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Study on behaviours of Elephants

Context: Recent research has unveiled fascinating insights into the communication patterns of wild African savannah elephants in Kenya. By examining 469 calls, referred to as ‘rumbles,’ researchers focused on interactions where both the caller and receiver elephants were identified. This discovery, published in the journal Nature Ecology and Evolution, adds a new dimension to our understanding of elephant communication.

Behaviour Explained

Name like sounds known as Rumbles in Elephants:

Given the complexity of these rumbles, which often escape human auditory detection, artificial intelligence played a crucial role in the analysis.
The AI-assisted study revealed that these rumbles contain a distinctive ‘name-like’ component, enabling elephants to recognize and respond to individual calls.
The researchers analysed vocalisations, mostly rumbles generated by elephants using their vocal cords, similar to how people speak, made by elephants in Amboseli National Park (Southern Kenya) and Samburu National Reserve (Northern Kenya).
While dolphins and parrots have been observed addressing each other by mimicking the sound of others from their species, elephants are the first non-human animals known to use names that do not involve imitation.
Social and cognitive sophistication:
- Elephants learn to associate specific sounds with individual elephants.
- This capability allows them to address each other directly, capturing the attention of particular individuals through unique vocalizations.
- This underscores the importance of social bonds among elephants and their ability to maintain numerous relationships within their groups.
- Elephants are renowned for their intelligence, which includes remarkable memory, problem-solving skills, and intricate communication methods.
- They employ a variety of behaviours, including visual, acoustic (to do with sound), and tactile gestures (connected with sense of touch), to interact with each other.
- Previous research has documented these complex interactions, especially during greetings.

About Elephants:

Keystone species: Important role in maintaining forest ecosystem balance and health.
They have the largest brain size among land animals.
As important grazers and browsers, elephants consume large quantities of vegetation daily and disperse seeds, aiding in plant reproduction and growth.
They shape the dense vegetation of the Asian landscape by creating clearings in forests, allowing sunlight to reach seedlings and promoting natural forest regeneration.
Elephants also dig for water during dry periods, providing access to water for other wildlife as well as themselves.
India:
- India is home to the largest population of wild Asian elephants, with an estimated 29,964 individuals according to the 2017 census by Project Elephant.
- This constitutes approximately 60% of the global population of the species.
- Karnataka has the highest number of elephants in India, followed by Assam and Kerala.
Conservation Status:
- International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of threatened species:
  - African Forest Elephant: Critically Endangered.
  - African Savanna: Endangered.
  - Asian Elephant: Endangered.
- In India, the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 includes elephants in Schedule I.

Why India needs 3rd aircraft carrier

Context: Recent media reports suggest that the Indian Navy's long-standing demand for a third aircraft carrier is finally moving closer to realization, with Cochin Shipyard Limited (CSL) poised to commence construction of an additional Vikrant-class platform, weighing around 40,000 tonnes.

About aircraft carrier:

It is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft.
It is fundamental to command, control and coordination of operations from the sea and to project combat power ashore, over the seas or in the air,

History of Aircraft Carriers in India:

Right from its Independence, India was aware of the need for aircraft carriers to establish itself as a blue water navy. Since the sixties, the Indian Navy has had the unique distinction of operating all variants of aircraft launch and recovery systems.

