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Stealth Frigates Udaygiri and Himgiri Commissioned 

Context: Indian Navy commissioned two Project 17-A stealth frigates, INS Udaygiri and INS Himgiri, in Visakhapatnam. This marks the Navy's first-ever simultaneous induction of two frontline warships.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Project 17-A; INS Udaygiri; INS Himgiri. 

What are Stealth Frigates?

  • Frigate is a medium-sized warship used by the Navy for escorting larger vessels, patrolling, and combat operations.
  • Stealth frigate is designed with advanced stealth technology to minimise its radar cross-section and overall visibility to enemy detection systems making it harder to detect by radar, visual, sonar, and infrared methods. 

Project 17-A Stealth Frigates: 

  • Project 17-A class (Nilgiri-class frigate) is the successor of the currently-operational Project 17 or the Shivalik-class stealth frigates. 
  • The stealth frigates have advanced weaponry, modern sensor systems designed to execute a full spectrum of maritime operations in blue-water conditions.  
  • The project will have 7 frigates. INS Nilgiri is the lead ship of the Project 17A stealth frigate class. Other six ships of this class include- INS Udaygiri, Himgiri, Taragiri, Dunagiri, Vindhyagiriand Mahendragiri.
    • INS Udaygiri (second ship of Project 17A) is built by Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Ltd. in Mumbai. 
    • INS Himgiri is constructed by Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE) in Kolkata. 
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INS Udaygiri & INS Himgiri

  • Enhanced capability: Both vessels are follow-on variants of the Shivalik-class frigates. They feature enhanced stealth capabilities, advanced weaponry, and modern sensor systems. 
  • Propulsion: Both frigates are powered with combined diesel or gas (CODOG) propulsion using diesel engines and gas turbines that drive controllable-pitch propellers, and are managed through an integrated platform management system.
  • The frigates are capable of dealing with both conventional and non-conventional threats. The frigates are fitted with:
    • Supersonic Surface-to-Surface Missile system
    • Medium Range Surface-to-Air Missiles (MRSAM) system
    • 76 millimetre (mm) upgraded gun
    • Combination of 30 mm and 12.7 mm rapid-fire close-in weapon systems
    • Anti-submarine underwater weapon systems.
  • Sensors suite include MF-STAR AESA radar, BEL’s HUMSA-NG sonar, the Ajanta electronic warfare system and the CMS-17A combat management system. 
  • Protective systems include the Kavach anti-missile decoy and the Maareech torpedo decoy.
  • Enhanced stealth features: Radar cross-section is reduced through angled surfaces and flush-mounted weapons. Heat emissions are cut using infrared suppression systems. Noise is lowered with improved acoustic dampening. Use of composite materials contributes to making these ships less visible and less audible at sea.
  • Each ship can support aircraft such as the MH-60 Romeo, ALH Dhruv Mk-III or Sea King.

Significance: 

  • Force-multiplier: With their versatile weapons and capabilities, these ships can play a crucial role in anti-surface, anti-air, and anti-submarine warfare. With their range and helicopter integration, they can patrol waters stretching from the Strait of Malacca to Africa, keeping sea trade routes secure.
  • Indigenous development: With nearly 75% indigenous content, supported by several MSMEs, the frigates advance the government’s Aatmanirbhar Bharat vision in defence manufacturing.
  • Employment generation: The project reflects the scale of India’s defence industrial ecosystem, involving over 200 MSMEs and generating nearly 14,000 direct and indirect jobs.

The ships will be deployed with the Eastern Fleet, significantly boosting the Navy’s combat readiness and reinforcing India’s ability to protect its strategic and economic interests in the Indian Ocean Region.  

Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS) 

Context: DRDO has conducted the maiden flight test of the Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS) off the coast of Odisha. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Features of Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS). 

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Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS)

IADWS is a multi-layered air defence system comprising: 

  • Indigenous Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missiles (QRSAM)
  • Advanced Very Short Range Air Defence System (VSHORADS) missiles 
  • A high-power laser-based Directed Energy Weapon (DEW) 

Three components of IADWS

Indigenous Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missiles (QRSAM): 

  • QRSAM is a short-range Surface to Air Missile (SAM) system. It is primarily designed to provide a protective shield to moving armoured columns of the Army from enemy aerial attacks.
  • The entire weapon system is configured on highly mobile platforms. It has search and track capability and can fire on short halts. The system has an operation range of 3 to 30 kilometers. 
  • The QRSAM weapon ensemble consists of a fully automated command and control system, two radars (Active Array Battery Surveillance Radar and Active Array Battery Multifunction Radar) and one launcher. Both the radars have a 360-degree coverage with ‘search on move’ and ‘track on move’ capabilities. 

Advanced Very Short Range Air Defence System (VSHORADS) Missiles: 

  • VSHORADS is a fourth-generation, technically advanced miniaturised Man Portable Air Defence System (MANPAD). 
  • The weapon system can neutralise targets between the range of 300 meters and six kilometers, including drones and other classes of aerial threats.
  • Effective against drones, UAVs, and low-flying aircraft. Designed for all three services: Army, Navy, Air Force. 

