The Hindu

Waste Pickers

Context: On March 1, International Waste Pickers Day, waste pickers across the world will pay homage to fellow pickers who were murdered in Colombia in 1992.

About waste pickers

According to the Solid Waste Management Rules (SWM), 2016: “informal waste collectors” includes individuals, associations or waste-traders who are involved in sorting, sale and purchase of recyclable materials.
SWM 2016 define a “waste picker” as a person informally engaged in the collection and recovery of reusable and recyclable solid waste from the source of waste generation to sale of waste to recyclers directly or through intermediaries.
The Periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 indicates that there are nearly 1.5 million waste pickers within India’s urban workforce, with half a million being women.
It is estimated that India generates 65 million tonnes of waste each year.
On average, an individual waste picker collects between 60 kg to 90kg of waste a day in an eight to 10 hour span of time.
High-Power Committee on Solid Waste Management by the Planning Commission, 1995 called for integration of rag-pickers into the formal system.
Solid Waste Management Rules and Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016, recognise the contribution of rag-pickers and hold that they be included in the solid waste management of local bodies.

Challenges faced by waste pickers in India

Exposed to occupational hazards: They are potentially exposed to a wide range of occupational hazards like gastrointestinal ailments, dermatological and respiratory issues, as community waste bins and dumpsites act as breeding grounds for various bacterial and viral diseases.
Least rewarding job: It is widely recognised that the informal sector engaged in waste collection and sorting carries out the most labour-intensive and least rewarding job of recovering recyclable materials from unsegregated waste.
Socially existential precarity: They are treated as dirty and unwanted elements of society, and they have to deal with exploitative social behaviour.
Lack access to sanitary and healthcare facilities: While the wages and living conditions of different strata of informal waste-workers differ greatly, a majority of them (street waste-pickers) work and live in hazardous conditions. They typically lack access to sanitary and healthcare facilities.
Exclude from social security schemes: They are not covered under any labour legislation. As a result, they do not benefit from social security and medical insurance schemes. They have not been included in any disaster management plan of the administration, leaves them without support during any emergency situation.
Lack of centralised data: Has hindered the development of programs and policies to support Safai Saathis.
Poor access to financing: Out of the total Safai Saathis, surveyed, who had a bank account, only 20% were linked to the Jan Dhan Yojana.
Obstructions in Formalisation: More than 90% of the workers reported owning an Aadhaar card - in line with broad national trends, but only a tiny subset owned an income, caste, or occupation certificate. This thwarts any attempts at formalising their work and limits their access to government social security schemes.

Way forward

Comprehensive laws: There is lack of clear and comprehensive laws and policies to protect the rights of waste-pickers in India. There is an urgent need to frame and implement a uniform waste-picker welfare law that recognises and integrates them into the waste management chain.
- The law must include basic provisions related to mandatory identity cards; access to waste for collection, segregation, and sorting; PPE to minimise occupational hazards; right to basic necessities like water, sanitation and facilities for clean living; and health insurance.
Exploring alternatives and skill enhancement: Exploring technology-led circular economy models to eliminate hazardous manual work.
Formalisation of waste pickers: Allowing them access to designated collection and compaction stations such as transfer stations and material recovery facilities within a city for sorting recyclables.
- Registering Safai Saathis with Urban Local Bodies (ULBs): Issue ID cards to them as municipal workers.
Addressing social and economic upliftment: Ensuring access to subsidized food grains through initiatives like One Nation One Ration Card scheme. Focus on building resilience, expanding social protection, and creating opportunities for dignified livelihoods.

Pune's SWaCH Model: Empowering Women Through Waste Management

The SWaCH model, a collaboration between Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC) and Kagad Kach Patra Kashtakari Panchayat (KKPKP), employs over 3,000 women who collect household waste for a fee. They sort the waste and dispose of non-recyclables at city-run feeder points. KKPKP, formed in 1993, now boasts over 9,000 members, 80% of whom are marginalized women. This initiative not only provides economic opportunities but also offers benefits such as interest-free loans and educational support. PMC ensures worker safety by providing necessary gear and equipment. SWaCH stands as a prime example of transparency, accountability, efficiency, citizen engagement, and women empowerment through direct user fees.

Status of Leopards in India

Context: Status of Leopards India report released by the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MOEFCC).

Brief About Survey

The survey covered 20 States of India and focused on about 70% of the animals’ expected habitat, which are India’s tiger reserves and protected forest areas.
Camera traps method was deployed.

Report Highlights

India’s leopard numbers rose by 8% from 12,852 in 2018 to 13,874 in 2022.
Highest number of leopards were reported in Madhya Pradesh (3,907).
Three other States reported over 1,000 animals each — Maharashtra (1,985), Karnataka (1,879) and Tamil Nadu (1,070).
Uttarakhand reported a 22% decline in the Leopard Population.
Odisha has witnessed a sharp decline in its leopard population — approximately one-fourth lost — primarily due to poaching between 2018 and 2022.
- Leopard densities from both the tiger reserves (Similipal and Satkosia tiger reserves) in the State have increased significantly.
Shivalik hills and Gangetic plains recorded a 3.4% yearly decline.
Central India and Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats and hills of the northeast, and Brahmaputra flood plains recorded growth of 1.5%, 1%, and 1.3% per annum respectively.
About 65% of leopard population is present outside protected areas in Shivalik landscape.
In Uttar Pradesh, both leopard and tiger numbers have increased.