INS Vikrant (R11)- India’s First Aircraft Carrier: It served in the Indian Navy from 1961 to 1997. Originally, it was being built by the British as HMS Hercules. The 19,500-tonne Carrier, played a crucial role in the 1971 war.
INS Viraat: It was originally commissioned by the British Royal Navy as HMS Hermes. It played a pivotal role in Operation Jupiter (in 1989 as part of Peacekeeping Operations in Sri Lanka, following the breakdown of the Indo- Sri Lankan Accord of 1986) and Operation Parakram (carried out in the wake of the 2013 terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament). It was decommissioned from service in 2017.
INS Vikramaditya: Russia’s refurbished Admiral Gorshkov was commissioned into the Indian Navy as INS Vikramaditya at Severodvinsk, Russia in November 2013. It is a state-of-the-art ship, capable of operating a versatile range of high-performance aircrafts, such as the MiG 29K fighters, KM 31 AEW helicopters, multi-role Seakings and utility Chetaks.
India’s first indigenous aircraft carrier (IAC-1): INS Vikrant was inducted into the Indian Navy by 2020.
- Vikrant can operate an air wing of 30 aircraft comprising MiG-29K fighter jets, Kamov-31, MH-60R multi-role helicopters, in addition to indigenous Advanced Light Helicopters and Light Combat Aircraft (Navy).
- It uses the STOBAR (Short Take-Off but Arrested Recovery) method to launch and recover aircraft for which it is equipped with a ski- jump to launch aircraft, and three ‘arrester wires’ for their recovery.
A second Indigenous Aircraft Carrier (IAC-II), a repeat of a Vikrant-like carrier. The IAC-II displacing 45,000 tonnes will see some modifications and newer technologies incorporated in the original design of the Vikrant. The proposed IAC-II has often been referred to as India’s third aircraft carrier.

Why India needs 3^rd aircraft carrier:

Enhances Indian Navy’s capability to protect India’s 7,500-kilometre coastline, enables operations far from India’s shores, reinforcing status as a ‘blue water’ navy.
Critical for protecting India's seaborne trade, which constitutes over 90% of the country's trade volume. Essential for asserting Indian presence in key strategic areas like the Straits of Malacca, Hormuz, Bab-el-Mandeb, and the South China Sea, would help India project power and counterbalance China’s growing influence.
Showcasing India’s capability to design and build aircraft carriers.
Can boost domestic heavy and medium industries, create a network of MSME sector , enhance youth skills, and generate job opportunities.

Hydrogen Line

What is the Hydrogen Line?

The hydrogen line, also known as the 21-centimetre line, is a specific electromagnetic emission from neutral hydrogen atoms.
Wavelength and Frequency: The hydrogen line is observed at a wavelength of 21 centimetres (or 1420.4 MHz frequency) in the radio spectrum.
Origin: Hyperfine transition in the ground state of neutral hydrogen atoms. This transition involves a change in the spin state of the electron relative to the proton.

Hyperfine Transition:

Each hydrogen atom is made of one proton and one electron. Both these particles have a property called spin.
Energy States: In a neutral hydrogen atom, the spin of the electron and proton in a hydrogen atom can be either aligned (higher energy state) or anti-aligned (lower energy state).
- When the spins of both particles are pointing up (or down), they are said to be aligned. When they are pointing in opposite directions, they are anti-aligned.
Emission Process: When the spins flip from aligned to anti-aligned, the atom will shed this ‘excess’ energy, emitting electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 21 cm.

Significance in Astronomy:

Mapping the Milky Way: Hydrogen line is critical for mapping the structure of our galaxy. Neutral hydrogen emits this radiation, allowing astronomers to study the distribution and motion of clouds of cold, neutral hydrogen atomic gas in interstellar space.
Star Formation: By observing the hydrogen line, astronomers can identify regions where stars are forming, as these regions often have abundant neutral hydrogen.
SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence): The hydrogen line is often considered a potential frequency for interstellar communication due to its significance in astronomy and the likelihood that advanced civilizations might recognize its importance.

Agnibaan Rocket

Context: Agnikul Cosmos, a private space company, carried out the first successful launch of its indigenously built rocket, Agnibaan SOrTED (Suborbital Tech Demonstrator) from India’s first and only private launchpad within Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh. It is also India’s first flight with a Semi-Cryo engine.

About Agnibaan SOrTED:

SOrTeD uses the world’s first single-piece 3D-printed engine, designed and built indigenously.
It is powered by liquid fuel in the core. All the ISRO rockets have solid fuel in the core, though the strap-on rockets (small rockets that cling to the sides of the main rocket at the bottom) were liquid-fuel fired. Agnibaan is also designed to be fitted with strap-ons.
It was for the first time in India that a semi-cryogenic engine was used: ATF (Aviation turbine fuel) at ambient temperature and liquid oxygen (oxidiser) in cryogenic condition. Fuel loading had to begin only 3 hours before the lift-off.
It was also the first private rocket that was controlled during the entire flight. Its velocity, attitude and position were fully telemetered, and it could be destroyed on the ground if something went wrong.
The Agnibaan rocket is a customisable, two-stage launch vehicle that can carry up to 300 kilo-gram of payload to orbits nearly 700 kilometers in altitude.
Agnikul Cosmos:
- It is an Indian aerospace manufacturer based in National Centre for Combustion Research and Development (NCCRD) of IIT Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
- In 2017, it was formally incorporated as a company.
- AgniKul signed a framework agreement with the Department of Space in 2021 for access to ISRO facilities and technical expertise for the development of its two-stage small-satellite Agnibaan launch vehicle.