Directed Energy Weapon (DEW): 

  • High-power laser-based weapon (range < 3 km).
  • Neutralises UAVs, swarm drones by structural damage & disabling sensors.
  • Places India in the exclusive group of nations with operational DEWs.

While QRSAM has been designed and developed by the DRDO, VSHORADS and DEW have been developed by Research Centre Imarat (RCI) and Centre for High Energy Systems and Sciences (CHESS) respectively, both Hyderabad-based facilities of the DRDO.

Centralised Command and Control Centre: 

  • The integrated operation of all these weapon system components is controlled by a Centralised Command and Control Centre, developed by the Defence Research and Development Laboratory, Hyderabad.

Strategic Significance of IADWS

  • Enhanced Air Defence: Provides a multi-layered shield against UAVs, drones, and short-range missiles up to 30 km, strengthening national security.
  • Indigenous Capability: Showcases India’s self-reliance in defence technology, reducing dependence on foreign imports.
  • Network-Centric Warfare: Will integrate with IAF’s Integrated Air Command and Control System (IACCS) and Army’s Akashteer, improving jointness and real-time coordination.
  • Counter to Modern Threats: Combines missiles with Directed Energy Weapons, enabling defence against drone swarms and asymmetric aerial attacks.
  • Strategic Deterrence: Enhances India’s credibility to deter Pakistan’s drone incursions and China’s UAV warfare capabilities.
  • Mission Sudarshan Chakra: Marks an important step towards developing a indigenous nationwide security shield from multi-dominary enemy attacks under Mission Sudarshan Chakra by 2035. 

Agni 5: Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile 

Context: Recently, India successfully test-fired its nuclear-capable intermediate range ballistic missile (IRBM) Agni 5 from the integrated test range (ITR) at Chandipur in Odisha.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Agni 5 missile; Agni Missile series. 

About Agni 5 missile

  • Developed by: Defence Research and Development Organisation. 
  • Agni-5 is among India’s most advanced long-range ballistic missiles. Equipped with modern navigation, guidance, warhead and propulsion technologies, it strengthens India’s nuclear deterrence.

Key features of Agni 5 missile:

  • Nuclear-capable ICBM: Agni 5 is a land-based Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) with Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle (MIRV) capability.
  • Extended range: Designed for nuclear use, Agni 5 has a range of over 5000 kilometres.
  • Propelled by a solid rocket propellant system. Agni 5 is powered by a three-stage solid-rocket-powered missile system capable of delivering a 1.5-tonne nuclear warhead.
  • MIRVed test launch: In 2024, India conducted the first MIRVed test launch of Agni 5 from validating its ability to carry and release multiple warheads.
  • Warhead capacity: Capable of carrying and firing up to 3 nuclear warheads simultaneously.
  • Future enhancements: New variants under development aim to integrate bunker-buster bomb technology, expanding the missile’s strike capability against fortified targets.
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Key Facts: 

  • India’s missile development accelerated after it joined the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) in 2016 gaining access to advanced systems.
  • India has a no-first use policy for nuclear weapons, hence, the missile can offer incredible deterrence to prevent a nuclear attack.

The successful test reaffirms India’s commitment to maintaining a credible minimum deterrence posture. 

Also Read: Mission Divyastra: Agni-V with Multiple Warhead Technology 

India needs a National Space Law

Context: India’s space programme has achieved remarkable milestones from the cost-effective success of Mangalyaan (2014) to the historic soft landing of Chandrayaan-3 (2023) and the upcoming Gaganyaan mission. These achievements have positioned India among the top spacefaring nations. 

However, India lacks a comprehensive National Space Law which is essential to regulate private participation, ensure accountability, and align with international obligations.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: India's and Global Space Legislation.Mains: Why India Need for National Space Legislation? 

Global Space Legislation

The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 is the foundational legal framework for outer space.

Outer Space Treaty of 1967: 

  • It declares space to be the province of all mankind
  • Prohibits any national appropriation of celestial bodies, and 
  • Makes states responsible for all space activities conducted under their jurisdiction, including those by private actors.
  • Its companion agreements create binding frameworks of rights, responsibilities, and liability rules. 

Companion Agreements of OST 1967: 

  • Liability Convention 1972: Establishes state responsibility for damages caused by space objects.
  • Registration Convention 1976: Mandates registration of space objects.
  • Moon Agreement 1979: Treats space resources as “common heritage of mankind” (India is not a party).

Limitations: 

  • These treaties are not self-executing. They need to be translated into national laws for effective enforcement.

India’s Current Legal & Policy Framework

India has ratified the key UN space treaties but it is still in the process of enacting comprehensive national space legislation. Current regulatory measures include : 

  • Indian Space Policy, 2023: outlines roles of government and private entities.
  • IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre): Regulator for non-governmental space activities.
  • Catalogue of Indian Standards for Space Industry: Provides technical safety guidelines.
  • Norms, Guidelines and Procedures (NPG), 2023: Framework for authorisation of space activities.

