Current Affairs

All (4049)Current Affairs (4038)Mains Practice (126)Mains PYQs by Subjects (40)

How Global Positioning System (GPS) work?

GPS, which stands for Global Positioning System, is a satellite-based navigation system.

It is a network of satellites and receiving devices that allows users to determine their precise location (in latitude, longitude, and altitude) and obtain accurate time information anywhere on Earth.

The original GPS system began as a project of the U.S. military. The first experimental satellite for it was launched in 1978.

Components of GPS system:

The GPS system consists of three main components: satellites, ground control stations, and GPS receivers.

Satellites: The space segment consists of 24 satellites which orbit 20,200 km above the earth. These satellites constantly transmit radio signals that contain information about their location, time, and other data. The satellites are arranged in such a way that at least four of them are visible from any point on the Earth's surface at any given time.
Ground Control Stations: The ground control stations are responsible for monitoring and controlling the GPS satellites. They ensure that the satellites are functioning correctly and maintain their precise orbits.
GPS Receivers: GPS receivers are the devices used by users to receive signals from the GPS satellites. These receivers are commonly found in smartphones, navigation devices, and other GPS-enabled devices. The receiver uses a process called trilateration to determine the user's location.

How does GPS work?

The GPS receiver picks up signals from multiple GPS satellites that are in view of the receiver's location.
Each satellite sends out radio signals at the speed of light that includes information about the satellite's location and the precise time the signal was transmitted.
The GPS receiver measures the time it takes for the signals to reach it from each satellite.
Using the known locations of the satellites and the time it took for the signals to travel, the GPS receiver can calculate the distance between itself and each satellite.
With the distance measurements from at least four satellites, the GPS receiver can determine the precise three-dimensional position (latitude, longitude, and altitude) using a process called trilateration.
The GPS receiver can also provide additional information such as speed, direction, and time by continuously updating its position based on the signals received from the satellites.

Why multiple satellites (Trilateration)?

Using multiple satellites makes the GPS data more accurate. If a GPS receiver calculates its distance from only one satellite, it could be that exact distance from the satellite in any direction.
Think of the satellite as a flashlight. When you shine it on the ground, you get a circle of light. With one satellite, the GPS receiver could be anywhere in that circle of light. With two more satellites, there are two more circles. These three circles intersect, or cross, in only one place. That is the location of the GPS receiver. This method of determining location is called trilateration.

Satellite navigation systems of other countries:

Presently, there are four global satellite-based navigation systems.
- United States: Global Position System (GPS)
- Russia: Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)
- China: BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS)
- European Union: Galileo
Japan has a four-satellite regional navigation system (Quasi-Zenith Satellite System).
India has its own Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation). Its space segment consists of seven satellites: three in geostationary orbits and four in geosynchronous orbits.

Applications:

Terrestrial, aerial, and marine navigation E.g., Location-based services in mobile devices, visual and voice navigation for drivers.
Vehicle tracking and supply chain management
Mapping, survey and geodetic measurements E.g., mapping of terrains, creating digital maps, and conducting land surveys
Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travellers
Disaster management
Precision agriculture E.g., yield monitoring, variable rate application of fertilisers and pesticides.
Meteorology E.g., GPS receivers on weather balloons and satellites provide data on atmospheric conditions to monitor and predict weather patterns more accurately.
Seismology- To monitor ground movements and tectonic plate activity. E.g., GPS stations can detect and measure ground displacements, aiding in earthquake research and early warning systems.
Military Operations- GPS for navigation, target tracking, and coordination of operations.

Embracing Diversity: Paving the Way for Transgender Inclusivity and Equality

Context: AIIMS, New Delhi, plans to launch a Centre of Excellence for transgender healthcare in 2024, addressing historical discrimination and marginalization.

Transgender individuals have faced pathologization and mental health stigmatization, enduring practices like "conversion therapy." The community encounters healthcare barriers due to infrastructure exclusion and insufficient services.

While AIIMS's initiative is positive, it should be viewed as a partial solution, focusing on specific needs rather than a comprehensive remedy for all challenges.

About Transgender: Transgender is a general term that describes people whose gender identity, or their internal sense of being male, female, or something else, does not match the sex they were assigned at birth. By contrast, the term cisgender describes people whose gender identity aligns with the sex they were assigned at birth.

As per the Census of 2011, the total population of Transgender in India is 4.9lakh

Challenges Faced by Transgender Persons in India:

Social Stigma and Discrimination: Transgender individuals often encounter pervasive social stigma and discrimination, leading to their marginalization. This discrimination can manifest in various aspects of life, including familial rejection, exclusion from educational institutions, and workplace discrimination. The lack of societal acceptance contributes significantly to the challenges faced by transgender individuals.
- Many transgender persons experience barriers to education, ranging from bullying and harassment in schools to exclusion from formal education systems. As a result, they may face challenges in skill development and securing employment opportunities. Many transgender children in India often face the necessity of leaving schools due to the lack of preparedness in educational institutions to accommodate individuals with diverse sexual identities.
- Despite the fact that there are seats available in colleges and workplaces, transgender people do not occupy them because they are discriminated against.
- Discrimination and lack of awareness in workplaces further hinder their professional growth.
- Access to inclusive and gender-affirming healthcare remains a critical challenge for transgender individuals.
- Transgender individuals encounter direct discrimination and denial when seeking housing, facing obstacles related to the unavailability of gender-neutral or separate transgender toilets. Additionally, they confront discrimination when accessing public toilets.