How can the sky glow even after sunset?

Context: This article explains reasons for sky glow even after sunset.

Why sky glows even after sunset:

The sun may have set, but it hasn't yet from the perspective of the upper atmosphere.
The sun still shines on the atmosphere, but at a sharp angle beneath the horizon. During this time, we see the sky glow because molecules in the air scatter this sunlight in different directions, including towards us. This is also why the evening sky appears red at the horizon.
- Both this effect and the sky appearing blue during the daytime are the results of Rayleigh scattering (the scattering of sunlight by particles in the air that are much smaller than the light's wavelength).
As the sun continues to set, a smaller amount of sunlight strikes the upper atmosphere. Nightfall truly begins when the sun is at least around 18 degrees below the horizon.
The arrival of daylight happens through a similar process, in reverse. When the sun is at least 18 degrees below the horizon in the east, the sky starts to turn reddish again near the horizon. When the sun's position crosses the horizon (as seen by the observer), daylight breaks out, and the day begins.
The sky can appear to glow even after the sun has dipped 18 degrees below the horizon due to other sources of light. These include the scattering of starlight by the atmosphere and — increasingly — light pollution.

Central dogma and gene expression

Context: Bacteria called Klebsiella pneumoniae can use an enzyme called reverse transcriptase to create new genes when infected with bacteriophages (viruses that attack bacteria).

This newly created gene produces a protein named Neo, which puts the bacteria in a dormant state, stalling the virus's replication and protecting the bacteria.

Central dogma of molecular biology:

Central dogma of molecular biology explains how genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to proteins.
Gene expression is the process our cells use to convert instructions in DNA into proteins. This happens in two-stages called transcription (occurs in the nucleus, in eukaryotic organisms) and translation (occurs in cytoplasm).
- Transcription: mRNA copies the sequence of a gene from DNA, and then leaves the nucleus and travels to cytoplasm.
- Translation: Using the template encoded by mRNA, translation is carried out by ribosomes, i.e., the information in the mRNA is used to synthesise proteins (building blocks of life).
In prokaryotic cells (such as bacteria), which lack a nucleus, transcription and translation occur in the same cellular compartment, the cytoplasm.
In eukaryotic organisms, transcription occurs in the nucleus, while translation occurs in the cytoplasm.

Transcription and Translation:

Transcription is the process of copying DNA into RNA. It is the first step in gene expression, which is the process by which genes are used to make proteins. Transcription occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. During transcription, the DNA is copied into a complementary RNA molecule. This RNA molecule, called messenger RNA (mRNA), then leaves the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm, where it is used to synthesise proteins by translation.
Translation is the process of using mRNA to make a protein. It is the second step in gene expression. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. Translation is carried out by ribosomes, which use the information in the mRNA to synthesise a chain of amino acids. The chain of amino acids is then folded into a protein.

Reverse transcription:

Reverse transcription is a process in which RNA is used as a template to synthesise a complementary DNA (cDNA) molecule. This process is carried out by an enzyme called reverse transcriptase. The name "reverse transcription" reflects the fact that it is the reverse of the usual flow of genetic information, which is from DNA to RNA (transcription).
Transcription occurs in the nucleus of the cell, while reverse transcription can occur in the cytoplasm of the cell.

Virus-like particles (VLPs)

Context: Scientists at the Institute of Advanced Virology (IAV), Thiruvananthapuram developed a novel way of generating non-infectious Nipah virus-like particles (VLPs) in the laboratory. These VLPs allow scientists to test vaccines and treatments for the Nipah virus in safer labs with lower safety requirements (BSL-2), making the research process safer and more accessible.