Need for National Space Legislation: 

  • International Obligations: Under Article VI of the OST, India is internationally liable for activities of private companies. Without national law, India risks treaty violations or arbitrary regulation.
  • Predictability & Legal Clarity: National space legislation offers predictability, legal clarity, and a stable regulatory environment for both government and private actors, critical for attracting private investments.
  • Industry Concerns: 
    • IN-SPACe lacks statutory authority; its decisions are vulnerable to procedural challenges.
    • Companies face delays due to the dual-use nature of space technology (defence and civilian), requiring multiple ministry clearances.
    • Unclear FDI rules and lack of affordable third-party insurance hinder startups.
    • Weak IPR protection risks migration of talent to IP-friendly jurisdictions.
  • Strategic Importance: Space technologies are dual-use and critical for national security, absence of legal clarity can weaken strategic autonomy in space.

At present, more than 20 countries including the U.S., Luxembourg, and Japan already have national space legislation. To compete in this rapidly expanding market which is projected to reach $1 trillion globally by 2040, India cannot afford regulatory ambiguity.

In the words of UNOOSA, “policy signals intent, but law creates enforceable structure.” For India to lead the new space age, enacting this law is no longer optional but an imperative.

India sets eyes on 10% of global Green Hydrogen demand

Context: India aims to capture 10% of the global green hydrogen demand by 2030, with significant progress made through the National Green Hydrogen Mission. The global green hydrogen demand is expected to exceed 100 million metric tonnes (MMT) by 2030. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Types of Hydrogen, National Hydrogen Mission

Mains: Benefits and Challenges in production of Green Hydrogen as a fuel. 

Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel

  • Hydrogen is the lightest and the most abundant element in the universe. On Earth, it is found in compounds like water or hydrocarbons. However, Hydrogen is not present in the free state. Therefore, it must be created and stored before it tends to be utilised.
  • Hydrogen Fuel: Hydrogen fuel is produced by splitting water (H₂O) into its components: hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂). The hydrogen gas can be used to power fuel cells, which generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, releasing only water vapour as a byproduct. 
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Green Hydrogen: 

  • Green hydrogen is hydrogen produced using electricity from clean energy sources, such as wind and solar energy, which do not release greenhouse gases when generating electricity. 
  • Green hydrogen is made when water (H2O) is split into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) via a process known as electrolysis.

Other Types of Hydrogen:

Depending on the type of production used, different colour names are assigned to the hydrogen.

1. Grey Hydrogen: 

  • Grey hydrogen is produced using fossil fuels such as natural gas or coal. Grey hydrogen accounts for roughly 95% of the hydrogen produced in the world today.
  • The two main production methods are steam methane reforming and coal gasification. Both of these processes release carbon dioxide (CO2).
  • If the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, then the hydrogen produced is referred to as grey hydrogen.

2. Blue Hydrogen: 

  • Blue hydrogen is similar to grey hydrogen, except that most of the CO2 emissions are sequestered (stored in the ground) using carbon capture and storage (CCS). 
  • Capturing and storing the carbon dioxide instead of releasing it into the atmosphere allows blue hydrogen to be a low-carbon fuel. 
  • Blue hydrogen is a cleaner alternative to grey hydrogen, but is expensive since carbon capture technology is used.

3. Pink Hydrogen: 

  • Pink hydrogen is produced through electrolysis of water but using energy from nuclear power, which does not produce any carbon dioxide emissions.
  • Pink hydrogen facilities can achieve a high capacity factor due to the steady base-load profile of nuclear power (involving both stability and density), as compared to the intermittent supply from renewable sources (solar, wind). 

4. Turquoise Hydrogen: Turquoise hydrogen is made using a process called methane pyrolysis. In this process methane is split into hydrogen and solid carbon with heating in reactors or blast furnaces.

National Green Hydrogen Mission:

  • National Green Hydrogen Mission was launched in 2023 with an outlay of Rs. 19,744 crores from FY 2024 to FY 2030.
  • Aim: To develop India into a global hub for production, usage and export of Green hydrogen and its derivatives.
  • The scheme has set out a goal of at least 5 million metric tonnes (MMT) of annual green hydrogen production capacity by 2030.
  • Initiative of: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).

As part of the mission, the government has awarded 3,000 megawatts of electrolyser manufacturing capacity to 15 companies, signaling a major industrial push.  

Recently, the government has announced that India aims to secure 10% of global green hydrogen demand, or 10 million metric tonnes (MMT) by 2030, which is an aspirational target than that set in the National Green Hydrogen Mission.  