Causes for Decline

According to the report, the biggest threats to the dwindling leopard population are poaching of prey for bush meat, targeted poaching for tiger and leopard skins and body parts.
- Habitat loss due to mining and other human activities.
- Road accidents are also a significant cause of leopard fatalities.

Need for State Action

The State should step up efforts towards effective patrolling, prey recovery, and habitat management outside tiger reserves.

Indian Leopard

Indian leopard is a leopard subspecies widely distributed on the Indian subcontinent.
A leopard does not have any stripes.
It has spots peppered on its body.
A leopard can kill for the pleasure of killing by pouncing continuously on its prey.
The species Panthera pardus is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List
Leopards have survived outside protected areas in many parts of India since historical times.

Cheetahs	Leopards
They prefer to hunt in the day	They usually hunt in nights
Cheetahs are the fastest land animals. They can reach speeds of up to 120 km/h (75 mph) and can accelerate from 0 to 103 km/h (64 mph) in three seconds.	Leopards, on the other hand, only reach a top speed of about 58 km/h (37 mph) but they are super climbers (as they have retractable claws) and good swimmers.
Cheetah is much lighter and taller	Leopards are the shortest of the big cats, although they are strong and bulky – strong enough to pull their prey up trees in order to protect their meal.
IUCN – Vulnerable	IUCN – Vulnerable

Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Context: The Prime Minister of India virtually launched India’s first indigenously developed hydrogen fuel cell ferry which will be deployed for service at Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh.

About the Hydrogen fuel cell ferry:

The Hydrogen fuel cell vessel is 24-metre-long which can carry 50 people in its air-conditioned passenger area. The accommodation area has been constructed with high-quality fiberglass reinforced plastic, similar to metro train coaches.
Manufactured by: Cochin Shipyard Limited
Built at a cost of Rs 18 crore, the ferry will be handed over to the Inland Waterways Authority of India after rigorous trials. The Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways met 75 per cent of the project cost.
This vessel uses a 50-kW PEM (Proton-Exchange Membrane/Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell Power System) fuel cell, with Lithium-Ion Phosphate batteries. The vessel has five hydrogen cylinders that can carry 40 kg of hydrogen and support eight hours of operations. The vessel is also fitted with a 3-kW solar panel.
- PEM fuel cells are popular in automotive applications because they operate at a lower temperature, and are lighter and more compact.
The vessel has zero emission, zero noise and is energy-efficient, which makes it more environment-friendly.

Fuel Cell:

A Fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel directly into electricity by electrochemical reactions.
The most common fuel cell is a Hydrogen fuel cell, that combines hydrogen fuel with oxygen, to produce electricity, with water and heat as the byproducts.
The cell consists of a cathode (negative electrode), an anode (negative electrode) and an electrolyte (can be solid, liquid or membrane based). The electrolyte facilitates the movement of ions or charge carriers between the electrodes.

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell:

Also known as Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells, use a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) as the electrolyte.
- PEM is a solid polymer electrolyte typically made of a perfluorosulfonic acid material, such as Nafion.
- This membrane allows the transport of protons (H+) through the membrane while blocking the passage of electrons. It plays a crucial role in separating the anode and cathode reactions.
Fuel: Hydrogen with oxygen as an oxidising agent.

Working of PEM Fuel Cell:

Anode and Cathode: At the anode, hydrogen gas is typically supplied, and it undergoes electrochemical oxidation to produce protons (H⁺) and electrons (e⁻). The electrons flow through an external circuit, creating an electric current.
Catalysts: Platinum or other platinum-group metals are commonly used as catalysts on the anode and cathode to facilitate the electrochemical reactions.
Electrochemical Reactions:
- At the anode: 2H₂→4H⁺+ 4e^-
- At the cathode: O₂ + 4H⁺ + 4e^- →2H₂O
Proton Exchange: Protons generated at the anode move through the PEM to the cathode, while electrons flow through an external circuit, creating an electrical current.

Characteristics of PEM Fuel cells:

Operating Temperature: PEM fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures (between 60-80 degrees Celsius), allowing for quick start-up times (less warm up time).
Catalyst Requirement: To facilitate the separation of electrons and protons in hydrogen, PEM fuel cells use a noble-metal catalyst, typically platinum, leading to high cost.
Carbon Monoxide Sensitivity: The platinum catalyst is highly sensitive to carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning. If the hydrogen used in the fuel cell is derived from a hydrocarbon fuel, it may contain trace amounts of CO. The presence of CO can significantly degrade the performance of the platinum catalyst, leading to a decrease in fuel cell efficiency over time.
Carbon Monoxide Reduction Reactor: To address the issue of CO poisoning, an additional reactor is often employed to reduce the levels of CO in the fuel gas before it reaches the fuel cell. This reactor adds complexity and cost to the overall system.
Water Management: PEM fuel cells require effective water management to maintain the hydration level of the PEM. Water produced during the electrochemical reactions needs to be removed from the membrane to prevent flooding.