Violence and Harassment: Transgender individuals are disproportionately vulnerable to violence and harassment, both in public spaces and within their homes.
Cultural Insensitivity: Cultural insensitivity and a lack of awareness about transgender issues perpetuate discrimination and bias.
Economic Vulnerability: Transgender individuals often grapple with economic vulnerability due to discrimination in the job market and limited employment opportunities.
- Economically marginalized, transgender individuals find themselves compelled to engage in professions such as prostitution and begging for survival, or turning to the exploitative entertainment industry.
- When their parents refuse to accept them, many of them become like orphans. They scavenge for food in the slums. They aren’t given any work. As a result, they take up any job that comes their way.
Mental Health Concerns: The cumulative impact of societal pressures, discrimination, and lack of support can lead to mental health challenges within the transgender community.
Identity Documentation: Obtaining accurate and gender-affirming identity documents is a persistent challenge for many transgender persons. Despite the government passing the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019, which grants the transgender community the right to self-perceived gender identity, they still face coercion to identify with a gender not associated with their true identity in the workplace.
- Certain documents in India, such as the passport, still do not have the provision of transgender as a gender marker.

Steps taken by government

In a landmark judgment in 2014, the Supreme Court of India, in the case of the National Legal Services Authority versus Union of India, set the precedent for the rights of transgender individuals by officially acknowledging 'transgender' as a distinct 'third gender.' The ruling not only bestowed legal recognition on the transgender community but also outlined crucial measures to prevent discrimination against them and safeguard their rights.

Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019

Definition of a transgender person: The act defines a transgender person as one whose gender does not match the gender assigned at birth. It includes trans-men and trans-women, persons with intersex variations, genderqueers, and persons with socio-cultural identities, such as kinnar and hijra.
Self-identification: A transgender person may make an application to District Magistrate for a certificate of identity, indicating gender as ‘transgender’.
Prohibition against discrimination: Prohibits discrimination against a transgender person in
- Education, employment and healthcare.Access to goods, facilities, and opportunities available to the public. Right to move, reside, rent, or otherwise occupy the property.
Opportunity to hold public or private office.
Welfare measures by the government: Mandated government to undertake measures to ensure full inclusion, and participation of transgender persons in society and steps for their rescue and rehabilitation, vocational training and self-employment, create schemes that are transgender sensitive and promote their participation in cultural activities.
Offences and penalties: Recognize offences against transgender persons like forced or bonded labour; denial of use of public places; physical, sexual, verbal, emotional or economic abuse. Penalties for these offences vary between 6 months & 2 years, and a fine.
National Council for Transgender Persons (NCT): consists of
- Union Minister for Social Justice (Chairperson).
- Minister of State for Social Justice (Vice-Chairperson)
- A representative from ministries including Health, Home Affairs, and Human Resources Development. Other members include representatives of the NITI Aayog and the National Human Rights Commission.
- Representatives from the transgender community and five experts from non-governmental organisations.

The Council will advise the central government as well as monitor the impact of policies, legislation and projects with respect to transgender persons. It will also redress the grievances of transgender persons.

SMILE SCHEME

SMILE stands for Support for Marginalised Individuals for Livelihood & Enterprise. It is an umbrella scheme to provide welfare measures to the Transgender community and people engaged in begging.
Two sub-schemes:
- (1) Central Sector Scheme for Comprehensive Rehabilitation for Welfare of Transgender Persons
- (2) Central Sector Scheme for Comprehensive Rehabilitation of Persons Engaged in the Act of Begging.

Components under Comprehensive Rehabilitation for Welfare of Transgender Persons Scheme:

Scholarships for Transgender Students studying in IX and till post-graduation to enable them to complete their education.
Skill Development and Livelihood under the PM-DAKSH scheme of the Department.
Composite Medical Health: A comprehensive package in convergence with PM-JAY supporting Gender-Reaffirmation surgeries through selected hospitals.
Housing in the form of ‘GarimaGreh’: Shelter Homes ‘Garima Greh’ where food, clothing, recreational facilities, skill development opportunities, recreational activities, medical support etc. will be provided.
Provision of Transgender Protection Cell: Setting up of Transgender Protection in each state to monitor cases of offences and to ensure timely registration, investigation and prosecution of offences.
E-Services (National Portal & Helpline and Advertisement) and other Welfare Measures.

Components under Comprehensive Rehabilitation of persons engaged in the Act of Begging:

Survey and identification: The Implementing Agencies shall conduct a Survey and Identification of beneficiaries.
Mobilisation: Outreach work will be done to mobilise the persons engaged in begging to avail the services available in the Shelter Homes.
Rescue/ Shelter Home: The shelter homes will facilitate education for children engaged in the act of Begging and children of persons engaged in the act of Begging.
Comprehensive resettlement.

Reforming the transgender community requires a multi-faceted approach that addresses various aspects of their lives.