Challenges associated with production of Green Hydrogen:

  • Renewable energy supply crunch: Achieving the target under the National Green Hydrogen Mission requires the installation of 125 GW of dedicated renewable energy and 250,000 gigawatt-hr. units of power (250 TWh), equivalent to about 13% of India’s present electricity generation. 
  • Relying on conventional energy sources: The main concern is that if electrolysers (which split water to produce hydrogen and oxygen) were to run 24x7, they would have to operate even at night when no solar power is available. This would then mean tapping into conventional coal-fired electricity (about 70% of the electricity on the grid is coal-generated).
  • Burning Biomass: India’s standards allow the use of biomass to produce green hydrogen, which results in carbon emissions when burnt.
  • Technological constraints: The challenge is to compress or liquify Hydrogen. It needs to be kept at a stable minus 253°C (far below the temperature of (-) 163°C at which Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) is stored; making its ‘prior to use cost’ extremely high.
  • Prohibitive Costs: The production cost of green hydrogen has been a prime obstacle. Research conducted by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) indicates that the cost of its production is about $1.5 per kg by 2030 (for countries with eternal sunshine and huge unoccupied areas) if several conservative measures are implemented.
  • Lack of Manufacturing and deployment of electrolysers: India’s current electrolysers manufacturing capacity is around 0.4 GW, which needs to be scaled to ~200 GW by 2050.
  • High cost of storage system: Fuel cells which convert hydrogen fuel to usable energy for cars, are still expensive.

Way Forward

Development of technology to produce green hydrogen is expensive. However, falling prices for renewable energy and fuel cells and stringent climate change regulations have spurred investment in the sector. 

  • Investing in R&D and promoting private sector participation in the hydrogen economy.
  • Developing standardised procedures, rules and standards for hydrogen economy which will standardise and scale up production. 
  • Mandating large users of hydrogen to shift to green hydrogen such as refineries, iron, and steel plants etc. For example, a minimum green hydrogen mandate can be introduced in such industries. 
  • Green hydrogen facilities can be created at sites where the cost of producing renewable energy is lowest. E.g., in the Thar desert region in Rajasthan and Ladakh etc.
  • Facilitating international trade in clean & green hydrogen.

Also Read: Hydrogen as an alternative fuel: Explained 

Animal-Free Protein using Recombinant DNA Technology

Context: The global market base for alternative proteins is on the rise. Animal-Free Proteins produced using Recombinant DNA Technology are one such viable option to produce alternative proteins. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims & Mains: Recombinant DNA Technology: About, Applications & Benefits; BioE3 Policy.  

Animal-Free Protein using Recombinant DNA Technology: 

  • Animal-free protein refers to proteins (dairy, egg, meat proteins, other biological products) produced without using animals. The proteins are produced by relying on microbes (bacteria, fungi, yeast) engineered through Recombinant DNA Technology (rDNA). E.g.,
    • Casein (milk protein) produced in labs without cows.
    • Insulin (earlier extracted from a pig’s pancreas) is now developed by bacteria.
    • Collagen (earlier extracted from animal bones) is now produced in labs. 
  • This is also called precision fermentation or microbial fermentation.

Key steps involved:

  • Identification of the gene responsible for making a specific animal protein (E.g. Insulin)
  • Gene Insertion: The gene is inserted into the DNA of a vector (bacteria, fungi, yeast) using Recombinant DNA Technology. 
  • Protein Expression: The vector is now genetically engineered and acts like a mini factory (bio factory) and produces the desired protein. 

Benefits of Animal-Free Protein using Recombinant DNA Technology

  • Efficient: Requires less resources (land, water, feed) compared to traditional animal husbandry. 
  • Sustainable: Reduces dependence on livestock farming (which contributes to over 14% of global greenhouse gas emissions). 
  • Safer: Eliminates the risks of zoonotic pathogens (E.g., prions in mad cow disease, viruses in poultry). Reduced risk of xenobiotic rejection or allergic reactions. 
  • Animal Welfare: No ethical and moral issues.
  • Desired traits: Proteins can be modified for enhanced nutrition (E.g., more digestible Casein; allergen free proteins) 

What is Recombinant DNA Technology?

  • Recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering involves manipulation of the genetic code or DNA of a living organism by combining genetic material from different sources.  
  • Basic principle: Isolating a specific gene or DNA sequence of interest from one organism and inserting it into the genome of another organism, via an appropriate vector. The inserted gene can be from the same species or from a different species.
  • Use case: It is used to obtain desired characteristics (traits) in living organisms or to produce useful biological products.  
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Key steps involved in R-DNA technology: 

  • Isolation of the gene or DNA sequence of interest from the source organism.
  • Fragmenting this DNA using ‘molecular scissors’ (Restriction endonuclease Enzymes).
  • Screening the fragments for a ‘desired gene’.
  • Inserting the fragments with the desired gene into a ‘vector’ (plasmids, bacteriophage, cosmid) to develop a recombinant DNA (done using an enzyme called DNA ligase which acts like molecular glue).
  • Introducing the recombinant vector into the target organism or host cell. The vector integrates into the host's genome and the gene of interest is expressed. 
  • Expression: The target organism produces the protein encoded by the inserted gene.

Applications of R-DNA Technology: 

  • Creation of Genetically modified (GM) crops with desirable traits (resistance to pests, diseases, or herbicides). 
  • Production of therapeutic proteins such as insulin, interferon and human growth hormone (Human insulin was the 1st therapeutic protein to be genetically cloned in E.coli using R-DNA technology). 
  • Creation of Mono-clonal antibodies.
  • Production of vaccines. E.g., Hepatitis-B vaccine
  • Backbone of diagnostic tests for diseases like HIV and Hepatitis. 
  • Produce clotting factors for treating Haemophilia. 
  • Development of synthetic anti-venom, free from animal-derived proteins.
  • Create genetically engineered microorganisms for bioremediation and cleaning up environmental pollutants.

