Context: Inequality is on the rise as the share of labour income has stagnated worldwide and a large share of youth remain out of employment, education, or training, according to the International Labour Organisation’s (ILO) World Employment and Social Outlook. A major reason for this fall in labour income, according to the report, is artificial intelligence or AI.
Key findings of the report
Rising inequality: Inequality is increasing globally as the share of labour income has stagnated, while a significant portion of youth remains out of employment, education, or training.
Impact of AI and technological innovations: The rise of artificial intelligence (AI) and other technological innovations over the past two decades has boosted productivity but reduced labour income shares. Automation-based technologies have been a key driver of this trend.
Decline in global labour income share: From 2019 to 2022, the global labour income share dropped by 0.6 percentage points, adding to a long-term downward trend. The decline was particularly pronounced during the COVID-19 pandemic.
COVID-19 exacerbated inequalities: The pandemic contributed to nearly 40% of the reduction in labour income share between 2020 and 2022, further concentrating capital income among the wealthiest and hindering progress toward SDG 10 (reducing inequality).
Countries need policies that promote an equitable distribution of economic benefits, including freedom of association, collective bargaining and effective labour administration, to achieve inclusive growth, and build a path to sustainable development for all.
About the World Employment and Social Outlook Report:
It provides a comprehensive analysis of global labour market trends, challenges, and opportunities.
The report offers valuable insights into various aspects of employment, including global labour market trends, regional disparities, social protection, youth employment, gender equality and impact of the informal economy on labour market dynamics.
Context: The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has exempted export-oriented green hydrogen projects from its domestic solar module manufacturer list (ALMM), allowing them to use cheaper imported solar modules.
Major Highlights:
The ALMM (Approved List of Models and Manufacturers) is a registry of domestically produced solar modules approved by the Indian government to promote the use of locally made products in solar energy projects.
By granting the exemption to export-oriented green hydrogen projects from ALMM, the MNRE allows green hydrogen projects set up for export purposes (in Special Economic Zones or Export-Oriented Units) to use imported solar modules instead of the more expensive domestic ones.
This exemption is intended to reduce the production cost of green hydrogen, making it more competitive with cheaper, carbon-intensive grey hydrogen. The lower costs can help green hydrogen producers compete globally and drive export growth.
In addition to cost-reduction measures, MNRE is supporting the green hydrogen sector through initiatives like the SIGHT programme, with Rs 17,490 crore allocated for electrolyser manufacturing and green hydrogen production.
The ministry has also waived transmission charges for 25 years and exempted green hydrogen projects from prior environmental clearance. Further, it has notified 73 green hydrogen standards for production and application of Green hydrogen.
Hydrogen as an alternative fuel
Hydrogen is the lightest and the most abundant element in the universe. On Earth, it is found in compounds like water or hydrocarbons. However, Hydrogen is not present in the free state. Therefore, it must be created and stored before it tends to be utilised.
Hydrogen Fuel: Hydrogen fuel is produced by splitting water (H₂O) into its components: hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂). The hydrogen gas can be used to power fuel cells, which generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, releasing only water vapour as a byproduct.
Owing to its clean combustion, producing only water as a byproduct, makes it an attractive option for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and combating climate change. Thus, Hydrogen is gaining significant attention as a potential alternative fuel.
Ways of using Hydrogen as a fuel:
Hydrogen Fuel Cell: Fuel cells based on Hydrogen and Oxygen. Produces Water as a by-product.
Hydrogen CNG (Used as transportation fuel): Mixture of hydrogen and CNG in a fixed ratio, enables Hydrogen being used as fuel in conventional engines. HCNG increases the efficiency of combustion of CNG and is less polluting.
Types of Hydrogen
Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of resources, such as natural gas, nuclear power, biomass, and renewable power like solar and wind. Hydrogen is an invisible gas. Depending on the type of production used, different colour names are assigned to the hydrogen.
Some common types of Hydrogen
Grey hydrogen: Grey hydrogen is produced using fossil fuels such as natural gas or coal. Grey hydrogen accounts for roughly 95% of the hydrogen produced in the world today.
The two main production methods are steam methane reforming and coal gasification. Both of these processes release carbon dioxide (CO2).
If the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, then the hydrogen produced is referred to as grey hydrogen.
Blue Hydrogen: Blue hydrogen is similar to grey hydrogen, except that most of the CO2 emissions are sequestered (stored in the ground) using carbon capture and storage (CCS).
Capturing and storing the carbon dioxide instead of releasing it into the atmosphere allows blue hydrogen to be a low-carbon fuel.
Blue hydrogen is a cleaner alternative to grey hydrogen, but is expensive since carbon capture technology is used.
Green Hydrogen: Green hydrogen is hydrogen produced using electricity from clean energy sources, such as wind and solar energy, which do not release greenhouse gases when generating electricity.
Green hydrogen is made when water (H2O) is split into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) via a process known as electrolysis.
Pink Hydrogen: Pink hydrogen is produced through electrolysis of water but using energy from nuclear power, which does not produce any carbon dioxide emissions.
Pink hydrogen facilities can achieve a high capacity factor due to the steady base-load profile of nuclear power (involving both stability and density), as compared to the intermittent supply from renewable sources (solar, wind).
Turquoise Hydrogen: Turquoise hydrogen is made using a process called methane pyrolysis. In this process methane is split into hydrogen and solid carbon with heating in reactors or blast furnaces.