Here are steps to be taken:

Legal Protections: Ensure effective implementation of laws like the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019, and take steps to eliminate discrimination, ensuring equal rights and opportunities.
Education and Awareness: Implement educational programs to promote awareness and understanding of transgender issues, fostering acceptance and reducing stigma.
Employment Opportunities: Create policies and initiatives that promote inclusivity in the workplace, providing equal opportunities for transgender individuals and eliminating discrimination.
Healthcare Access: Develop transgender-friendly healthcare services, addressing specific health needs and ensuring access to gender-affirming treatments.
Gender-Neutral Facilities: Establish gender-neutral facilities, including toilets and changing rooms, to ensure that public spaces are inclusive and accessible to transgender individuals.
Skill Development: Provide skill development programs and vocational training to empower transgender individuals economically, facilitating their entry into various professions.
Media Representation: Promote positive and diverse representations of transgender individuals in media to challenge stereotypes and foster a more inclusive societal perception.
Cultural Sensitivity: Encourage cultural sensitivity training for various sectors, including law enforcement, healthcare, and educational institutions, to ensure respectful and unbiased interactions with the transgender community.

By taking these steps, society can work towards creating an environment that respects the rights, dignity, and well-being of transgender individuals, fostering an inclusive and equitable society.

Climate Vulnerable Forum

Context: Former Maldives president Mohamed Nasheed has said that Indian companies must invest in clean energy projects in ‘climate vulnerable’ countries.

What is Climate vulnerable forum?

The Climate Vulnerable Forum (CVF) is an international partnership of countries highly vulnerable to a warming planet.
It is Composed of 58 members from Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, Latin America and the Pacific.
It serves as a South-South cooperation platform for participating governments to act together to deal with global climate change.
The Forum is led by a rotating chair for an ordinary period of two years.
Current chair: Ghana for the period 2022-2024. (Ghana is the second African nation to lead the CVF after Ethiopia).

Establishment:

The CVF first met near Male’, Maldives in November 2009.
At the CVF High-Level Meeting held during the UNFCCC (COP21), the Manila-Paris Declaration and the 2016-2018 Roadmap of the CVF was adopted.
At UNFCCC COP22 Forum members committed to ambitious climate action, striving, among others, to achieve maximal resilience and to meet 100% domestic renewable energy production as rapidly as possible.

Members:

African & West Asian region:

Asian & Pacific region

Latin America & Caribbean region

The UNDP Multi-Partner Trust Fund Office is the Administrative Agent of the Climate Vulnerable Forum Trust Fund.
Four intergovernmental agencies are participating partners in the implementation of the CVF Trust Fund:
- International Organisation for Migration (IOM)
- United Nations Development Progamme (UNDP)
- United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR)
- World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

Global shield initiative:

Vulnerable Twenty Group (V20) together with the Group of Seven (G7) and other supporting countries launched the Global Shield against Climate Risks. The aim of the Global Shield is to provide and facilitate more and better pre-arranged protection against climate and disaster related risks for vulnerable people and countries. It was launched at COP 27, Sharm-el-sheikh.

Pilatus PC-7 Mk II Trainer Aircraft

Context: Two Indian Air Force (IAF) pilots were killed after their Pilatus PC-7 Mk II trainer aircraft crashed during a routine training flight from the Air Force Academy at Dundigal, Telangana.

Trainer Aircraft

A trainer is a class of aircraft designed specifically to facilitate flight training of pilots and aircrews.
Trainer aircraft fly slower, have less complex systems, and are designed to be resistant to and recoverable from stalls and spins. They are also much cheaper, allowing air forces to buy them in bulk to train cadets.
Currently, there are 75 Pilatus PC-7 Mk II aircraft in service with the IAF (including the one which crashed today. These are used for basic training, the first stage in a cadet’s flight training.
- Modern military aircraft are notoriously difficult to master for rookie pilots (new recruits). Hence, they are trained on basic aircraft.
- After this, cadets graduate to the HAL Kiran, an intermediate jet-powered indigenously developed trainer aircraft, followed by the BAE Hawk, a British jet-powered advanced trainer aircraft.

About Pilatus PC-7 Mk II

Pilatus Aircraft Ltd is an aerospace manufacturer located in Stans, Switzerland, which specialises in producing short take-off and landing aircraft, as well as trainer aircraft for air forces across the world.
The PC-7 is a low-wing, turbo-prop aircraft with tandem seating (the cadet sits in the front, the instructor behind him).
Powered by a turbo-prop engine, it has a maximum speed of 412 km/h and can fly to a height of slightly more than 10,000 m. It has a range of 1,200 km without external tanks, which translates to slightly more than 4 hours of flying time.

Will PC-7 Mk II be replaced?

In March, the Defence Ministry signed a contract with Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd to procure 70 HTT-40 at a cost of over Rs 6,800 crore.
Designed indigenously at HAL’s Aircraft Research & Design Centre, the HTT-40 is a basic trainer aircraft powered by a four-bladed turbo-prop engine (PC-7 is three-bladed).
The aircraft will have an air-conditioned cockpit, modern avionics, hot refuelling (with engines running), and zero-zero ejection seats. The aircrafts are scheduled to be delivered over a period of six years.

India re-elected to International Maritime Organisation Council

Context: India was re-elected to International Maritime Organisation (IMO) Council with highest number of votes. This will allow India to be a member of IMO Council which is the executive body responsible for international shipping. The term of the IMO Council will be for biennium 2024-25. India has been elected under Category (B) of IMO Council which represent States with largest interest in international seaborne trade.

About International Maritime Organisation (IMO)

International Maritime Organisation is a specialized agency of the UN, which is responsible in the following:

Improving the safety and security of international shipping
Preventing marine and atmospheric pollution from ships.
Legal matters such as liability and compensation issues
Facilitation of international maritime traffic.

Established by means of Convention on International Maritime Organisation (CIMO), which entered into force in 1958.

Membership: Currently 175 countries are members of IMO. Many intergovernmental organisations and non-governmental organisations are members of IMO.