BIOE3 Policy: 

  • BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment) policy was launched in 2024 by the Department of Biotechnology. 
  • Aim: Fostering high-performance biomanufacturing which involves the production of bio-based products across various sectors.
  • India's bio economy has skyrocketed from $10 billion in 2014 to over $130 billion in 2024, with projections to reach $300 billion by 2030. 
  • BioE3 Policy would focus on the following strategic and thematic sectors:
    • Smart proteins and functional foods
    • High value bio-based chemicals, biopolymers, and enzymes
    • Precision biotherapeutics
    • Climate resilient agriculture
    • Carbon capture & its utilisation
    • Marine and space research

Implementation Strategies:

  • Support innovation-driven research and development (R&D) and entrepreneurship.​
  • Establish biomanufacturing hubs, Bio-AI centers, and biofoundries.​
  • Expand India's skilled biotechnology workforce, especially in tier-II and tier-III cities.​
  • Align with initiatives like 'Net Zero' carbon economy and 'Lifestyle for Environment' (LiFE) to promote a circular bioeconomy.

With the launch of the BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, and Employment) policy, the government is focusing more on the manufacture of smart proteins, which entail reduced land, water, and energy requirements, while addressing nutritional needs and widespread protein deficiencies. 

Brain-eating Amoeba

Context: Kerala has reported a spike in the fatal primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) cases, caused by Naegleria fowleri (a brain-eating Amoeba), along with a few fatalities since the beginning of the year. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Naegleria fowleri; Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis; Amoeba.

What is Naegleria fowleri?

  • Naegleria fowleri is a free-living amoeba or a single-celled living organism that causes a rare brain infection known as Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM).
  • It lives in warm fresh water and soil and infects people when it enters the body through the nose. It then travels up to the brain, where it causes swelling and destroys the brain tissue.
    • The amoeba can be found in warm freshwater, such as lakes and rivers, swimming pools, splash pads, surf parks, or other recreational venues that are poorly maintained or minimally chlorinated.
    • Higher temperatures of up to 115°F (46°C) are conducive to its growth and it can survive for short periods in warm environments. 
  • However, people cannot get infected with Naegleria fowleri from drinking water contaminated with the amoeba. PAM is also non-communicable. 
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Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PEM):

  • Symptoms: In the initial stage, the symptoms include headache, fever, nausea and vomiting. Later on, the patient may have a stiff neck and experience confusion, seizures, hallucinations and slip into a state of coma.
  • Fatality: Most people with PAM die within 1 to 18 days after symptoms begin. It usually leads to coma and death after 5 days.
  • Treatment: No effective treatment for the disease has been identified yet. At present, it is treated with a combination of drugs, including amphotericin B, azithromycin, fluconazole, rifampin, miltefosine, and dexamethasone.
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Facts about Amoeba: 

  • Amoebas are single-celled, eukaryotic organisms that belong to the kingdom Protista. They are found in a variety of aquatic and moist environments.
  • They have a simple, jelly-like body without a fixed shape. They move and feed by extending temporary projections called pseudopodia (false feet).
  • They reproduce asexually through binary fission where the cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
  • They are heterotrophic, meaning they obtain nutrients by engulfing and digesting organic matter, bacteria, and other microorganisms using their pseudopodia.
  • They have a simple internal structure, including a nucleus, vacuoles for osmoregulation, and various organelles for digestion and other cellular functions.
  • Some species of amoebas, such as Entamoeba histolytica, are parasitic and can cause diseases in humans, like amoebiasis.
  • Amoebas are important in aquatic food webs, serving as both predators and prey. They play a role in the cycling of nutrients in their ecosystems.

India’s first private constellation of Earth Observation Satellites

Context: The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (IN-SPACe) announced the selection of a consortium led by Google-backed PixxelSpace to design, build and operate India’s first fully-indigenous commercial Earth Observation (EO) satellite constellation, under the public-private partnership (PPP) model.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about India’s first private constellation of Earth Observation Satellites. 
Mains: Commercialisation of the Space Sector in India. 

India’s first private constellation of Earth Observation Satellites

  • India’s first private constellation of Earth Observation (EO) Satellites will be built by a consortium led by Google-backed PixxelSpace. It also includes Piersight Space, Satsure Analytics India and Dhruva Space. 
  • The consortium will invest more than ₹1,200 crore over the next five years to launch a constellation of 12 EO satellites. 
  • The 12 EO satellite constellation will be entirely designed, manufactured, and operated in India. The constellation will be deployed in a phased manner over the next four years. 
  • The satellites will be equipped with panchromatic, multispectral, hyperspectral and microwave synthetic aperture radar (SAR) sensors.
  • Applications: Deliver analysis-ready data and value-added services for applications in:
    • Climate Change Monitoring
    • Disaster Management 
    • Agriculture
    • Infrastructure and Urban Planning
    • Marine Surveillance 
    • National Security 

Under the PPP framework, the government will provide strategic, technical and policy support, while the consortium will own and operate the EO system, including satellite manufacturing, launches from Indian soil, ground infrastructure and commercialisation of data services.