About virus-like particles (VLPs):

The VLPs are molecules that closely resemble viruses, but are non-infectious. They have long been recognised as effective quantitative platforms for studying viral binding and entry kinetics of the virus.
They are minute particles, typically ranging from 20 to 200 nanometers in radius, this small size allows them to navigate through the body and reach the lymph nodes efficiently, where they can activate the immune system.

Composition of VLPS:

They are composed of one or more structural proteins. These proteins can arrange themselves in layers, and some VLPs even have an outer lipid envelope that replicates the structure of a virus's protective shell.

Application of VLPS:

While current VLP vaccines effectively protect against several different diseases, including hepatitis B, human papillomavirus infection and malaria, the use of the VLP approach in other vaccines has been limited due to challenges with stability, difficulty in manufacturing, high production costs and sensitivity to temperature.

Benefits of VLPs:

VLP vaccines can be produced using bacterial, yeast, insect, or mammalian cells.
When introduced into the body, they trigger an immune response just like a real virus.
However, since VLPs lack genetic material, they cannot cause illness, this controlled exposure allows the body to develop immunity to the specific virus the VLP mimics due to their high-density display of epitopes and the capacity to present multiple proteins to the immune system.
It has been employed as nanomachines to deliver pharmaceutically active products to specific sites and into specific cells in the body.

About Nipha Virus (NiV):

Transmission: It is a zoonotic disease that can be transmitted to humans through direct contact with infected animals, especially bats and pigs. Nipah virus infection can be transmitted through contaminated food or directly from person to person.
Natural Reservoir: Fruit Bats (also known as flying foxes) are believed to be the natural reservoir/primary carriers of the Nipah virus.
Symptoms:
- Fever, muscle pain, and respiratory problems (similar to that of influenza).
- Inflammation of the brain as well as late onset of Encephalitis can also occur.
- The case fatality rate is between 65 percent and 100 percent.
Treatment: NiV is on the top-10 priority list of pathogens identified by the World Health Organization. Currently, there are no approved vaccines available against NiV.

James Webb Space Telescope spots earliest-known galaxy

Context: NASA's James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has discovered the earliest-known galaxy, JADES-GS-z14-0. This galaxy, remarkably large and bright, formed when the universe was just 2% of its current age. Until now, the earliest-known galaxy dated to about 320 million years after the Big Bang, as announced by the JADES team last year.

About JADES-GS-z14-0 galaxy:

The galaxy existed about 290 million years after the Big Bang event (that initiated the universe roughly 13.8 billion years ago). This period spanning the universe’s first few hundred million years is called cosmic dawn.
- The period in the first few hundred million years after the big bang where the first galaxies were born.
- These galaxies provide vital insight into the ways in which the gas, stars, and black holes were changing when the universe was very young.
Early galaxies were formed in an environment that was denser and gas-rich than today. In addition, the chemical composition of the gas was very different, much closer to the pristine composition inherited from the Big Bang (hydrogen, helium and traces of lithium).
The international team of astronomers used JWST to observe galaxies as part of the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) program.
JADES-GS-z14-0 galaxy measures about 1,700-light years across.
A light year is the distance light travels in a year, which is 9.5 trillion km.
- The galaxy has a mass equivalent to 500 million stars the size of our Sun and is rapidly forming new stars, about 20 every year. (It is dwarfed by some present-day galaxies such as the Milky Way is about 100,000 light years across, with the mass equivalent to about 10 billion sun-sized stars).
The team also disclosed the discovery of the second oldest-known galaxy, from about 303 million years post-Big Bang.
This galaxy, JADES-GS-z14-1, is smaller, with a mass equal to about 100 million sun-sized stars, measuring roughly 1,000 light years across and forming about two new stars per year.

Read about James Webb Telescope:

James Webb Telescope

China lands on the Far side of the Moon

Context: China’s Chang’e-6 lunar lander successfully landed in the South Pole-Aitken Basin (the far side of the moon), where it will begin to collect samples from the lunar surface.