Structure of the International Maritime Organisation

IMO Assembly is the highest governing body. All member states of IMO are members of IMO Assembly and meets once in two years. It is responsible for approving the work program and budget and determining financial arrangements and electing IMO Council.
IMO Council is the executive organ of IMO and is responsible to the IMO Assembly for supervising the work of IMO Council. The Council is made up of 40 Member States, elected by the Assembly for two-year terms. Between the sessions of the assembly, the Council performs the functions of IMO Assembly, except that of making recommendations to governments on maritime safety and pollution prevention.

Assembly of International Maritime Organisaton elects following States to be Members of IMO Council for two years:

Category (A): 10 States with largest interest in providing international shipping.
Category (B): 10 States with largest interest in international seaborne trade. India has been elected in this category.
Category (C): 20 States not elected under Category (A) or (B), which have special interests in maritime transport or navigation and whose election to the IMO Council will ensure representation of all major geographical areas of the world.

Secretary General of IMO: IMO is led by the Secretary General supported by a Secretariat which is based a IMO headquarters in London, UK.
IMO has five main committees:
- Maritime Safety Committee (MSC)
- Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC)
- Legal Committee
- Technical Cooperation Committee
- Facilitation Committee

Key IMO Conventions

International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS): This treaty was developed as a result of Titanic disaster in 1912. It applies to passenger ships carrying more than 12 passengers on international voyages.
International Convention for Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 and its protocols (MARPOL)
International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) and its Manila Amendments.
Hong Kong International Convention for the Safety and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships, 2009.

Other Key Initiatives

Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS):

GMDSS is an integrated communications system using satellite and terrestrial radio-communication systems.
GMDSS mandates all ships and cargo ships over 300 gross tonnages on international voyages to carry specified terrestrial and satellite radio-communications equipment for sending and receiving distress alerts and maritime safety information and for general communications.
Regulations covering GMDSSS are under chapter IV of International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974.

Key focus areas of IMO

More than 80% of global trade is delivered by sea. This means critical goods such as food, fuel, medicine etc. are delivered by ships and seafarers.
Other modes of transport which don't have the required capacity and are not as carbon efficient as required for international shipping.
There is a need for universal standards to regulate and develop international shipping in an orderly fashion. For these the key focus areas of IMO are:

Safety of life at sea: IMO, particularly through the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) has developed various codes, conventions and guidelines promoting safety of life at sea, lifesaving appliances, safety of ships in polar waters, guidelines on fatigue and communications etc.
Combating illicit maritime activities: Addressing maritime piracy, armed robbery of ships and human trafficking has been a key focus area for IMO. In 2009, IMO adopted Djibouti Code of Conduct to support repression of piracy and armed robbery against ships in the Western Indian Ocean and Gulf of Aden. The scope of Djibouti code was expanded in 2017 to include organised crime in maritime sector, maritime terrorism, human trafficking and illegal unreported and unregulated fishing by the Jeddah Amendment to Djibouti Code of Conduct in 2017.
Curbing Air Pollution from Ships: IMO adopted Annex VI to its MARPOL Convention to address air pollution from ships. Initially main air pollutants contained in ships included sulphur oxides (SOx) and nitrous oxide (NOx), deliberate emissions of ozone depleting substances, shipboard incineration, emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOC) from tankers. In 2011, regulations were introduced to increase energy efficiency of ships to limit greenhouse gas emissions. In 2020, a new lower limit on sulphur content in fuel oil used on board ships was implemented (called 'IMO 2020' rule). The implementation of this rule in expected to result in 77% reduction in overall sulphur dioxide emissions from ships preventing many diseases and ocean acidification and other environmental benefits.
Energy Efficiency of Ships: IMO has made it mandatory for all ships to calculate their Energy Efficiency Existing Ship Index (EEXI) to measure their energy efficiency and to initiate collection of data for reporting of annual operational carbon intensity indicator (CII) and CII rating.
Decarbonization of Shipping: IMO's Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) was introduced for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from ships under which IMO Member States have pledged to cut annual greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping by at least half by 2025, compared to 2008.
Regulating fishing: IMO has been implementing regulations in fishing through IMO treaty on training for fishers. IMO has negotiated Cape Town Agreement which will set minimum requirements on the design, construction, equipment and inspection of fishing vessels of 24 meters in length or equivalent in gross tons. Cape Town Agreement will provide safe, legal and sustainable shipping providing an internationally binding standardisation of fishing practices.
Protection of vulnerable ocean areas: Ocean areas of ecological or scientific significance are granted special protection status of a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA). PSSA cases require special protective measures which are agreed and adopted, such as compulsory routeing of ships to avoid these areas altogether.
Biofouling: Biofouling refers to accumulation of various aquatic organisms on ships' hulls as a result invasive aquatic organisms can be introduced to new marine environments affecting marine biodiversity, coastal properties and infrastructure. To deal with biofouling, IMO is leading GloFouling Partnerships.
Recycling of Ships: Member states of IMO, NGOs, ILO and Basel Convention have together developed Hong Kong Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ship (Hong Kong Convention). The Hong Kong Convention is aimed at ensuring that ships, when being recycled do not pose any unnecessary risk to human health and safety to environment. This Convention will come into force in 2025. India has ratified the Hong Kong Convention.

What is Genome Sequencing? - Applications & Significance

What is Genome?