Applications of PEM Fuel Cell:

Transportation (such as fuel cell vehicles)
Stationary power generation (backup power systems to power buildings)
Portable electronic devices (laptops, camera, smartphones)
Defence applications (Powering remote surveillance systems, unmanned aerial vehicles)

Harit Nauka initiative:

The ‘Harit Nauka’(green boat) is an initiative of the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways that envisages a green transition of inland vessels.
In January 2024, the ministry unveiled the Harit Nauka guidelines for inland vessels. As per the guidelines, all states have to make efforts to use green fuels for 50 per cent of inland waterways-based passenger fleets in the next one decade, and 100 per cent by 2045. This is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions as per the Maritime Amrit Kaal Vision 2047.
- Globally, the shipping industry is increasingly transitioning to green fuels due to environmental regulations, sustainability goals, and advancements in green fuel technologies.
- Hydrogen and its derivatives are gaining attention for promising zero-emission fuels for the industry.

Guidelines For Regulation of Coaching Centre Guidelines by Ministry of Education

Context: The Ministry of Education has issued guidelines for the registration and regulation of coaching centers in 2024, which state that coaching centres cannot enroll students below 16 years of age, make misleading promises, and guarantee rank or good marks.

Need for denying access to coaching centres for children below 16 years of age

Reduction of early academic pressure: The new rule aims to alleviate the intense academic pressure experienced by children, allowing them to enjoy their childhood without the burden of intense coaching from a young age.
Encouraging conceptual learning in schools: By limiting coaching, the focus may shift towards improving the quality of education within schools, emphasizing conceptual understanding over rote learning to better prepare students for competitive exams.
Addressing dysfunctional education system: The proliferation of coaching centers highlights deficiencies in the formal education system, prompting a re-evaluation of teaching methods and curriculum design to ensure a more effective learning environment.
Potential for mental health interventions: The guidelines mention implementing mental health interventions to support students, signalling a recognition of the psychological toll excessive academic pressure can have on young individuals.
Increasing instances suicides cases, fire incidents, lack of facilities, unregulated fees and pedagogical standards call for regulating coaching institutes.

Concerns with restricting on access to coaching centres by children below 16 years of age

Impact on competitive exam preparation: Restricting coaching may hinder students' ability to prepare effectively for competitive exams such as JEE and NEET, which often require specialized training and early exposure to advanced concepts.
Dependency on shadow education system: In regions with inadequate schooling infrastructure, coaching centers fill the educational gap, suggesting that the formal education system may not be adequately meeting the needs of students, particularly in marginalized communities.
Uncertainty surrounding online coaching: The guidelines lack clarity regarding the regulation of online coaching platforms, raising questions about how restrictions will be enforced in the digital learning landscape.
Challenges in implementation and enforcement: The effectiveness of the guidelines depends heavily on the willingness and capability of state governments to enforce them, with concerns raised about potential corruption and lack of oversight in the education sector.

Guidelines for Registration and Regulation of Coaching Center 2024:

Definition of coaching: A coaching center, as defined by the guidelines, refers to an establishment offering tuition or guidance to more than 50 students, specifically for academic study programs or competitive exams. This excludes activities such as counseling, sports, dance, theater, and other creative pursuits.
Registration of coaching: Application for the registration of coaching center shall be made to the competent authority within whose local jurisdiction such coaching center is situated, in such form, with such fees and documents as may be specified by the appropriate government.
- In case of coaching center having multiple branches, each of such branch shall be treated as separate coaching center and it shall be necessary to submit a separate application for registration of each branch.
Conditions for registration: No coaching center shall -
- Engage tutors having qualification less than graduation.
- Make misleading promises or guarantee of rank or good marks to parents/students for enrolling them in the coaching center.
- Enroll student below 16 years of age or the student enrolment should be only after secondary school examination.
- Coaching center shall have a website with updated details of the qualification of tutors, courses/curriculum, duration of completion, hostel facilities (if any), and the fees being charged, easy exit policy, fee refund policy, number of students undertaken coaching from the center and number of students finally succeeded in getting admission in Higher Education Institutions etc.
Fees: The tuition fees for different courses/curriculum being charged shall be fair and reasonable and receipts for the fee charged must be made available.
- If the student has paid for the course in full and is leaving the course in the middle of the prescribed period, student will be refunded from out of the fees deposited earlier for the remaining period, on pro-rata basis within 10 days.
Classes: Coaching center shall make efforts to complete the classes in the stipulated time as mentioned in the prospectus.
- coaching center shall ensure weekly off for students as well as tutors.
- There shall be no assessment-test / exam on the day after weekly off.
- coaching centers shall conduct coaching classes in a way that it is not excessive for a student and it should not be more than 5 hours in a day and the coaching hours should neither be too early in the morning nor too late in the evening.
Complaints: A complaint may be filed before the competent authority against the coaching centers by the student, parent or tutor / employee of the coaching center and against the students / parents by the coaching centers. The complaints shall be disposed of within thirty days by the competent authority or by an inquiry committee constituted for the purpose by appropriate government.

Use dictionary meaning of forest: SC

Context: The Supreme Court, in a significant order, directed that the expression ‘forest’ will continue to have a “broad and all-encompassing” meaning for the time being, and include 1.97 lakh square km of undeclared forest lands.