About Chang’e-6 Mission:

The Chang’e-6 is a 53-day-long mission. After reaching the Moon’s orbit, the mission’s orbiter will circle the natural satellite while its lander will descend into the 2,500-kilometre-wide South Pole-Aitken basin on the lunar surface.
After collecting samples through scooping and drilling, the lander will launch an ascent vehicle, which will transfer the samples to the orbiter’s service module. This module will then return to the Earth.
Note: China is the only country to achieve a soft-landing on the far side of the Moon. In 2019, its Chang’e-4 mission landed on the region and explored the Moon’s Von Karman crater with the help of a rover.

Facts about the Moon:

The Moon is tidally locked to Earth, meaning that the same side of the Moon always faces Earth. This side is known as the near side, while the opposite side is called the far side or the "dark" side (although it does receive sunlight).
- The Moon takes roughly the same amount of time to complete one full orbit around the Earth as the Earth takes to complete one full rotation on its axis.
- As a result, one side of the Moon always faces the Earth, while the other side (far side) faces away from Earth. Thus, we can see only one side of the Moon.

Near side and Far side of the Moon have strikingly different appearances:

Near side:

The near side is characterised by large, dark basaltic plains called maria (dark spots), which are believed to have formed from ancient volcanic eruptions. These maria cover about 31% of the near side and are less common on the far side.
The near side also has fewer impact craters compared to the far side.

Far side:

The far side is more heavily cratered and lacks the extensive maria (dark spots) found on the near side.
The far side has a thicker crust and is more mountainous, with the highest elevations on the Moon. It has a thicker crust by almost 20 km.
One of the most prominent features on the far side is the South Pole-Aitken basin, which is the largest known impact crater in the Solar System.

Why is the Far side of the Moon important for us?

South Pole-Aitken Basin is the oldest known impact crater in the solar system. The impact that created the basin is thought to have dug up material from the lunar mantle. If that material can be retrieved, scientists can learn more about the history of the interior of the Moon. Chang’e-6’s sample return could also shed more light on the early evolution of the moon and the inner solar system.
The far side is completely free from radio interference from Earth. This makes it an ideal location for setting up giant radio telescopes that could detect ultra-low radio waves that emanate from the early universe and which would provide crucial information about the formation of the first galaxies.
The far side might hold resources like water ice trapped in permanently shadowed craters. These resources could be vital for future lunar settlements or exploration efforts.

Genetically Modified (GM) Crops

Context: The government is considering the import of genetically modified (GM) corn (maize) from the U.S. at a lower import duty to bridge the supply deficit owing to rising consumption of poultry feed in the country.

About Genetically Modified (GM) Crops:

Genetically Modified (GM) Crops are genetically engineered crops that undergo gene alteration and modification.
GM crops may include:
- Transgenic Crops: Type of GM crop where genes from a different species are introduced into the plant. E.g., BT Cotton (Bt cotton is a genetically modified variety of cotton that contains genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis)
- Cisgenic Crops: Another type of GM crop where the introduced genes come from the same species or a closely related one. E.g., Blight resistant Potato (The potato has been genetically modified by introducing resistance genes from wild relatives of the cultivated potato).
- Subgenic (Intragenic) Crops: This involves modifying or editing the genes within the same species without introducing foreign DNA.
  - Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 can be used to remove faulty genes or make small changes to the plant's own DNA to achieve desired traits, such as improved yield or stress tolerance.

Benefits of GM crops:

Genetic modification is done to confer a particular trait to the plant with one of the following properties:
- Increased yield of a crop
- Increased nutritional content of a crop
- Developing resistance to:
  - Abiotic stresses like temperature, salinity or herbicide-resistant
  - Biotic stresses like insect-resistant crops.
BT cotton is the only genetically modified crop that is commercially allowed in India from 2002.

Regulations related to GM Crops:

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) and the products thereof are regulated under the “Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989” under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
GM crops are subjected to stringent “environmental release” regulations in India, not just for commercial cultivation but even for field trials and seed production. Such release requires clearance from the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.