A genome is an organism’s complete set of DNA. It is a collection of all the genes and the regions between the genes contained in our 23 pairs of chromosomes.
- Each chromosome is a contiguous stretch of DNA string, i.e., the human genome consists of 23 different strings, each composed of millions of individual building blocks called nucleotides or bases [adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T)].
- These bases or building blocks (A, T, G and C) are arranged and repeated millions of times in different combinations to make all of our 23 chromosomes.
The genome contains all the data that is needed to describe the organism completely — acting essentially as a blueprint. The genome can be understood through the process described as genome sequencing.

What is Genome Sequencing?

Whole-genome sequencing is the decoding of the entire DNA present in the human cell, i.e, determine the precise order of the four bases and how they are arranged in chromosomes.
This data can be analysed to understand the function of various genes, identify genetic mutations and explore how genetic mutations impact gene functions and cause certain congenital diseases.

Applications of Genome Sequencing:

Disease Diagnosis and Treatment: Genome sequencing can identify genetic mutations and variations that contribute to the development of diseases. It has been used to evaluate rare disorders, preconditions for disorders and even cancer from the viewpoint of genetics.
- Nearly 10,000 diseases — including cystic fibrosis and thalassemia — are known to be the result of a single gene malfunctioning.
- Genome sequencing can be used to read the codes of viruses, which can be used to understand how to combat the virus, track mutating variants, and develop a vaccine.
  - In 2014, a group of scientists from M.I.T and Harvard sequenced samples of Ebola from infected African patients to show how genomic data of viruses could reveal hidden pathways of transmission.
  - In January 2020, at the start of the CoVID-19 pandemic, scientists sequenced the genome of a novel pathogen causing infections in Wuhan, China.
Personalised Drug Development: Can identify genetic targets for drug development and testing, leading to the development of more effective and personalised drugs.
Prenatal Screening: Can be used as a tool for prenatal screening to investigate whether the foetus has genetic disorders/anomalies.
Agriculture: Can help identify genes that contribute to desirable traits in plants and animals, allowing for the selective breeding of crops and livestock.
Forensics: Genome sequencing can be used to identify suspects in criminal investigations and to establish paternity in cases of disputed parentage.
Evolutionary Biology: Can help trace the evolutionary history of species and understand the mechanisms underlying evolution.

Genome Sequencing Projects:

Human Genome Project

In 1990, a group of scientists began working on the Human Genome Project which was an international programme that led to the decoding of the entire human genome.
Completed in April 2003, the HGP, for the first time, gave the ability to read nature’s complete genetic blueprint for building a human being.

IndiGen:

IndiGen is a program initiated by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) from April 2019 to October 2019.
Aim: To sequence the whole genomes of 1029 individuals from diverse ethnic groups across India.
The project has already been completed and the results have been published in the scientific journal Nucleic Acid Research. The data can be used to study the genetics of the Indian population and to develop new treatments for diseases that are common in India.

Genome India Project:

Genome India Project (GIP) is a government initiative to execute whole genome sequencing and subsequent data analysis of 10,000 individuals representing the country’s diverse population by the end of 2023.
Launched by: Department of Biotechnology in January 2020.
Aim: To create a comprehensive reference database of genetic variations in the Indian population and identify genetic variations that are associated with common and rare diseases prevalent in the Indian population.
The project is being carried out in collaboration with several institutions, including the National Centre for Biological Sciences, the Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, and the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology.

Need of GIP:

India has around 1.4 billion population consisting of over 4,600 population groups, many of which are endogamous (disease-causing mutations often amplified within some of these groups). But despite being a large population with diverse ethnic groups and huge prevalence of rare diseases in the country, India lacks a comprehensive catalogue of genetic variations.

Significance of GIP:

By unravelling genetic variants unique to India’s population groups, the project has the potential to:

Improve disease diagnosis and prevention: Identifying genetic markers associated with diseases can lead to earlier diagnosis, more effective treatment, and preventive measures. E.g., Identify prevalence of congenital disorders like sickle cell anaemia and thalassemia in certain tribal groups.
Advance precision medicine: GIP's genomic data will be instrumental in implementing precision medicine approaches, targeted therapies, and tailoring healthcare to an individual's genetic profile.
Empower genomic research and innovation: By sequencing the genomes of a large and diverse group of individuals, the GIP will establish a baseline reference genome for the Indian population. This reference genome will be invaluable for researchers studying genomics in India and contributing to the global understanding of human genetics.

Important genome sequencing initiatives across the globe:

S.No.	Initiatives	Initiated by	Details
1.	Human Genome Project	Lead by USA	Launched in October 1990 and completed in April 2003.
2.	deCODE	Ireland	Large-scale population genetic studies initiated in Iceland in 1996.
3.	Diversity Human Genome Initiative	Various pharmaceutical companies	Sequence five lakh individuals of African ancestry (Launched in 2023)
4.	100K Genome Project	UK	Launched by the UK government in 2012 to sequence 100,000 genomes.
5.	1+ Million genomes	European Union	Sequence genomes of at least one million people from across Europe by 2027.
6.	Genome Asia 100K initiative	Asia	Sequencing genomes of 100,000 individuals from diverse ethnic groups across Asia.
7.	IndiGen	India	Sequence whole genomes of 1029 individuals from diverse ethnic groups across India. (Completed in 2019)
8.	Genome India Project	India	Execute whole genome sequencing and subsequent data analysis of 10,000 individuals in India till end of 2023.