Definition of forest

Under Forest Conservation Amendment Act 2023

The following land shall be covered under the provisions of this Act, namely: —
- the land that has been declared or notified as a forest in accordance with the provisions of the Indian Forest Act, 1927 or under any other law for the time being in force.
- the land that is not covered under clause (a), but has been recorded in Government record as forest, as on or after the 25th of October 1980:
Provided that the provisions of this clause shall not apply to such land, which has been changed from forest use to use for non-forest purpose on or before the 12th of December 1996 in pursuance of an order, issued by any authority authorized by a State Government or a Union territory Administration in that behalf.
Explanation. —For the purposes of this sub-section, the expression
"Government record" means record held by Revenue Department or Forest Department of the State Government or Union territory Administration, or any authority, local body, community, or council recognized by the State Government or Union territory Administration.

The following categories of land shall not be covered under the provisions of this Act, namely: —

such forest land situated alongside a rail line, or a public road maintained by the Government, which provides access to a habitation, or to a rail, and roadside amenity up to a maximum size of 0.10 hectare in each case.
such tree, tree plantation or reafforestation raised on lands that are not specified in clause (a) or clause (b) of sub-section (1); and
such forest land, —
- as is situated within a distance of one hundred kilometers along international borders or Line of Control or Line of Actual Control, as the case may be, proposed to be used for construction of strategic linear project of national importance and concerning national security; or
- up to ten hectares, proposed to be used for construction of security related infrastructure; or
- as is proposed to be used for construction of defense related project or a camp for paramilitary forces or public utility projects, as may be specified by the Central Government, the extent of which does not exceed five hectares in a Left-Wing Extremism affected area as may be notified by the Central Government.

The exemption provided under sub-section (2) shall be subject to such terms and conditions, including the conditions of planting trees to compensate felling of trees undertaken on the lands, as the Central Government may, by guidelines, specify.’

Godavarman case

The Supreme Court judgment in TN. Godavarman Thirumulpad v Union of India (1996) case expanded the scope of such protection.
Under it, areas conforming to the ‘dictionary’ meaning of forests were protected even if it is not notified by government or in historical records.

Recent judgement

The petitions had argued that Section 1A introduced through the amended Act had “circumscribed or substantially diluted” the definition of forest to two categories — declared forests and lands recorded as forests in ‘government records’ after 1980.
The Centre, however, denied any attempt to trim the extent of forest coverage. It pointed to the ‘explanation’ to Section 1A, which expanded the term ‘government records’ contained in the provision to include lands recognised as forest by any State or Union Territory, local body, council, or recognised communities.
However, the court directed the government to revert to the “dictionary meaning” of ‘forest’ as upheld by it in a 1996 decision in the T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad case.
The Bench said that the same dictionary meaning would continue to hold field till the States and Union Territories prepare a “consolidated record” of all the lands recorded as ‘forest’ in government records, including forest-like areas, unclassed and community forest lands.

Similipal seeks more female tigers from other regions

Context: Odisha govt. writes to NTCA over the high number of melanistic tigers in the reserve forest, flags inbreeding concerns

About Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR)

It is a tiger reserve in the Mayurbhanj district in Odisha.It is part of Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve, which includes three protected areas—Similipal Tiger Reserve, Hadgarh Wildlife Sanctuary and Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary.
Simlipal National Park derives its name from the abundance of red silk cotton trees (Semul trees) growing in the area. Simlipal Tiger Reserve is famous for wide variety of wild orchids, which adds to its beauty.
The park is home to Bengal tiger, Asian elephant, gaur, and chausingha.

Tribal communities in the region: According to the 2011 census, about 59% of the population of Mayurbhanj district is Scheduled Tribes. Some tribal communities found in and around Simlipal Tiger Reserve are Kolha, Santhal, Bhumija, Gond & Ho.

Some Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) found in the region are Khadia, Mankidia and Lodhas.

It is Asia’s second largest biosphere reserve and the country’s only wild habitat for Melanistic Royal Bengal Tigers.
This protected area has been part of the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 2009.

About Melanistic Tigers

Melanism is a genetic condition in which an increased production of melanin, a substance in the skin that produces hair, eye, and skin pigmentation, results in black (or nearly black) skin, feathers, or hair in an animal.
Many royal Bengal tigers of Similipal belong to a unique lineage with higher-than-normal levels of melanin, which gives them black and yellow interspersed stripes on their coats.
These tigers are not entirely black and are therefore more accurately described as being pseudo-melanistic.
According to a study conducted by multiple authors, approximately 37% of the tigers in STR are pseudo-melanistic — a condition characterised by wide, merged stripes.
Similipal’s tigers are also found to move within an isolated habitat, although it has one of the largest tracts of contiguous forest.

Satkosia Tiger Reserve

Satkosia Tiger Reserve is a tiger reserve located in the border of Angul and Nayagarh district of Odisha, India covering an area of 988.30 km².
Satkosia Tiger Reserve was designated in 2007 and comprises the Satkosia Gorge Wildlife Sanctuary and the adjacent Baisipalli Wildlife Sanctuary.
It is located where the Mahanadi River passes through a 22 km long gorge in the Eastern Ghats mountains.
The tiger reserve is located in the Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests ecoregion.

Land Management Overdue in India

Context: Growing Population, rapid urbanization, social, cultural, and environmental aspects are placing unprecedented pressure on land.