Utility of Hydrogen fuel
Abundant in nature and highly efficient. E.g., Hydrogen is two to three times more efficient than petrol.
Hydrogen is a versatile fuel which can be transported as gas by pipelines or in liquid form like LNG and can be transformed into electricity by fuel cells.
Strengthen energy security by being a direct replacement of fossil fuels.
Green hydrogen can be stored for a long period and can be used when renewable energy is not available for power generation with stationary fuel cells or hydrogen-ready gas turbines.
Green hydrogen is a clean fuel which can decarbonise a range of sectors including iron and steel, chemicals, and transportation.
Facilitate acceleration to the green economy. Presently, hydrogen is used in the refining industry, ammonia making, methanol manufacturing, steel making industries etc.
Challenges in using Hydrogen as a fuel
High production cost: Majority of hydrogen at present is extracted by energy-intensive processes like breaking down fossils, electrolysis of water etc. which adds to the cost of production of Hydrogen. Further, Hydrogen needs to be kept at a stable minus 253°C (far below the temperature of (-) 163°C at which Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) is stored), which needs scaling of technology and makes its ‘prior-to-use-cost’ extremely high.
Extraction causes pollution: Production of grey hydrogen is responsible for around 830 million-tonnes of carbon dioxide annually.
Safety of hydrogen fuel tanks: Hydrogen is highly flammable and explosive in nature, it is colourless, odourless, and its flames are not visible by naked eyes.
Storage capacity requirement: India has insufficient storage capacity for the current state of domestic consumption.
Lack of operational fuelling station infrastructure is a big barrier to adoption of hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles. It would require large-scale investments in underground piping and underground caves and filling stations.
National Hydrogen Mission
The National Green Hydrogen Mission was launched in January 2023, with an outlay of Rs. 19,744 crores from FY 2023-24 to FY 2029-30.
Aim: To develop India into a global hub for production, usage and export of Green hydrogen and its derivatives.
The scheme envisages generation of hydrogen from green power sources with a target of 5MMT production capacity of Green Hydrogen per annum.
Initiative of: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
Way Forward
Development of technology to produce "green" hydrogen is expensive. However, falling prices for renewable energy and fuel cells and stringent climate change regulations have spurred investment in the sector.
Investing in R&D and promoting private sector participation in the hydrogen economy.
Developing standardised procedures, rules and standards for hydrogen economy which will standardise and scale up production.
Mandating large users of hydrogen to shift to green hydrogen such as refineries, iron, and steel plants etc. For example, A minimum green hydrogen mandate can be introduced in such industries.
Green hydrogen facilities can be created at sites where the cost of producing renewable energy is lowest. E.g., In Thar desert region in Rajasthan and Ladakh etc.
Facilitating international trade in clean & green hydrogen.
Context: Japan is currently grappling with a rice shortage caused by extreme weather conditions, resulting in private rice stocks reaching their lowest levels since 1999 and a projected 20% decline in rice production by 2100. To combat this, Japan is focusing on developing heat-resistant rice varieties.
Heat-Resistant Rice
High temperatures and dry conditions last summer led to reduced rice yields and poor grain quality, resulting in the lowest rice inventories in 25 years.
High heat disrupts starch accumulation in rice grains, causing them to become opaque and mottled,with white flecks and less desirable for human consumption, which reduces their market value.
The Saitama Agricultural Technology Centre in Japan is working on new varieties like 'Emihokoro' that can withstand higher temperatures while maintaining quality.
Emihokoro has been planted in 31 fields as a trial this year.
This research involves cultivating and cross-pollinating seeds to produce more resilient strains.
Cross-pollination
Cross-pollination occurs when pollen from the anther of one plant is transferred to the stigma of another plant of the same species.
Outbreeding produces seeds that incorporate both parents’ inherited features, and the resulting progeny are more diverse than those produced through self-pollination.
This genetic recombination results in offspring that often exhibit enhanced vigour, better disease resistance, and other advantageous traits.
Cross-pollinated varieties like the ‘Ambrosia’ corn have been bred for improved resistance to common fungal diseases such as corn smut, ensuring healthier crops.
The 'Golden Rice' project, which cross-pollinated different strains of rice, aimed to enhance yield while also increasing nutritional content, particularly Vitamin A.
Context: India’s second nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine, INS Arighaat, was commissioned into service at Visakhapatnam. It joins the first such submarine, INS Arihant, which was commissioned in 2016.
About INS Arighaat
INS Arighaat is an advanced nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) of the Indian Navy.
Class: INS Arighaat is part of the Arihant-class submarines, which are indigenously designed and developed under the Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project.
Displacement: It measures 111.6 metres in length and has a submerged displacement of approximately 6,000 tons.
Propulsion: The submarine is powered by a 83-MW pressurised light-water reactor with enriched uranium. This enables it to operate quietly and remain submerged for extended periods, unlike conventional diesel-electric submarines that need to surface regularly.
Armament: INS Arighaat is equipped with ballistic missiles capable of carrying nuclear warheads. It is armed with a 750-km-range K-15 Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM), while a 3,500-km-range SLBM K-4 is under development, having been tested for the first time in 2020.
Stealth Features: The submarine has advanced stealth features like noise-reducing coatings and advanced propulsion system, making it harder to detect by enemy submarines and ships.