Cyclone Michaung

Context: Cyclone Michaung is the first cyclone to cross the Andhra Pradesh coast after cyclone Gulab which developed in September 2021.

About Cyclone Michaung

Cyclone over South-West Bay of Bengal.
Michaung is named after a suggestion given by Myanmar. It means strength and resilience.
Upon formation, cyclone Michuang will become the fourth Bay of Bengal cyclonic storm and the sixth cyclone formed in the Indian Ocean in 2023.

Naming of cyclone:

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) oversees the management of rotating name lists tailored for each tropical cyclone basin.
Cyclones arising in various ocean basins globally receive their names from regional specialized meteorological centers (RSMCs) and Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers (TCWCs) within those areas.
There are a total of six RSMCs across the world.
Member nations of the RSMCs propose the names for tropical cyclones. For instance, the Indian RSMC, comprising 13 nations, puts forward 13 names each for cyclones formed in the region.
In the earlier practice, before the official adoption of naming conventions, tropical cyclones were named based on locations, objects, or the feast days of saints on which they occurred.
The names will be used sequentially column wise. The first name will start from the first row of column one and continue sequentially to the last row in the column thirteen.
The names of tropical cyclones over the north Indian Ocean will not be repeated, once used it will cease to be used again.
The name of a tropical cyclone from south China Sea which crosses Thailand and emerge into the Bay of Bengal as a Tropical cyclone will not be changed.

Guidelines to adopt names of cyclones

The proposed name should be neutral to (a) politics and political figures (b) religious believes, (c) cultures and (d) gender.
Name should be chosen in such a way that it does not hurt the sentiments of any group of population over the globe
It should not be very rude and cruel in nature
It should be short, easy to pronounce and should not be offensive to any member
The maximum length of the name will be eight letters.
The proposed name should be provided with its pronunciation and voice over.
The names of tropical cyclones over the north Indian Ocean will not be repeated. Once used, it will cease to be used again. Thus, the name should be new.

Indonesia's Marapi volcano erupts

Context: Indonesia's Marapi volcano in West Sumatra erupted on Sunday, spewing volcanic ash as high as 3,000 m into the air.

VOLCANISM & VOLCANICITY

A volcano on Earth is a vent or fissure in the crust through which lava, ash, rock and gases erupt.
Sometimes they can be preceded by emissions of steam and gas from small vents in the ground.
Nuée ardente, or pyroclastic flow is a fluidized mixture of hot gas and incandescent particles that sweeps down a volcano’s flanks, incinerating everything in its path.

VOLCANO ANATOMY

When volcanoes erupt, magma moves upward from a magma chamber and into a vent or conduit. It flows out from a crater at the top, or sometimes emerges at a secondary site on the side of the volcano resulting in a flank eruption. Erupted materials accumulate around the vent forming a volcanic mountain.

The accumulated material might consist of layers of solidified lava, called lava flows, but it might also include fragments of various sizes that have been thrown from the volcano.

MECHANISM & CAUSES OF VULCANISM

Mechanism of volcanism is closely associated with several interconnected processes.

Average increase of temperature with increasing depth at the rate of 25-32 degree Celsius per km.
Origin of magma due to lowering of melting point caused by reduction in the pressure of overlying super incumbent load.
Origin of gases and vapour due to heating of water which reaches underground through percolation.
Ascent of magma forced by enormous volume of gases and vapour.
Occurrence of volcanic eruptions.

5jjecxzw9pp5q1v 5fr2cv2iNqc9VZU9z 7iyWJeTFhmiln7voNPyF6F4ZqSvQPfdW 4F4F5B3 JYR ef8 tmZKCpnUFUEuVnZ5wBRpTHonM7 CNrBbv9NTmBzZT4RkAqbXmzEqzNOvUhggPMOt Cg

Deep Space Optical Communication (DSOC)

Context: NASA’s Psyche spacecraft, currently over 16 million kilometres away in space, successfully fired a laser signal at Earth.

Components of Deep Space Optical Communication

Laser Transmitter: It is mounted on spacecraft such as Psyche to generate a laser beam. The laser emits light in the form of photons, which is focused into a narrow beam.
Modulation: The information needed to be transmitted is encoded onto the laser beam through a process called modulation.
Telescope/Collector: On the ground or at spacecraft, a large telescope or collector is used to receive the incoming optical signal. The collector is designed to capture as much light as possible from the incoming laser beam.
Photon Detection: The collected optical signal is then directed to a photodetector. The photodetector converts the incoming photons into electrical signals.
Demodulation: The electrical signals are demodulated to extract the original information that was encoded onto the laser beam. This involves reversing the modulation process applied at the transmitter.
Signal Processing: The demodulated data is processed by the communication system.
Control Mechanism: It often includes feedback mechanisms to optimise the pointing of the laser beam. Precision pointing is crucial for maintaining a stable and strong connection over long distances.

NASA’s DSOC

NASA’s DSOC experiment is the agency’s first demonstration of optical communications beyond the Earth-Moon system.
This new technology will employ advanced lasers in the near-infrared region (1.55 µm) of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The DSOC flight laser transceiver on board Psyche functions as a telescope, capable of receiving and transmitting laser light in precisely timed photon bursts.

What is glyphosate?

Glyphosate is a widely used broad-spectrum systemic herbicide, known for its effectiveness in controlling a variety of weeds.