Need for Land Management

Land is integral to all human activities providing ecological, economic, social, and cultural services.
This multidimensional utility of land is often overlooked in land management practices leading to excessive stress and land degradation.
Globally, the annual losses of ecosystem services due to land degradation has been estimated at $6 trillion.
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (COP14) in New Delhi in 2019 specifically discussed the problem of land degradation experienced by different countries and the need to find ways of achieving land degradation neutrality.
The Food and Agriculture Organization report, ‘State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture: The System at Breaking Point’ (2021), argued that a sense of urgency needs to prevail over a hitherto neglected area of public policy and human welfare— that of caring for the long-term future of land, soil, and water.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s special report on ‘Climate Change and Land’ (2019) suggested country-level stocktaking of land management practices. It also proposed several near- and long-term actions with the thrust on land management options that reduce competition for land with co-benefits and minimum negative impacts on key ecosystem services.

Challenges in Land Management in India

India has 2.4% of the world’s geographical areas catering 17% of the world population and cattle population posing several management challenges.
Around 30% of total geographical area is degraded land. This is increasing due to unscientific agricultural practices, deforestation, and climate change.
Though arable land in India is 155 mha (~50% of GA), one of the largest in the world, however, around 58% of Indian population is still dependent on agriculture leading to intensive agricultural practices, land fragmentation and degradation of land.
Development targets and the demand for land to accommodate the growing population, infrastructure, rapid urbanization, and social, cultural, and environmental aspects are placing unprecedented pressure on land.
- This leads to land use conflict, escalation of land prices, changing land rights and eventually squeezing natural areas and compromising ecological services.
This adversely affect the livelihood opportunities of the people who directly depend on environmental resources, but also the buffering effects of natural ecosystems in the face of disasters such as floods and droughts, temperature rise, and environmental pollution are severely compromised.

Administrative Challenges

In India, current land management practices are sectoral with each department following its own approach.
Land management falls under the purview of State governments.
Further, cultural land is privately owned, and land-use decisions are constitutionally vested with the owner.
Apart from this administrative complexity, the challenges to adopt and implement appropriate land management practices in the country include:
- knowledge gaps, a short-term planning bias, a fragmented approach, lack of action for unforeseen events, and regulatory barriers.

Administrative Solutions

To achieving sectoral integration and addressing these challenges, it is imperative to set up a multi-stakeholder platform at the district and sub-district levels to bring together farmers, other land managers, policymakers, civil society organizations, business leaders, and investors under a common platform.
Article 243ZD (1) of the Constitution provides for district planning committees to consolidate plans from panchayats and municipalities.
- This committee may be activated in the direction of preparing a land management plan, covering both agricultural and non-agricultural sectors.
A landscape approach will provide deep insights to assess the potential of land and the scope of allocation and reallocation of land for appropriate uses.
- This will help evaluation, negotiation, trade off, and decision-making.
A climate-smart landscape approach will contribute to climate objectives, increased agricultural production, improved local livelihoods and the conservation of biodiversity.

A case of Institutional Support

Science has shown the importance of considering land as a system and promoting integrated landscape management.
The U.K. Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology in its Brief 42, ‘Sustainable land management: managing land better for environmental benefits’, in 2021 observed that “actions for addressing and adapting to climate change, achieving food security and tackling the biodiversity crisis are all embedded in and depend on how land is managed.”

India’s parliamentarians can initiate deliberations on the emerging challenges of integrated land management practices and help devise appropriate policies for long-term sustainability by involving all actors across the scale, both horizontal and vertical.

Blockchain Technology and Bitcoin Halving

Context: ‘Bitcoin Halving’ is predicted to happen in April 2024.

What is Bitcoin Halving?

The Bitcoin Halving refers to the 50% reduction in the reward paid to Bitcoin miners who successfully process other people’s cryptocurrency transactions so that they can be added to the public digital ledger known as the blockchain.
In order to grow Bitcoin’s blockchain and keep the ecosystem running, Bitcoin miners rely on advanced computer equipment to solve a complex mathematical puzzle through a process known as ‘Proof of work’ and claim their prize, which is currently set at 6.25 Bitcoin (BTC). This intense activity is the reason Bitcoin transactions result in huge carbon footprints and require vast amounts of electricity. No real mining is carried out.

Impact of halving:

Bitcoin mining increases the supply of BTC in circulation while the Bitcoin Halving reduces the rate at which these coins are released, making the asset more scarce. Scarcity is seen as pushing up prices, as is the case with gold.
- There can only ever be 21 million BTC in the world, over 19 million have already been “mined” or released.
- Bitcoin Halving means it will take far more time for the remaining coins to be mined. A halving takes place after 2,10,000 blocks are mined, and has happened so far in 2012, 2016, and 2020 - every four years.

What is Blockchain technology?

Blockchain technology is a decentralised, distributed ledger system that records transactions across multiple computers in a way that makes them tamper-resistant and transparent.
At its core, a blockchain is a chain of blocks, where each block contains data (a list of cryptocurrency transfers or data records in case of Bitcoin).
- Each block contains a cryptographic hash of the previous block, a timestamp, and transaction data. Once a block is added to the chain, it is extremely difficult to alter, ensuring the integrity of the data.
- The transactions are verified and added to the block through a process called consensus, which involves a network of participants known as nodes, who collectively validate the transactions.