INS Arihant:
INS Arihant was commissioned into service in August 2016. It has a displacement of 6,000 tonnes and is powered by an 83-MW pressurised light-water reactor with enriched uranium.
INS Arihant is armed with a 750-km-range K-15 Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM), while a 3,500-km-range SLBM K-4 is under development, having been tested for the first time in 2020.
The K4 will become the mainstay of India’s undersea nuclear deterrence, as it gives the stand-off capability to launch nuclear weapons while submerged in Indian waters.
Significance:
INS Arighaat enhances India's nuclear triad, which includes the ability to launch nuclear weapons from land, air, and sea.
The submarine's ability to launch ballistic missiles from underwater provides India with a secure second-strike capability, a crucial component of its nuclear deterrence strategy.
With India’s no-first use nuclear policy, SSBNs (Submarine-Launched Ballistic Nuclear Submarines) play a key role in deterrence due to their difficulty in detection and their ability to survive a surprise attack and execute retaliatory strikes.
The presence of both INS Arihant and INS Arighaat will strengthen India’s nuclear triad,enhance nuclear deterrence, strengthen maritime defence and establish strategic balance.
Main classes of submarines in service with the Indian Navy:
Sindhughosh-class: Variant of the Russian Kilo-class submarines. E.g., INS Sindhurakshak, INS Sindhuvir, INS Sindhuratna.
Shishumar-class: Based on the German Type 209 design, these are diesel-electric submarines equipped with advanced systems. E.g., INS Shishumar, INS Shankush, INS Shalki, and INS Shankul.
Kalvari-class (Scorpène-class): Based on the Scorpène design developed by Naval Group (France). E.g., INS Kalvari, INS Khanderi, INS Karanj, INS Vela, INS Vagir, and INS Vagsheer (yet to be commissioned).
Arihant-class: India's indigenous nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs). These submarines are equipped with nuclear propulsion and are capable of carrying ballistic missiles. Currently, INS Arihant is the operational submarine of this class. The second submarine INS Arighaat has been recently commissioned in August 2024. A third submarine is at an advanced stage of construction, which is set to be larger and more capable than the current two.
Chakra-class: Nuclear-powered attack submarines leased from Russia. Currently, INS Chakra-II, the submarine of this class, is in service with the Indian Navy. Chakra-III is expected to be delivered to the Indian Navy by 2025.
Key Facts:
Countries like the US, Russia, and China have larger SSBNs with longer-range missiles. For example, China has six Jin-class SSBNs with JL-3 missiles capable of 10,000 kilometres, and the US operates 14 Ohio-class SSBNs.
A project costing around Rs 40,000 crore is under consideration by the PM-led Cabinet Committee on Security for the construction of two 6000-tonne ‘hunter-killer’ SSNs (nuclear-powered attack submarines), armed with torpedoes, anti-ship, and land-attack missiles. The construction is expected to take at least a decade.
On conventional submarine development, the Indian Navy has acquired six new Kalvari-class submarines and plans to add 15 more through Project 75 India, Project-76, and Project-75 AS.
Context: In a recent study, the research team has reported finding the presence of a rock type called ferroan anorthosite in the lunar soil. The findings are backed by the research from the Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) placed in the Pragyaan rover.
Key facts about the Chandrayaan-3 Mission
Chandrayaan-3 is alunar exploration mission by ISRO which successfully demonstrated ISRO’s end-to-end capability in safe landing and roving on the Moon's surface.
The follow-on mission to Chandrayaan-2 consisted of an indigenous propulsion system, lander module (Vikram) and a rover (Pragyan).
On August 23rd, 2023, Vikram Lander made its historic touchdown on Moon and subsequently Pragyan rover was deployed.
Landing spot: Vikram’s landing spot, named as Statio Shiv Shakti by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), is about 300 km from the largest impact crater (South Pole-Aitken Basin)in the solar system. It is around 8 km deep and 2,500 km wide.
Major objectives:
Demonstrate a safe and soft landing on the surface of the Moon
Conduct rover operations on the Moon
Conduct on-site experiments on the Lunar surface.
Duration: Rover operated for one lunar day (roughly equals 14 Earth days). The lander and the rover have scientific payloads to collect samples of the moon and do in-situ experiments. The Vikram lander would transmit data back to Earth for comprehensive analysis by scientists.
The Virtual Launch Control Centre at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre played a vital role in continuous real-time monitoring of the launch activities from SHAR.
With the success of the mission, India joined the countries, the United States, Russia, and China to successfully land on the Moon.
Advanced instruments in Chandrayaan-3
Propulsion module:
Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) to gather data on the polarisation of light reflected by Earth to assist with exoplanet searches.
Lander payloads:
Chandra's Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE) to measure thermal conductivity and temperature on the surface.
Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA) to detect Moonquakes.
Radio Anatomy of Moon Bound Hypersensitive ionosphere and Atmosphere (RAMBHA) to measure the density of near-surface plasma, encompassing ions, and electrons, and monitor its temporal variations.
Langmuir Probe to estimate the density and variation of plasma, or superheated gas, in the Moon's environment.
Laser Retroreflector Array (from NASA) to measure distances using laser ranging to understand the dynamics of the Moon system.
Rover payloads:
The Pragyaan Rover was equipped with two primary scientific payloads designed to study the lunar surface in detail.
Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS):
Function: To analyse the elemental composition of the lunar soil and rocks.
Working:
APXS emitted alpha particles towards the lunar surface which it produced from a radioactive mass of Curium.