Significance: 

  • Demonstrates the capability of Indian private space companies to lead largescale, technologically advanced and commercially viable space missions that serve both national and global markets.
  • Advance world-class space-tech capability that will deliver analysis-ready data and value-added services to serve India, as well as the whole planet. 
  • Enhance India’s data sovereignty, reduce dependence on foreign imagery and ensure that all satellites are manufactured domestically, launched on Indian rockets and controlled from within the country.  

The project is also expected to create thousands of high-skill jobs and contribute to India’s target of growing its space economy from $8.4 billion in 2022 to $44 billion by 2033.

Also Read: What is Synthetic Aperture Radar? 

How does Satellite Internet work?

Context: Even after 25 years of terrestrial mobile services, India is 48% short in terms of broadband penetration today. Satellite Internet offers an alternative to bridge the gap and provide internet access in remote and underdeveloped areas. 

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Difference between Terrestrial Broadband Internet and Satellite Internet. Benefits and challenges associated with satellite internet. 

Satellite Internet

  • Satellite internet is wireless internet beamed down from satellites orbiting the Earth instead of optical fiber or mobile networks. 

How does Satellite Internet work?

  • A satellite internet network is composed of a space segment and a ground segment. The space segment consists of the satellites in orbit, while the ground segment includes all equipment on Earth that communicates with them. 
  • The satellites carry communication payloads for data transmission and have a service life of 5 to 20 years. 
  • Their deployment (orbital altitude) determines the satellite’s capabilities and coverage. Satellites are deployed in three main orbits:
    • Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)
    • Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
    • Low Earth Orbit (LEO) 
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What are the differences between satellites deployed in different orbits?

1. Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO): 

  • GEO satellites orbit at 35,786 km above the equator. They match the Earth’s rotation time, allowing them to remain stationary relative to a point on the ground. 
  • High altitude allows a single GEO satellite to cover nearly one-third of the Earth’s surface, though not the polar regions. E.g., Viasat’s Global Xpress (GX) system.
  • GEO satellites simply relay signals back to Earth without processing them. 
  • Limitations: High propagation latency- As the signals must travel long distances it results in delays. This makes GEO systems unsuitable for time-sensitive applications like video conferencing or real-time transactions.

2. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO):  

  • MEO satellites operate at altitudes between 2000 km and 35,786 km. 
  • They require a constellation for global coverage. E.g., O3b MEO constellation consists of 20 satellites. 
  • Limitations: Their latency is lower than that of GEO satellites, but often insufficient for many real-time applications, and the satellites remain large and costly to launch.

3. Low Earth Orbit (LEO):  

  • LEO satellites orbit at altitudes below 2000 km. 
  • Benefits: Their proximity to Earth results in very low latency. They are also smaller, often table-sized, making them cheaper and quicker to deploy. 
  • Limitations: Smaller coverage area due to their location at lower altitudes. To achieve global coverage, the LEO satellites must form mega-constellations. E.g., Starlink has over 7,000 satellites in the LEO.
image 152
S.No. Terrestrial Broadband Internet Satellite Internet 
1.Data Aggregation Happens on the ground (in base stations)Happens in the space (via satellites)
2.Line of Sight Requirement No direct line of sight needed Requires a clear line of sight to the satellite (via an antenna)
3.Latency Minimal latency Higher latency due to time taken by signals to travel from space to Earth
4.Coverage Most suitable for urban areas, or areas with supporting infrastructure. High cost of deployment in remote/inaccessible areas. Can cover remote and underserved areas. 

Is Satellite Internet available in India?

  • Yes. Presently, the utilisation of satellite internet is restricted to minimal applications — such as disaster management, defence, scientific locations, etc. Key hurdles are high latency of these services, which means that real-time transmission is hard.
    • However, things are changing with the launch of ISRO’s high throughput GEO (Geostationary Equatorial Orbit) satellites which can beam high-speed internet up to 14 gigabits per second. 
  • Many global players are providing satellite broadband services by deploying low earth orbit (LEO) satellites. They are launching a constellation of satellites very close to the earth’s surface in order to reduce the latency of satellite broadband. E.g., Elon Musk’s Starlink, Airtel backed OneWeb, Amazon’s Project Kupier, Canadian satellite major Telesat, JioSpaceFiber etc.
  • India's Space Policy 2023 permits foreign entities to set-up infrastructure and offer satellite-based services, after obtaining permission from INSpace. 

Benefits of Satellite Internet: 

  • Provide high-speed internet services in remote and underserved areas, where terrestrial networks cannot be set up. (or the cost of putting fiber is too high) E.g., unreachable terrains of Himalayas, middle of the ocean etc. 
  • High Scalability: Can be expanded quickly to cover large areas, as compared to the delays in laying optical fiber cable infrastructure. 
  • Resilient to disasters: Maintain connectivity during terrestrial disasters where broadband cables infrastructure may be disrupted. 