Key features of blockchain technology:

Decentralisation: Unlike traditional centralised systems, where a central authority controls and manages the data, blockchain is decentralised. It operates on a peer-to-peer network, where each participant has a copy of the entire blockchain, ensuring transparency and reducing the reliance on a single point of failure.
Transparency: All transactions recorded on a blockchain are visible to all participants in the network. This transparency helps to establish trust among participants and enhances the security of the system.
Security: Blockchain technology utilises cryptography to secure transactions and control the transfer of assets. Each transaction is encrypted and linked to the previous transaction, forming a chain of blocks that cannot be easily altered.
Immutability: Once a transaction is recorded on the blockchain, it is extremely difficult to change or delete. This immutability ensures the integrity of the data stored on the blockchain.
Smart Contracts: Blockchain platforms often support the execution of smart contracts, which are self-executing contracts with predefined rules. Smart contracts automatically enforce the terms and conditions of an agreement, eliminating the need for intermediaries and reducing costs.

Potential Blockchain Applications:

It was originally introduced as the underlying technology behind the cryptocurrency Bitcoin, but its potential applications extend far beyond digital currencies.
- Transfer of land records (Property record management).
- Digital certificates management (Education, Death, Birth, Agreements, Sale Deeds)
- Pharmaceutical supply chain
- e-Notary service (Blockchain enabled e-Sign solution)
- Farm insurance
- Identity management
- Power distribution
- Duty payments
- Agriculture and other supply chains
- e-Voting
- Electronic Health Record Management
- Digital Evidence Management System
- Public Service Delivery
- IoT Device Management and Security
- Vehicle lifecycle administration
- Microfinance for Self-Help Groups

Baleen Whales : Explained

Context: A few species of baleen whales produce the higher-pitched sounds that people are more familiar with as whale songs.

Baleen Whales

There are 14 species of baleen whale including the blue, bowhead, right, humpback, minke and gray whale.
Baleen whales are generally larger than toothed whales except for the sperm whale which is very big and has teeth.
Many baleen whales migrate annually, travelling long distances between cold water feeding areas and warm water breeding areas.

Feeding Technique

Baleen whale, any cetacean possessing unique epidermal modifications of the mouth called baleen, which is used to filter food from water.
Baleen whales seek out concentrations of small planktonic animals.
The whales then open their mouth and take in enormous quantities of water.
When the mouth is closed, they squeeze the water out through the sides, catching the tiny prey on the baleen’s bristles.

Special Structure Baleen

Baleen is a keratinized structure like hair, fingernails, and hooves.
In the Greenland right whale (Balaena mysticetus), single plates of baleen can reach 5.2 meters (17 feet) long.
Before the invention of spring steel and celluloid in the 19th century, “whalebone,” as baleen was called, was very valuable.
Because it is flexible and retains shapes imposed on it with heat, baleen was used for springs and in products such as corsets, knife handles, umbrella ribs, brushes, and fans.

Songs

The large air-breathing sea animals use a special voice box that enables them to make sounds underwater.
Baleen whales do not have teeth or vocal cords like humans and other mammals.
They have U-shaped tissue in their voice boxes that permits them to breathe a lot of air very quickly.
Their voice boxes also contain a large “cushion” of fat and muscle not seen in other animals.
Whales “sing” by pushing the tissue against the fat and muscle cushion.
Baleen whales depend on the production of sound to communicate in the dark of the deep oceans.
- “For example, humpback females and their calves communicate with each other by voice, and humpback males sing to attract females,

Distribution

Baleen whales can be found in all oceans worldwide, from polar seas to temperate and tropical zones. Some species of baleen whales have limited distribution. For example:
- Southern right whales are found only in the southern hemisphere; northern right whales are found only in the northern hemisphere.
- Some populations of baleen whale species are resident to restricted areas. A population of fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) is found year-round in the Gulf of California

Habitat

Some baleen whales are coastal (they stay near shore).
They forage along the productive continental shelf area.
Some species give birth and rear young in protected coastal bays and lagoons. Other species are oceanic (they roam the open seas).

Migration

Most baleen whales are highly migratory, moving toward high-latitude (polar) feeding areas in the summer and toward low-latitude (tropical) calving areas in the winter.
Variations in water temperature, food availability, and feeding habits may account for the movements of some animals.
Some individual whales do not migrate. These may be juveniles or post-reproductive adults and may stay in protected nearshore areas.

Discovery of temples in Telangana shows spread of Chalukya reign

Context: An excavation was undertaken, in Telangana, in the village of Mudimanikyam on the banks of river Krishna, which was part of the kingdom ruled by Badami Chalukyas.

More information:

After the end of the Kingdom (ruling present-day Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh), Mudimanikyam continued to have a thriving community, believing in the Hindu gods of Vishnu and Shiva.
As per the new discovery, the Jogulamba temples at Alampur and the submerged Yeleswaram sites in Telangana, are evidences that show the reach of Chalukya Badami kingdom (ruling from 543 AD to 750 AD).
An inscription dating to the rulers of Badami Chalukyas was also discovered.
The discovered temples highlight the ‘Deccan cosmopolitanism’ where there was space for more than two religions to co-exist. Along with Brahmanical religion, there was space for Buddhism and Jainism to flourish.