When these alpha particles interacted with the surface, they caused the atoms in the lunar material to emit X-rays. The energy of these X-rays is characteristic of the elements from which they originate.
By detecting and analysing these X-rays, APXS determines the presence and abundance of various elements in the lunar soil, including light elements like magnesium and aluminium, as well as heavier elements like iron and titanium.
Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscope (LIBS):
Function: To examine the chemical and elemental composition of the lunar surface.
Working:
LIBS fires a high-energy laser pulse at the lunar surface. This laser pulse ablates (vaporises) a small amount of material from the surface, creating a plasma.
The plasma emits light as it cools, and this light is analysed by the spectroscope. The specific wavelengths of light emitted correspond to the elements present in the material.
By analysing the emitted spectra, LIBS identifies the elements present in the lunar soil, such as sulphur, aluminium, calcium, iron etc. This information is crucial for understanding the moon’s composition and geological history.
Key findings by the Pragyaan rover:
Discovery of Sulphur: Pragyaan identified the presence of sulphur on the lunar surface. This finding is crucial because sulphur was not detected in this region by previous missions.
Other Elements detected: Along with sulphur, the rover detected elements like aluminium, calcium, iron, chromium, titanium, manganese, silicon, and oxygen. These elements provide insights into the moon’s geological history.
Presence of ferroan anorthosite: It reported the presence of a rock type called ferroan anorthosite in the lunar soil. The consensus among scientists is that these anorthosite rocks could be the remains of an ancient ocean of magma that blanketed the moon’s surface around four billion years ago. It also sheds the light on the moon’s origin.
Ferroan anorthosite is a type of igneous rock that is composed primarily of plagioclase feldspar with a higher iron content.
The moon’s origins:
The moon was born from the remains of a headlong collision between the early earth and some rogue planetary body aeons ago.
The moon’s rocky surface was initially molten. The minerals in there slowly crystallised as the lava cooled to form rocks of various kinds, including ferroan anorthosite.
As the moon has a very thin atmosphere, all the meteorites raining down on the moon reach the surface and beat these rocks down to fine dust over many centuries.
Context: The World Health Organisation (WHO) has reported detection of poliovirus through routine surveillance of wastewater systems in five countries in the WHO European Region (Finland, Germany, Poland, Spain, and the United Kingdom) since September 2024. The presence of the virus underscores the importance of vaccination and surveillance.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Polio disease; Polio vaccines.
Major Highlights:
A recent paper, ‘The Respiratory Route of Transmission of Virulent Polioviruses’ presents a thorough analysis of the primary transmission routes of poliovirus, particularly wild polioviruses (WPVs) and circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPVs).
Historically, the faecal-oral route of polio transmission was widely accepted, particularly after the introduction of the oral polio vaccine.
The new research leans strongly towards respiratory transmission of virulent polioviruses (WPV and cVDPV) as the primary route, like other contagious infectious diseases.
As per the research, continuing to distribute oral polio vaccine (OPV) is the wrong path to polio eradication. Vaccination with Injectable Polio Vaccine (IPV) will expedite the eradication of WPV and cVDPVs.
About poliomyelitis
Polio is a highly infectious disease caused by a single-stranded RNA virus.
Transmission: The poliovirus is primarily transmitted through the faecal-oral route, often via contaminated water sources or poor sanitation. It can also spread through direct contact with infected individuals.
Types of poliovirus: Three types — wild poliovirus type 1 (WPV1), wild poliovirus type 2 (WPV2), and wild poliovirus type 3 (WPV3). Symptomatically, all these strains are identical.
Symptoms:
Initial symptoms are fever, fatigue, headache, vomiting, stiffness of the neck and pain in the limbs.
The virus multiplies in the intestine and invades the nervous system and can cause total paralysis.
One in 200 infections leads to irreversible paralysis (usually in the legs).
Among those paralysed, 5–10% die when their breathing muscles become immobilised.
Polio mainly affects children under 5 years of age. However, anyone of any age who is unvaccinated can contract the disease.
Treatment: There is no cure for polio, it can only be prevented through Polio vaccines. There are two vaccines available: oral polio vaccine and inactivated polio vaccine.
Types of Polio vaccines
1. Inactivated polio vaccine (IPV):
The first successful polio vaccine for poliovirus was made by Jonas Salk in the early 1950s.
Salk inactivated the virus using formaldehyde and injected it into the muscles of test subjects. This inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) induced systemic immunity (relating to the blood, brain, and all other organ systems) in the subjects.
Benefits:
IPV contains inactivated virus particles, hence, it has no risk of causing vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP) — a rare, adverse reaction to OPV.
Limitations:
IPV is less potent vaccine than OPV and comparatively tougher to manufacture as it contains a chemically inactivated virus.
2. Oral polio vaccine(OPV):
Albert Sabin developed the Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) by using live polio virus strains that were weakened through serial cultivation in macaque cells. This process rendered the virus unfit for causing infection in humans, yet still capable of inducing an immune response.
Because OPV contains a live virus, it is administered orally, mimicking the virus's natural route of infection.
Benefits of OPV:
OPV is usually preferred over IPV due to its simplicity in administration. It can be given orally without the need for syringes or specialised medical training, making it more accessible, especially in resource-limited settings.
Additionally, it is cost-effective, making widespread immunisation campaigns feasible.
