauxite Mining Conflict in Odisha
Impact of Rising Energy Costs on Migrant Labourers