Challenges associated with Satellite Internet: 

  • Limited coverage: Satellite internet is most effective in areas with clear line-of-sight to the satellites, which would be challenging in densely populated urban areas or regions with obstructive terrain. 
  • Latency: Higher latency as signals must travel between Earth and satellites in orbit, may impact real-time applications. (especially GEO satellites)
  • Affordability: Equipment-cost related to satellite dish passed on to end-users may present barriers in adoption, in comparison to cheaper broadband internet. The cost per bit is also very high currently to make it operationally viable.
  • Space debris: Launch of thousands of satellites for internet constellations has raised concerns about space debris. 
  • Cyber security: Satellites are vulnerable to jamming, hacking and other cyber-attacks which can disrupt internet communication.

Satellite internet can complement the existing traditional fiber and mobile broadband services to bridge digital divide and scale-up quality internet access.

NASA to shut down Orbiting Carbon Observatories 

Context: The US administration has asked the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to prepare to shut down Orbiting Carbon Observatories (two major satellites) that monitor atmospheric Carbon dioxide (CO2) and crop health.

The missions, still working perfectly, are being terminated to align with the US budget priorities.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Orbiting Carbon Observatories; Carbon dioxide. 

Orbiting Carbon Observatories

  • OCOs are a series of dedicated Earth remote sensing satellites designed specifically to observe atmospheric CO2 from space to better understand the characteristics of climate change. The two OCOs include: OCO-2 (launched in 2014) and OCO-3 (2019). 
  • Function: The satellites:
    • measure atmospheric CO2 and can also locate its sources and sinks. 
    • track crops and crop-growing seasons by measuring the glow that plants emit when they photosynthesise.
  • OCO-3 and OCO-2 do the same function, but they provide different perspectives to scientists.
    • OCO-2 flies around Earth in a sun-synchronous polar orbit which allows it to see any given location at the same time of day. 
    • OCO-3 flies aboard the International Space Station (ISS) which orbits Earth every 90 minutes. It can observe a location at many different times of day, and add to the dataset of its predecessor mission.

The US government now plans to shut down both OCO-2 and OCO-3 satellites. The satellites are more sensitive and accurate than any other mission operating or planned, in the world. 

Significance of the OCO Missions

Before the launch of the OCOs, scientists measured atmospheric CO2 mainly through instruments placed at various locations on the Earth’s surface. However, this did not provide them information about the whole planet. 

  • Provide a range of Data: OCOs have the ability to monitor crop health. NASA and other agencies have used the data to create high-resolution maps of plant growth around the world. The data generated by OCOs is used:
    • For CO2 measurement
    • To forecast and track crop yields and drought conditions
    • For drought monitoring
    • Forest mapping
    • To assess emission reduction efforts, and to develop effective strategies to tackle climate change. 
  • Advance scientific knowledge: OCOs have advanced scientific knowledge by paving the way for some surprising discoveries. For instance:
    • For decades, it was believed that tropical rainforests functioned as the lungs of the planet by clearing out vast quantities of CO2 from the atmosphere. However, data from OCO-2 revealed that boreal forests (also known as taiga), the coniferous forests in the higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere, play a significant role in the absorption of CO2.
    • The data showed how natural carbon sinks such as forests could become carbon emitters due to drought or deforestation.

About Carbon dioxide

  • Carbon dioxide, a colourless gas, is one of the most important greenhouse gases linked to global warming. It is a minor component of Earth’s atmosphere (about 3 volumes in 10,000).
  • Sources of Emission:
    • Natural: Respiration, decomposition of living animals, fermentation, emitted from oceans and other natural bodies of water, volcanoes, forest fires, and carbonate rocks.
    • Anthropogenic: Transportation, power and heat generation, chemical and petrochemical production, manufacturing, agriculture, food production. 
image 12

Global Warming Potential:

  • GWP describes how much impact a gas will have on atmospheric warming over a period of time compared to carbon dioxide. Each greenhouse gas has a different atmospheric warming impact, and some gases remain in the atmosphere for longer than others. 
  • Carbon dioxide (CO2) has the lowest global warming potential, is the most abundant and lasts for thousands of years, so it is used as the baseline. 

Project to curb Rhino Poaching through Radioactive Isotope Injection

Context: Researchers from South Africa have launched an anti-poaching campaign with a unique approach which involves injecting radioactive isotopes into Rhino horns. The method is claimed to be harmless for the Rhinos and allows customs agents to detect trafficked horns.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Radioactivity; Applications of Radioactivity. 

Key Highlights of the Anti-Poaching Campaign

  • Method: Through a non-invasive procedure, Rhino horns are tagged with low doses of radioactive isotopes. This allows for their ready detection by radiation portal monitors (RPMs) already deployed at borders, ports, and airports worldwide to identify unauthorised nuclear materials.
  • Rationale: To facilitate detection of Rhino horns at international borders using existing radiation monitors to curb poaching. 
  • Potential: This application can be extended to other vulnerable species like elephants and pangolins.

What is Radioactivity? 