Limitations of OPV:
In rare cases, the weakened virus in the vaccine can mutate back to a virulent form, potentially causing the very disease it is meant to prevent.
Vaccine-derived polio:
Vaccine-derived polio is a rare conditionthat occurs when the weakened (also called attenuated) strain of poliovirus used in the oral polio vaccine (OPV) mutates and regains the ability to cause paralysis.
OPV contains a live, attenuated virus that is used for immunisation against the disease.
The attenuated virus replicates in the intestines for a limited period and is excreted in the stool.
This weakened virus triggers an immune response when administered, thus protecting people from the disease.
In rare cases, the virus can mutate enough to cause the disease again and circulate in areas where either:
immunisation is low
immunocompromised people reside
sanitation and hygiene are poor.
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), the virus is classified as “circulating” (cVDPV2) if it is detected in at least two different sources, at least two months apart, that are genetically linked, showing evidence of transmission in the community.
Key Facts:
On World Polio Day, October 24, 2019, the WHO declared that wild poliovirus type 3 (WPV3) has been eradicated worldwide. The last case was detected in Nigeria in 2012. Wild poliovirus type 2 (WPV2) was officially declared eradicated in 2015. Thus, Only WPV1 remains in circulation.
More than 90% of vaccine-derived poliovirus outbreaks are due to the type 2 virus present in oral polio vaccines. Vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP) constitutes 40% of cases caused by the type 2 oral polio vaccine. Many cases of VAPP from the type 3 virus also occur in countries using OPV.
India was officially declared polio-free by the WHO in 2014. This declaration came after India successfully completed three consecutive years without reporting any new cases of wild poliovirus.
The Indian government does not count VAPP as polio since these cases are sporadic and pose little or no threat to others, even though the number of VAPP-compatible cases showed a rising trend.
After the global switch from trivalent (containing all three variants) to bivalent (type 1 and type 3) oral polio vaccine in 2016 to prevent any more type 2 vaccine-derived poliovirus, the number of vaccine-derived type 2 poliovirus outbreaks has only increased sharply.
Context: JUICE Mission is a European Science Agency's space mission which aims to make detailed observations of Jupiter and its three ocean bearing moons - Ganymede, Callisto and Europa. Space scientists at ESA are aiming to conduct the world's first Lunar-Earth Flyby. This manoeuvre aims to use the gravity of the Moon and Earth to send it Jupiter via a flyby Venus.
Route of JUICE Mission
Jupiter the destination of JUICE Mission is about 800 million km away from Earth. Sending JUICE straight to Jupiter would require 60,000 kg of onboard propellant. JUICE would also require additional fuel to slow down enough to go into orbit around Jupiter.
Hence, JUICE aims to use the gravity of other planets to carefully adjust its trajectory and arrive at Jupiter with right speed and direction.
Purpose of the Flyby
JUICE Mission was launched in April 2023
Reroute Juice's path through space, using the gravity of first the Moon and then Earth to change the spacecraft's speed and direction.
Flyby by first the Moon and then the Earth will result in guiding Juice to a new trajectory towards Venus.
The Flyby operation will result in saving of 100-150 kg of fuel, which will help in the Juice Mission to conduct extra or bonus science observations on Ganymede.
The Flyby operation also allowed for testing of scientific instruments onboard the Juice Mission. Juice carries 10 scientific instruments which will be tested on its flyby past the moon and earth.
JANUS (High resolution camera): High-resolution images of the Moon and Earth.
RIME (Radar for Icy Moon Exploration): RIME data is being disturbed by some electronic noise within the spacecraft. During the closest approach, RIME will have 8 minutes to observe alone (Other instruments switched off). This would allow the RIME team to correct the noise problem.
Science Instruments on JUICE
Juice Mission
Juice is on an eight-year-long voyage to make detailed observations on Jupiter and three of its ocean-bearing moons — Ganymede, Callisto and Europa.
The objective is to explore the moons in search of signs of life and to explore if it is possible to live around giants or for habitability.
During its voyage, the spacecraft will complete fly-bys of Venus, Earth, and the Earth-Moon system to arrive at its destination in 2031.
The mission has instruments including a remote sensing package with spectral imaging capabilities, a laser altimeter (GALA), a radar sounder (RIME) for exploring the moon’s surface and subsurface, instruments to study the particle environment (PEP), a magnetometer (J-MAG), and a radio and plasma wave instrument (RPWI).
JUICE Mission will orbit Ganymede and end its life there.
Operations of JUICE Mission will overlap with NASA’s Europa Clipper Mission.
About Jupiter
Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System.
It is a gas giant primarily composed of hydrogen, followed by helium.
It is the third brightest natural object in the Earth's night sky after the Moon and Venus.
Jupiter is surrounded by a faint planetary ring system and has a powerful magnetosphere. The Great Red Spot is a gigantic storm (anticyclone) that is about twice as wide as Earth, circling the planet in its southern hemisphere.
Jupiter has the highest number of moons in our Solar System (95 known moons till date) including Ganymede which is the largest (larger than the planet Mercury).
About Ganymede
Largest moon in our solar system. It is even bigger than planet Mercury.
There is strong evidence that Ganymede has underground saltwater ocean that may hold more water than all the water on Earth’s surface.
It is the only moon known have its own magnetic field – typically only found on planets like Earth.
Ganymede has a faint oxygen atmosphere; however, it is far too thin to breathe.
About Callisto
Jupiter’s second largest moon and third largest moon in our solar system.