Genetically modified (GM) Corn:

Genetically modified (GM) corn or BT corn has been genetically engineered to have desirable traits like resistance to pests or herbicides.
BT corn is a transgenic species that has a gene from soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis.
- The bacterium produces proteins that are toxic to certain insect pests but not to humans, pets, livestock, or other animals.
- These proteins bind to the gut wall of susceptible insects, causing them to stop feeding and die from septicemia within hours.
- Bt corn can reduce the need for spraying insecticides while still preventing insect damage.

RudraM-II

Context: Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) successfully flight-tested the indigenously-developed RudraM-II air-to-surface missile from a Su-30 MKI fighter jet off Odisha coast.

About RudraM-II:

RudraM-II is a solid-propelled air-to-surface anti-radiation supersonic missile indigenously developed by DRDO.
Key Features:
- The missile has a peak speed of Mach 5.5 (5.5 times the speed of sound).
- It is capable of carrying a payload of up to 200 kg i.e., explosives.
- This missile can be launched from a height of 3 to 15 km and has a range of 300-350 kilometres.
- The internal guidance system of the missile allows it to direct itself toward the target after the launch.
This missile is capable of destroying aircraft hangars, bunkers and airstrips. It is designed to target enemy ground radars (surveillance, tracking) and communication stations in Suppression of Enemy Air Defence (SEAD) missions.
RudraM-II is the latest version of Mark-1 which was tested four years ago.
- RudraM-1 version was test-fired from Sukhoi in 2020 off the east coast of Odisha.
- Mark-1 version has a range of 100-150 km and can reach speeds of Mach 2 (two times the speed of sound). It has a launch altitude range of 1 km to 15 km.
India currently operates the Russian Kh-31, an anti-radiation missile. The RudraM missiles will replace the Kh-31s.

Significance:

The flight-test met all the trial objectives, validating the propulsion system and control & guidance algorithm. The successful test consolidated the role of RudraM-II as a force multiplier to the Indian armed forces.

Anti-Radiation Missile:

Anti-Radiation Missile (ARM) is a type of air-to-surface missile that is designed to home in on and destroy enemy radar systems and communication stations.
Targeting: ARMs use onboard sensors to detect and track the electromagnetic emissions from enemy radar systems. They can then home in on these emissions to destroy the radar installation.
Propulsion: ARMs typically use solid-fuel rocket propulsion to provide the speed and range needed to reach distant targets.
Guidance: Most modern ARMs use passive radar homing to guide themselves to the target. This means they do not emit any of their own radar signals, making them harder to detect and jam.
Warhead: The warhead on an ARM is designed to disable or destroy the targeted radar system, often through a combination of blast and fragmentation effects.

Astronomical Transients

About Astronomical transients:

Astronomical transients are brief and often dramatic astronomical events that can vary in brightness over relatively short timescales, ranging from fractions of a second to several months or even years.
Understanding these violent and energetic phenomena helps us learn more about the universe, including the birth and death of stars, the formation of black holes, and the nature of dark matter and dark energy.

Types of Astronomical Transients:

1. Supernovae: When the outer layers of large stars blow up while their cores implode (collapse) because the stars have run out of elements to fuse. Many supernovae have been known to become so bright that they emit light more intensely than the stars in the rest of its host galaxy combined.

Type Ia Supernovae: These occur in binary systems where a white dwarf accretes material from a companion star until it reaches a critical mass and undergoes a thermonuclear explosion.
Core-Collapse Supernovae: These result from the collapse of massive stars (greater than 8 solar masses) at the end of their life cycles.

2. Active galactic nucleus (AGN): When the supermassive black hole at the heart of a galaxy is actively accreting material, it is called an Active Galactic Nucleus. As matter spirals inward due to the black hole's gravity, it heats up and releases tremendous energy through friction. This energy is what makes AGNs so luminous and glows with a changing brightness.

3. Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs): Millisecond-duration bursts of radio waves from distant galaxies. Their origin is still a mystery, but they are thought to be associated with highly energetic processes like neutron star mergers or magnetars. They can emit more than 10-times as much energy as the Sun in a few milliseconds.

4. Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs):

Short GRBs: Typically lasting less than 2 seconds, often associated with the merger of compact objects like neutron stars.
Long GRBs: Lasting more than 2 seconds, usually linked to the collapse of massive stars and associated with supernovae.