Discovered in the 1970s, it has since become one of the most commonly used herbicides globally.
Chemically, Glyphosate is a phosphonate, which works by inhibiting an enzyme essential for plant growth.
Its widespread adoption can be attributed to its efficacy and the development of Glyphosate-resistant crops.

Usage of Glyphosate

The primary use of Glyphosate is in the agricultural sector, where it plays a crucial role in controlling weeds, especially in fields of genetically modified crops that are designed to be Glyphosate-resistant.
This allows farmers to apply the herbicide without harming the crop.
Beyond agriculture, Glyphosate is also used in urban landscaping, garden maintenance, and in industrial sites for weed control.
Its global prevalence is significant, with millions of tons used annually worldwide, underlining its importance in modern agricultural practices.

Harmful Effects

There are concerns about glyphosate's potential to cause cancer in humans, though research findings are conflicting. In 2015, the WHO's International Agency for Research on Cancer classified glyphosate as "probably carcinogenic to humans” based on animal studies and limited evidence in humans.

Glyphosate may impact the human endocrine system and act as an endocrine disruptor according to some studies, which can lead to developmental and reproductive damage. However, other regulatory agencies have concluded it is unlikely to be an endocrine disruptor in humans.
Glyphosate application can adversely affect soil health, beneficial microorganisms, and mineral availability for plants. It can bind tightly to soil particles making nutrients like iron, zinc, and manganese less available to plants.
Glyphosate may accumulate in groundwater supplies when applied at high doses. Traces have been detected in surface waters, rainfall, and air samples.
Glyphosate can impact non-target plants like wildflowers and milkweed that support pollinators. It may reduce habitat and food sources for insects like bees and monarch butterflies.
Development of glyphosate-resistant weeds is a major agricultural challenge. Overuse of glyphosate has led to resistant weed populations that are difficult to control.
Exposure during application can cause eye and skin irritation. Accidental ingestion of concentrated solutions can be fatal.

Glyphosate in India

India is one of the largest consumers of glyphosate-based herbicides worldwide. Usage has risen rapidly since the early 2000s.
It is extensively used in cotton and soybean cultivation, as well as in horticulture and plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber, bananas, sugarcane etc.
Genetically modified glyphosate tolerant cotton known as Bt Cotton was introduced in India in 2002 and now accounts for over 90% of cotton cultivation. This has led to a surge in glyphosate use.
It is also applied to clear weeds from non-agricultural areas like roads, rail tracks, parks and other public spaces especially before monsoons.
Aerial spraying of glyphosate is done in some states to clear tall grasses and weeds along highways.
There are concerns about excessive reliance on glyphosate, improper application techniques, lack of safety equipment and impacts on food safety among farmers in India.
Traces of glyphosate have been found in street food, vegetables, grains, pulses, breast milk and urine samples in studies conducted across Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and other states.
There is pressure on government agencies to enforce stricter regulation of glyphosate sale and usage in the country.

The Indian government implemented significant measures regarding the use of Glyphosate

Ban on Direct Use by Farmers: The Central Government of India banned the direct use of Glyphosate by farmers. This decision was based on concerns about the effects of Glyphosate on human and animal health.
Restriction to Pest Control Operators: Following this ban, the use of Glyphosate was restricted solely to Pest Control Operators (PCOs). These operators are authorized to apply Glyphosate in agricultural fields. This measure was intended to regulate the application of Glyphosate more strictly, ensuring that its usage is controlled and managed by trained professionals.
The Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee (CIBRC) is the regulatory authority that evaluates and approves pesticides for use in India.
The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) sets maximum residue limits (MRLs) for pesticides in food products. MRLs have been established for glyphosate in a variety of crops.

Women’s political empowerment — more talk, less action

Context: As the assembly elections are undergoing and the women reservation bill, 2023 has been passed by both the houses, the issue of women representation in politics has become a subject of discussion.

Present status in India:

Lok Sabha: Presently, 15% of the total members of the 17th Lok Sabha are women.
State legislative assemblies: Women on average constitute 9% of the total members.
The number of women MPs has increased from 5% in the first Lok Sabha to 15% in the 17th Lok Sabha; but the number continues to be quite low.
Constitution (One Hundred and Sixth Amendment) Act of 2023: It reserves by law 33% seats in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.

Mechanism of political empowerment:

Through legislation: Reservation of seats in assemblies for women.
Quotas in political parties: Political parties on their own volition provide quota for women while declaring the candidates.

Examples of provision of reservation route	Example of women inclusion by political parties
-Pakistan: 17% reservation for women· -Bangladesh: 14% reservation for women· -Nepal: 33% reservation for women. -India: 33% reservation for women.	- Australia: 38% seats are represented women.· - South Africa: 45% seats are represented by women.· - Sweden: 46% seats are represented by women.· - Mexico: 36% legislated party quota for women.

Reasons for/ Merits of women reservation:

Inclusive policy making: Proportional inclusion in the political system leads to inclusive policy making and ability to influence the decisions of various stakeholders.
International obligation: The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women mandates that discrimination against women must be eliminated in political and public life.
Investment in public goods: A 2003 study about the effect of reservation for women in panchayats showed that women elected under the reservation policy invest more in the public goods closely linked to women’s issues and concerns.
More meaningful contributions: The Standing Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances, Law, and Justice (2009) observed that reservation of seats for women in local bodies has enabled them to make meaningful contributions.
- Committee also noted that concerns regarding women being proxies to men in local bodies have turned out to be baseless.
Enhanced representation and involvement in the public sphere: The Inter-Parliamentary Union (2022) has noted that legislated quotas have been a decisive factor in enhanced women’s representation.
Leadership: Countries led by women during Covid-19 did much better in comparison to those led by men.
Better law making: Gender experiences are largely excluded from our law making, providing more space for women will make our laws more inclusive.