Surface of Callisto is heavily cratered created of ice and rock.
Scientists believe that Callisto may have an underground salty ocean making it a potential habitat for life.
About Europa
Europa is slightly smaller than Earth’s moon and barely one-quarter the diameter of Earth itself.
Surface of Europa is composed of solid water ice, and it has extremely thin oxygen atmosphere.
Europa is believed to be most promising place in our solar system to have environment suitable for life.
Beneath the icy surface of Europa is a salty-water ocean thought to contain twice as much water as Earth’s oceans combined.
Context: The Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge was agreed upon by Diplomatic Conference hosted by World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO). The treaty was first proposed in 1999 by Colombia, calling for recognition of intellectual property of indigenous peoples and local communities. The negotiations started in 2001.
Objectives of WIPO Treaty on Genetic Resources & Traditional Knowledge (GRATK)
Promotion of efficacy, transparency and quality of patent system in relation to genetic resources and traditional knowledge.
Protection of genetic resources and traditional knowledge associated with genetic resources.
Prevention of patents being granted erroneously for inventions that are not novel or inventive with regard to genetic resources and traditional knowledge related to genetic resources.
International disclosure related to genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge in patent applications contributes to legal certainty and consistency
Salient Features of GRATK
Mandatory Patent Disclosure Requirement: The treaty establishes a mandatory patent disclosure requirement requiring patent applicants to disclose the country of origin of genetic resources and/or the Indigenous people or local community providing the associated traditional knowledge.
Sanctions and Remedies:
Failure to disclose required information would be subject to appropriate, effective and proportionate measures.
Patent applicants would have the opportunity to rectify a failure to disclose the requirement information unless
Information Systems:
Voluntary establishment of information systems (ex databases)of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, in consultation with indigenous people and local communities, wherever applicable.
Genetic resources databases can compile and reference a wide range of information. Ex. Information about genetic resources, associated traditional knowledge, known uses of genetic resources and relevant scientific compilations.
Information systems should be accessible to patent offices for search and examination of patent applications.
Non-retroactivity: No obligations of the Treaty would be imposed in relation to patent applications filed prior to entry into force of this treaty.
Review Mechanism: The treaty provides an in-built review mechanism to allow certain issues to be reviewed like extension of disclosure requirement to other areas of intellectual property and other issues like new and emerging technologies four years after the entry into force of the treaty.
Significance of the GRATK
Significant win for countries of Global South and India which are host bulk of global biodiversity and traditional knowledge. India being a megadiverse country holds 7-8% of global biodiversity and a rich repertoire of knowledge based on genetic resources.
First WIPO treaty to address the interface between intellectual property, genetic resources and traditional knowledge. Also, first WIPO treaty to include provisions specifically for indigenous people and local communities.
Multilateralism: Given the opposition of advanced countries like USA, EU and Japan for this treaty and the divided world we live in, the fact that a consensus treaty could emerge is a win and provides hope of the spirit of multilateralism.
Concerns with the Treaty
Fails to address biopiracy due to weak sanctions regime: The WIPO Treaty suffers from a weak sanctions regime which is not adequate address the issues of bio-piracy. Some issues with the sanctions regime of the treaty are:
No provision for penalties for non-disclosure.
Countries to provide opportunity for rectification of failure to disclose information before implementing sanctions.
No obligation on patent offices to verify the authenticity of disclosure.
No country can revoke, invalidate or render unenforceable conferred patent rights solely on the basis of applicant's failure to provide mandatory patent disclosure.
No provision for revocation of patent except when the information is withheld due to fraudulent intentions. Even in such cases, the treaty leaves it to the State to decide on the sanctions to be imposed.
Silent on positive protection of traditional knowledge for indigenous people and local communities (IPLC):
No recognition of traditional knowledge as intellectual property of IPLC which would have provided indigenous people with exclusive collective rights to control their traditional knowledge.
No fair & equitable sharing of benefits in favour of IPLC in return of use of their traditional knowledge.
Silence on right of attribution and right to use of their own traditional knowledge for IPLC.
Fails to protect traditional cultural expressions i.e., the forms in which IPLC express their traditional cultural practices and knowledge like music, dance, art & handicrafts.
Dilution of India's patent laws: India would need to align its domestic laws like Patents Act & Biological Diversity Act with the WIPO Treaty on Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge. These amendments could potentially dilute existing protections aiming to safeguard traditional knowledge and genetic resources. For example, India's Patent Law already provides for pre-grant opposition against non-disclosure of source of origin and also for a revocation of granted patent for non-disclosure of information.
Melting polar ice causes the Earth to spin slower, lengthening the day by approximately 1.3 milliseconds per century over the last 20 years.
If high emissions continue, this rate could increase to 2.6 milliseconds per century.
Conservation of Angular Momentum
Similar to an ice skater changing spin speed by adjusting arm positions, melting ice redistributes mass from the poles to the equator.
This increases the Earth’s moment of inertia, causing it to spin more slowly.
Axis Shift:
Melting ice affects the Earth’s axis of rotation, causing a gradual shift in its location.
Impact on Technology:
Precise timekeeping, essential for technology like GPS, stock trading, and space travel, could be disrupted by these changes.
Atomic clocks, which track Earth’s rotation, might need adjustments to keep accurate time.
Historical Context
The Earth's rotation has naturally varied due to processes like lunar tidal friction, which slows rotation by about 2 milliseconds per century.