  • Radioactivity is the property of some unstable atoms (radionuclides) to spontaneously emit nuclear radiation (usually alpha particles or beta particles, often accompanied by gamma-rays) to transform into a more stable form. The radiation emitted can be traced using existing radiation monitors.
    • Atoms found in nature are either stable or unstable.
    • Instability of an atom's nucleus may result from an excess of either neutrons or protons. In such a case, the atom is radioactive and the nucleus has excess internal energy.
    • A radioactive atom attempts to reach stability by ejecting nucleons (protons or neutrons), as well as other particles, or by releasing energy.
  • Common examples of Radionuclides: Tritium (isotope of Hydrogen and the lightest radionuclide), Carbon-14, Caesium-137, Thorium-232, Uranium-235, Uranium-238, Plutonium-238, Plutonium-239. 
image 7

Applications of Radioactivity

  • Radioisotope Thermo-electric Generator (RTG): A radioactive material (Plutonium-238) is used which when decays produces heat. This heat is in turn used by a generator to produce electricity. E.g., the New Horizon spacecraft to Pluto uses RTG as an energy source for the spacecraft. 
  • Medical Imaging: Radioactive isotopes are used in medical imaging techniques such as CT scans and PET scans. 
  • Radiation Therapy: Radioactive isotopes (Cobalt-60) and (Cesium-137) are used to treat various types of cancer through radiation therapy.
  • Smoke Detectors: Smoke detectors use a small amount of radioactive material to detect smoke and trigger an alarm.
  • Industrial Radiography: Radioactive isotopes are used in industrial radiography to test the integrity of metal structures such as pipelines and oil rigs.
  • Carbon Dating: Carbon-14 is used in carbon dating to determine the age of ancient fossils and artefacts.
  • Nuclear Power: Uranium-235 is used to generate nuclear electricity through nuclear fission. Tritium is being explored as a potential nuclear fuel that can undergo nuclear fusion.  
  • Food Irradiation: Radioactive isotopes (Cobalt-60 and Cesium-137) are used to sterilise and preserve food products.
  • Geological Dating: Radioactive isotopes (Uranium-238) are used to determine the age of rocks and minerals.
  • Sterilisation: Cobalt-60 is used to sterilise medical and surgical instruments.

Research, Development, and Innovation (RDI) Scheme

Context: The Central government has announced a Rs 1 lakh crore fund to empower the private sector in advancing India's sovereign technology goals. The RDI Scheme will offer long-term, low-interest loans and risk capital for deep-tech and transformative projects.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: key facts about the Research, Development, and Innovation (RDI) Scheme. 

Research, Development, and Innovation (RDI) Scheme

  • The government has launched the ambitious Research, Development, and Innovation (RDI) Scheme in 2025. 
  • Aim: To incentivise private-sector participation in research and development (R&D), particularly in sunrise and strategic sectors.
  • Outlay: ₹1 lakh crore over 6 years, with ₹20,000 crore allocated for FY26.
  • A dedicated 'Deep-Tech Fund of Funds' will also be established to scale up private investment in innovation.
  • Nodal Agency: Department of Science & Technology (DST).

Key Features of the Scheme: 

  • The scheme will provide long-term, low-interest loans and risk capital to support deep-tech, critical technologies, and transformative projects.
  • Technology sectors of strategic importance have been identified under the RDI Scheme. These include:
    • Energy Security and Climate Action. 
    • Deep technologies such as Quantum Computing, Artificial Intelligence,  Semiconductors, Biotechnology, and Digital economy. 
    • Sectors critical for Strategic and Economic security. 
  • There exists the flexibility to include additional sectors based on approval from the Empowered Group of Secretaries (EGoS).

Funding Mechanism

  • Fund allocation to innovators, researchers, and start-ups will be managed through a Special Purpose Fund (SPF) under the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF), which serves as the Level 1 Fund Custodian. 
  • Implementation will be carried out by Second-Level Fund Managers, including Alternate Investment Funds (AIFs), Development Finance Institutions (DFIs), Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), and Focused Research Organisations (FROs), such as BIRAC, TDB, and IIT Research Parks, with approval from the Empowered Group of Secretaries (EGoS).
    • Funding to R&D projects by the 2nd level fund managers would normally be in the form of long-term loan at low or nil interest rates. 
    • Financing in the form of equity may also be done, especially in case of startups. 
    • Contribution to Deep-Tech Fund of Funds (FoF) or any other FoF meant for RDI may also be considered.

Significance: 

  • Addresses funding gaps in private sector R&D by providing growth and risk capital to sunrise and strategic sectors. 
  • Supports innovation, technology adoption, and competitiveness with sector selection guided by India’s economic priorities and strategic needs.
  • Finances transformative projects at higher levels of Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) 4 and above. 
  • Enables acquisition of strategically important technologies, and promotes the creation of a Deep-Tech Fund of Funds.

By addressing the critical need of the private sector for long-term affordable financing, the RDI Scheme facilitates a conducive innovation ecosystem in the country. 

Also Read: India’s R&D Investment: Challenges and Opportunities 

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