Chalukyas of Badami:

Introduction:

Chalukyas ruled over the Deccan plateau in India for over 600 years.
During this period, they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties.
- Chalukyas of Badami (also called Early Chalukyas), who ruled between the 6th and the 8th century.
- Chalukyas of Kalyani (also called Western Chalukyas or Later Chalukyas)
- Chalukyas of Vengi (also called Eastern Chalukyas).

Badami Chalukyas:

In the 6th century, with the decline of the Gupta dynasty and their immediate successors in northern India, major changes were seen in the areas south of the Vindhyas, the Deccan and Tamilakam.
The age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this region.
The Chalukya dynasty was established by Pulakeshin I in 543.
Chalukyas of Badami, ruled over an empire that comprised the entire state of Karnataka and most of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan.
At their peak, the Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Kaveri in the south to the Narmada in the north.
Pulakeshin I took Vatapi (modern Badami in Karnataka) under his control and made it his capital.
Pulakeshin II, commanded control over the entire Deccan and is perhaps the most well-known emperor of the Badami dynasty.
- Pulakeshin II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom.
- He halted the southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada.
- Pallava Narasimhavarman, in 642, attacked and occupied Badami temporarily. Pulakeshin II, died in the battle.
- The Aihole inscription/prashasti, is a Sanskrit inscription at Meguti Jain temple in Aihole, Karnataka.
- The eulogy dated 634–635 CE, was composed by the Jain poet Ravikirti in honour of his patron king Pulakesin Satyasraya (Pulakeshin II).

The dynasty went into a brief decline following the death of Pulakeshin II due to internal feuds. Badami was occupied by the Pallavas for a period of thirteen years.
It recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I, who succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restored order to the empire.
- Vikramaditya I took the title ‘Rajamalla’.
The empire was its peak again during the rule of the Vikramaditya II (733–744).
- He is known for his repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam (historical region located in the northernmost part of Tamil Nadu and southernmost part of Andhra Pradesh).
- He defeated Pallava Nandivarman II, and thus, avenged the earlier defeat of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas. He engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple, in Kanchipuram.
- Vikramaditya II later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, the Cholas and the Cheras in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler.
The last Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II, was overthrown by the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga in 753.

Architecture:

Their style of architecture is called ‘Chalukyan architecture’ or ‘Karnata Dravida architecture’.
The building material they used was a reddish-golden Sandstone.
The temple building activity was mostly concentrated in a relatively small area within, Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state.

(Aihole Inscription)

Temple building activity can be categorised into different phases:

1.The early phase began in the last quarter of the 6th century:

Cave temples developed at Aihole (one Vedic, one Jain and one Buddhist), followed by four developed cave temples at Badami (of which cave 3, a Vaishnava temple, is dated accurately to 578 CE).
- The Vedic temples sculpted images of Mahishasuramardhini, Varaha, Vishnu seated on Anantha (the snake) and Nataraja (dancing Shiva).

2.The second phase of temple building was at Aihole and Badami:

70 structures exist at Aihole and has been called one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture.
- Lad Khan Temple (dated to 450 but more accurately to 620).
- Meguti Jain Temple shows progress in structural design.
The structural temples at Pattadakal, built in the 8th century and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, marks the culmination and mature phase of Badami Chalukyan architecture.
- There are ten temples at Pattadakal, six in southern dravida style and four in the northern nagara style.
- Well known are the Virupaksha Temple (740–745) and the Mallikarjuna Temple (740–745) in the southern style.

Kerala capital sees massive turnout of devotees for Attukal Pongala

Context: Women celebrated the Attukal Pongala festival by making the ritual offering to the presiding deity of the Attukal Bhagavathy temple in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

More Information:

The temple, Attukal Bhagavathy temple is also known as ‘Women’s Sabarimala’, since women form the major portion of the Devi’s devotees.
‘Attukal Pongala’ includes rituals such as, lighting of the ‘Pandara Aduppu’, the main hearth of the temple. After this, ritual offering is cooked by the women.
The presiding deity, Attukal Bhagavathy, is the divine incarnation of Kannaki, the protagonist of the Tamil epic, Silappadhikaram.
The story is that after destroying Madurai to avenge the injustice done to her husband Kovalan, Kannaki reached Kerala, and took rest at Attukal.
- Silappadhikaram is the earliest Tamil epic.
- It is a poem of 5,730 lines describing the tragic love story of an ordinary Kannaki and her husband Kovalan. The epic is set in a flourishing seaport city of the early Chola kingdom.
- Author: It is attributed to a prince-turned-Jain monk Illango Adigal (brother of Chera king Senguttuvan) and was probably composed in the 5th or 6th century CE.

Attukal Bhagavathy temple:

The Attukal Bhagavathy Temple is a Hindu religious shrine in Kerala, India.
Goddess 'Attukal devi', is the supreme mother, goddess of power and courage.
She is often referred as Kannaki, the heroine of Ilanko Adikal's 'Silappadhikaram'.
A festival that has figured in the Guinness Book of World Records for being the single largest gathering of women for a religious activity, the Attukal Pongala continues to draw millions of women with each passing year.
Attukal Temple is situated near the Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple, in Thiruvananthapuram.