Post-ice age crust rebound and melting ice from polar regions have previously accelerated Earth’s rotation, but current ice melting trends are slowing it.
Broader Climate Change Impact:
Rising sea levels from melting ice have more immediate, severe effects on low-lying coastal areas compared to the gradual changes in Earth’s rotation.
These findings highlight the broad impact of climate change, emphasizing the urgent need to reduce emissions.
Scientific Findings:
Studies by Mostafa Kiani Shahvandi and Duncan Agnews confirm that climate change is significantly affecting Earth’s rotation and axis.
The research used climate models and observational data to document these effects and predict future trends.
The Need for Action:
The data illustrates how climate change influences fundamental Earth processes, underscoring the necessity for immediate action to curb emissions and mitigate further effects.
Context: A highly anticipated livestream conversation between former US President Donald Trump and X owner Elon Musk was severely disrupted by a massive Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack recently. The incident forced X to scale down the live audience and delay the interview.
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attack
Denial of Service attack is a type of cyber-attack meant to shut down a machine or network, making it inaccessible to its intended users. A DoS attack originates from a single source, typically one computer or network connection.
DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) is a type of cyberattack where multiple compromised computers, often part of a botnet, are used to flood a targeted server, website, or network with an overwhelming amount of traffic. This flood of traffic overwhelms the target's resources, making it difficult or impossible for legitimate users to access the service.
Aspect
Denial of Service (DoS)
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)
Source of attack
Single source (one computer or network)
Multiple sources (often thousands of compromised devices)
Scale of attack
Smaller, limited by the capabilities of a single machine
Large-scale, leveraging a botnet to amplify the attack
Complexity
Relatively simple to execute and mitigate
More complex to execute and significantly harder to mitigate
Detection
Easier to detect due to traffic from a single source
Harder to detect due to distributed nature, making it difficult to distinguish between legitimate and malicious traffic
Impact
Can causes disruption but typically less severe
Can cause significant disruption, often resulting in widespread outages
Mitigation
Easier to mitigate by blocking the attacking IP address or source
Difficult to mitigate due to traffic coming from numerous sources; requires sophisticated defence mechanisms.
How DDoS Works?
Botnet Creation: Attackers compromise and control a large number of devices (computers, IoT devices, etc.) by exploiting vulnerabilities or spreading malware. These devices become part of a botnet—a network of infected devices controlled by the attacker.
Attack Initiation: The attacker commands the botnet to send a massive number of requests or data packets to the target server or network simultaneously.
Overloading the Target: The sheer volume of traffic overwhelms the target's infrastructure, consuming its bandwidth, processing power, or memory. This can cause the server to slow down significantly or crash entirely, denying access to legitimate users.
Disruption of Services: As a result of the overload, the targeted service becomes unavailable or unresponsive, leading to downtime, loss of revenue, and damage to the organisation’s reputation.
Image source: geeksforgeeks
Impact of DDoS Attacks
Service Outages: Legitimate users cannot access the targeted service.
Financial Losses: Downtime can lead to lost revenue, especially for e-commerce platforms and online services.
Reputation Damage: Repeated attacks can erode trust in the organisation's ability to secure its services.
Mitigation Costs: Organisations may need to invest in DDoS protection solutions, which can be expensive.
Mitigation Techniques
Traffic Filtering: Using firewalls and intrusion detection systems to filter out malicious traffic.
Rate Limiting: Limiting the number of requests a server will accept from a particular IP address within a certain timeframe.
Content Delivery Networks (CDNs): Distributing traffic across multiple servers in different locations to reduce the impact of the attack.
DDoS Protection Services: Services like Cloudflare, AWS Shield offer protection against DDoS attacks by absorbing and filtering malicious traffic.
Context: The Union government has authorised the exemption of local clinical trials for approval of new drugs under Rule 101 of the New Drugs and Clinical Trial Rules, 2019.
Major highlights
Under the Rule 101 of the New Drugs and Clinical Trial Rules, 2019, the CDSCO, with Union government approval, can issue orders specifying the name of the countries for considering waiver of local clinical trials for approval of new drugs.
The government has decided to waive the requirement for clinical trials in India if the drugs are approved in the U.S., the U.K., Japan, Australia, Canada, or the European Union.
A set of five categories for new drugs has been specified that will be considered for waiver in the Indian market. They include:
Gene and cellular therapy products: Cutting-edge treatments that require speedy approval.
New drugs for pandemic situations: To address urgent public health crises.
New drugs for special defence purposes: For military personnel.
Drugs with significant therapeutic advancements: To provide patients with better treatment options faster.
Significance:
Enhanced drug accessibility for patients and for research.
Drugs manufactured outside India will be more accessible and affordable in the local market.
Address the critical and unmet medical needs and accelerate access to innovative therapies to the patients in India.
By aligning with approvals from established regulatory bodies in other countries, India is moving towards global harmonisation in drug approval processes.
Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO):
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) is the Central Drug Authority in India.
CDSCO is responsible for many functions under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, including:
Approving new drugs and clinical trials
Setting standards for drugs
Controlling the quality of imported drugs
Coordinating the activities of state drug control organisations
Granting licences for certain specialised categories of critical drugs, such as blood and blood products, IV fluids, vaccines etc.
Clocks are devices that measure the passage of time and display it. A clock measures the amount of time that has passed by tracking something that happens in repeating fashion, at a fixed frequency.