Attukal Pongala:

Attukal Pongala Mahotsavam is a 10 days festival which falls on February-March every year.
The festival begins with the traditional Kappu Kettu and Kudiyiruntha ceremony, in which, the idol of Devi, is embellished with Kappu (Bangles).
The 9th day of the festival, 'Pooram day' is the major attraction.
Pongala/Naivedyam (rice cooked with jaggery, ghee, coconut as well as other ingredients) is prepared in the open in small pots to please the Goddess Kannaki.

Narsimha Rao, Chaudhary Charan Singh and M. S. Swaminathan conferred Bharat Ratna

Context: Prime Minister conferred the Bharat Ratna on former Prime Ministers Chaudhary Charan Singh and P V Narasimha Rao, and agricultural scientist M S Swaminathan who led India’s Green Revolution. Earlier, Karpoor Thakur (for his social justice legacy) and L.K. Advani was conferred the Award.

More Information from the news article:

At five, this is the maximum number of Bharat Ratnas announced in a year. In 1999, four Bharat Ratnas were announced.
P. V. Narasimha Rao, served as the 9th prime minister of India from 1991 to 1996:
- He is known for introducing various liberal reforms to India's economy.
- When he held the Industries Portfolio, he dismantled the Licence Raj.
- In 1991, Rao employed Manmohan Singh as his finance minister to embark on important economic transition.
- With Rao's mandate, Manmohan Singh launched India's globalisation angle of the reforms that implemented the International Monetary Fund (IMF) policies to rescue the almost bankrupt nation from economic collapse.
Chaudhary Charan Singh served as the 5th prime minister of India:
- Charan Singh followed Mahatma Gandhi in non-violent struggle for independence and was imprisoned several times.
- In 1930, he was jailed by the British for contravention of the salt laws.
- Charan Singh opined that the right of ownership was important to the farmer. He wanted to preserve and stabilize a system of peasant proprietorship.
- He was the chief architect of land reforms in the U.P. and he took a leading part in formulation and finalization of the Debt Redemption Bill 1939, which brought great relief to rural debtors.
- As the 5^th Chief Minister of U.P., he was instrumental in bringing about the Land Holding Act 1960 which was aimed at lowering the ceiling on land holdings to make it uniform throughout the State.
- His birthday on 23 December is celebrated as Kisan Diwas in India.
M.S. Swaminathan:
- He is credited as the architect of the Green Revolution.
- Swaminathan's collaborative scientific efforts with Norman Borlaug and other scientists and backed by public policies, saved India and Pakistan from certain famine-like conditions in the 1960s.
- His leadership as director general of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines was instrumental in his being awarded the first World Food Prize in 1987.
- The United Nations Environment Programme has called him ‘the Father of Economic Ecology’.
- He coined the term ‘Evergreen Revolution’ in 1990 to describe his vision of ‘productivity in perpetuity without associated ecological harm’.
- It was the Swaminathan Committee that recommended in 2006 that the MSP should be 1.5 times the cost of production that a farmer incurs.

Awards given by Government of India:

About Bharat Ratna:

The designation ‘Bharat Ratna,’ which translates to 'Jewel of India,' signifies the highest civilian honour presented by the Republic of India.
Established in 1954, the Bharat Ratna is granted to extraordinary individuals who have demonstrated exceptional accomplishments.
Originally focused on recognizing achievements in art, science, literature, and public service, the criteria underwent an expansion in December 2011 to encompass excellence in 'any field of human endeavour.'
Selection process:
- Recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President, with a maximum of three nominees honoured annually.
- In 1999, an exception saw four individuals receiving the honour.
- Although no monetary reward accompanies the honour, recipients receive a unique Peepal-leaf shaped medal and a certificate known as a ‘Sanad.’
- In the hierarchy of the Indian Order of Precedence, Bharat Ratna recipients hold the seventh rank.

The usage of the title 'Bharat Ratna' as a prefix or suffix is exempt from Article 18(1) of the Constitution, as established by the Supreme Court's precedent in Balaji Raghavan/S.P. Anand v. Union of India in 1995.
The first recipients in 1954 included C. Rajagopalachari, the last Governor-General of the Dominion of India; Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the second President and first Vice President of India; and Nobel Prize Laureate and Physicist C. V. Raman.
Originally, the statutes did not allow for posthumous awards, but in January 1955, amendments were made to permit them. The first posthumous honouree was former Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri.
Despite typically being conferred upon India-born citizens, notable exceptions include Mother Teresa, a naturalized citizen, and non-Indians such as Abdul Ghaffar Khan (originally from British India, later a citizen of Pakistan) and Nelson Mandela, a citizen of South Africa.
The Bharat Ratna, along with other personal civil honours, faced brief suspensions during the periods of July 1977 to January 1980 and August 1992 to December 1995, due to changes in the national government and legal challenges to their constitutional validity.
In 1992, controversy arose over the posthumous award to Subhas Chandra Bose, leading to a cancellation following a Supreme Court decision in 1997, a unique instance where the award was announced but not conferred.
Recipients whose awards have been revoked must surrender their medals, and their names are struck from the register.
There is no Bharat Ratna Award winners list for 2020 and 2021.

Several special entitlements:

The medallion and its miniature counterpart.
A Sanad (certificate) signed by the President of India.
Treatment as a state guest by state governments when traveling within a state.
Assistance from Indian missions abroad upon request.
Eligibility for a diplomatic passport.
Lifetime complimentary executive class travel on Air India.
Occupying the seventh position in the Indian order of precedence.