Sundials in ancient times allowed people to ‘tell’ time by casting shadows of changing lengths against sunlight.
In water clocks/ sand clocks, water/sand would slowly fill a vessel, with its levels at different times indicating how much time had passed.
Important types of clocks:
Some important types of clocks are the quartz clock, atomic clock, optical clock and nuclear clocks.
1. Quartz clocks:
The fundamental setup of both quartz clock and the atomic clock is similar: they have a power source, a resonator, and a counter.
Working:
Quartz clocks use a tiny piece of quartz crystal as the resonator.
The Quartz crystal has a special property- on the application of electricity to it, it vibrates at a very precise and constant speed - 32,768 times per second. The power source in the clock sends electrical signals to a quartz crystal, whose crystal structure oscillates due to the piezoelectric effect.
The Electronic circuit (counter) in the clock counts these vibrations and uses them to create regular electric pulses, one per second. These pulses power a tiny motor. The motor turns gears that move the hands of the clock.
Hence, quartz clocks are much more accurate than older mechanical clocks. These clocks are inexpensive to make and easy to operate, and their invention led to watches and wall-clocks becoming very common from the mid-20th century.
An atomic clock is a highly accurate timekeeping device that uses the properties of atoms to measure time. In these clocks, a laser serves as the power source, and a group of atoms of the same isotope acts as the resonator.
Atoms Used: Caesium-133 (most commonly used and is the basis for the definition of the second in the International System of Units (SI)), Rubidium-87 (less accurate than caesium clocks but are more compact and cost-effective), Hydrogen and Strontium.
Working:
The laser provides enough energy for the atom to jump from its low energy state to a specific higher energy state.
When the atom returns to its lower energy state, it emits radiation with a very precise frequency. For example, in a caesium atomic clock, caesium-133 atoms emit radiation at a frequency of 9,192,631,770 Hz. The counter in the clock counts these waves, and when it detects exactly 9,192,631,770 waves, it records that one second has passed.
Significance:
Atomic clocks are extremely precise and stable,losing or gaining only a second every 20 million years.
Because of their accuracy, they serve as time standards. For instance, India’s official time is maintained by a caesium atomic clock at the National Physical Laboratory in New Delhi.
The frequency of the radiation emitted by caesium clocks is in the microwave range, making them essential for applications where precise timing is crucial.
Applications of Atomic Clocks:
Global Positioning System (GPS) and other satellite navigation systems to provide precise location data.
Telecommunications to help synchronise communication networks and Internet synchronisation.
Scientific Research and timekeeping standards.
Financial Systems for timestamping transactions in financial markets.
3. Optical clocks:
An optical clock is an advanced timekeeping device that uses the properties of atoms or ions, but at optical frequencies rather than microwave frequencies (as in atomic clocks). These clocks offer even greater accuracy and stability than traditional atomic clocks.
Atoms/Ions Used: Strontium, Ytterbium and Aluminium Ion.
Working:
Laser Excitation: A laser excites electrons in the atom or ion to a higher energy state.
Optical Frequency: When the electron returns to a lower energy state, it emits radiation at an optical frequency (much higher than the microwave frequencies in atomic clocks).
Counting Oscillations: The clock measures these oscillations, with the optical frequency allowing for more precise time measurement due to the higher number of cycles per second.
Significance:
High Precision: Optical clocks are even more precise than atomic clocks, with potential accuracies that would lose or gain only a second in more than 10 billion years.
Future Time Standards: These clocks are being researched as potential successors to atomic clocks for defining the second.
Applications of Optical Clocks:
Scientific Research: Used in testing fundamental physics theories, such as relativity and quantum mechanics.
Redefining Time Standards: May lead to a new definition of the second in the International System of Units (SI).
Navigation Systems: Potentially used in next-generation satellite navigation and communication systems for even greater precision.
4. Nuclear Clocks
A nuclear clock is an experimental timekeeping device that uses the energy levels within an atomic nucleus, rather than electron transitions, to measure time. These clocks are still in the research phase but promise unprecedented precision.
Atomic clocks need to make sure the resonator atoms are not affected by energy from other sources, like a stray electromagnetic field.
An atom’s nucleus is located well within each atom, surrounded by electrons, and thus could be a more stable resonator.
The nucleus’s de-excitation emission has a frequency of 2,020 terahertz, which indicates an ultra-high precision.
Nucleus Used: Scientists are experimenting with Thorium-229 nuclei.
Working:
Nuclear Transitions: The clock relies on a transition between energy levels within the atomic nucleus itself, which occurs at a much higher frequency than electron transitions.
Laser Excitation: A laser tuned to the nuclear transition frequency excites the nucleus. The frequency of this transition is counted to measure time.
Significance:
Unprecedented Precision: Nuclear clocks could be far more precise than even optical clocks, with theoretical accuracies that would lose or gain only a second over the entire age of the universe.
Resistant to Environmental Interference: Nuclear transitions are less affected by external electromagnetic fields, making these clocks potentially more stable.
Applications of Nuclear Clocks:
Fundamental Physics: Potential to explore new areas of fundamental physics, such as the study of time variation in fundamental constants.
Ultra-Precise Timekeeping: Could redefine precision timekeeping, impacting scientific research, telecommunications, and global positioning systems.
Testing Gravitational Effects: Useful in experiments testing the effects of gravity on time, contributing to our understanding of general relativity.