Issues with respect to reservation:

Constituent Assembly Debates: In Constituent Assembly Debates, Renuka Ray argued against reserving seats for women: “When there is reservation of seats for women, the question of their consideration for general seats, however competent they may be, does not usually arise. We feel that women will get more chances if the consideration is of ability alone.

Narrow outlook: Separate constituencies for women may not only narrow their outlook but lead to perpetuation of unequal status because they would be seen as not competing on merit.

Larger issues untouched: Mere reservation will not lead to political empowerment of women as the larger issues of electoral reforms such as measures to check criminalisation of politics, internal democracy in political parties, and influence of black money have not been addressed.

Restricted choice of voters: Reservation of one-third of seats for women in Parliament would restrict the choice of voters in the reserved constituencies.

Issues with Rotation of reserved seats: It may reduce the incentive for MPs to work for their constituencies as they could be ineligible to seek re-election from that constituency.

A study by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj recommended that rotation of constituencies should be discontinued at the panchayat level because almost 85% women were first-timers and only 15% women could get re-elected because the seats they were elected from were de-reserved.

Linkage with delimitation: Due to its linkage with the new delimitation which will be done after 2026, we can say that the law looks good only on paper.

Sunset clause: It has a sunset clause of 15 years which can be extended further; however, critics argue that 15 years is a small time to make substantial change in the status of women.

Rajya Sabha exempted: The Act does not provide for reservation of seats in Rajya Sabha and State Legislative Councils.

Suggestions and way forward:

Reservation within Political parties: Although, the reservation is a welcome step, but another approach can be reservation for candidates within political parties (as some countries mentioned above do) in recently concluded assembly elections, no party has reached even 15% mark in giving tickets to women candidates.

TMC: TMC has fielded more female candidates and won the assembly elections. (32 wins out of 46 women candidates)
BJD: BJD also has a good track record of internal reservation for women candidates.

Dual member constituencies: Where some constituencies shall have two candidates, one being a woman can be an alternative.

Ladakh’s Demand for Inclusion in the Sixth Schedule Area

Context: The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has agreed to examine the demands of civil society groups in Ladakh and has formed a high-powered committee to assess the feasibility, with specific terms of reference.

Ladakh’s Demand for Inclusion

On 5th August 2019, the erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) was bifurcated into two Union Territories: J&K with a legislature and Ladakh without a legislature.

Ladakh, the newly created Union Territory with a population of 2.74 lakh (2011 Census), has concerns regarding the protection of land, resources, and employment for the locals. The following are the main concerns for the demand for the inclusion in 6th schedule:

The UT of J&K would have a legislature, the UT of Ladakh would not lead to administration of the region being completely in the hands of bureaucrats.
The changed domicile policy in Jammu and Kashmir has raised fears in the region about its own land, employment, demography, and cultural identity.
The UT has two Hill councils in Leh and Kargil, but neither is under the Sixth Schedule. Their powers are limited to collection of some local taxes such as parking fees and allotment and use of land vested by the Centre.

Inclusion of Ladakh in Sixth Schedule

The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes recommended the inclusion of Ladakh under the Sixth Schedule, noting that the new UT was predominantly tribal (more than 97%), people from other parts of the country had been restricted from purchasing or acquiring land there, and its distinct cultural heritage needed preservation.
- Notably, no region outside the Northeast has been included in the Sixth Schedule. In fact, even in Manipur, which has predominantly tribal populations in some places, the autonomous councils are not included in the Sixth Schedule. Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh, which are totally tribal, are also not in the Sixth Schedule.
- “Ladakh’s inclusion in the Sixth Schedule would be difficult. The Constitution is very clear, the Sixth Schedule is for the Northeast. For tribal areas in the rest of the country, there is the Fifth Schedule. However, it remains the prerogative of the government — it can, if it so decides, bring a Bill to amend the Constitution for this purpose.

Recent Developments in Ladakh’s Demand for Sixth Schedule

The Ministry of Home Affairs has constituted a committee chaired by Minister of State for Home Nityanand Rai with the following terms of reference:

To discuss measures to protect the region’s unique culture and language taking into consideration its geographical location and strategic importance.
To ensure protection of land and employment for the people of Ladakh.
To discuss measures for inclusive development and employment generation in the region.
To discuss measures related to the empowerment of the Ladakh Autonomous Hill District Councils of Leh and Kargil.
To examine constitutional safeguards that could be provided to ensure the measures and protection detailed above.

Sixth Schedule

Sixth schedule to the constitution provides power to tribal communities to administer the tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram under the provision of article 244(2) and 275(1) of the constitution.

Article 244 provides a special system of administration for certain areas designated as ‘scheduled areas’ and ‘tribal areas.

Article 275 makes provisions for statutory grants to be charged on Consolidated Fund of India. Such grants also include specific grants for promoting the welfare of the scheduled tribes or for raising the level of administration of the scheduled areas in a state.

The Sixth Schedule under Article 244 provides for the formation of autonomous administrative divisions — Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) — that have some legislative, judicial, and administrative autonomy within a state.

ADCs have up to 30 members with a term of five years, and can make laws, rules and regulations with regard to land, forest, water, agriculture, village councils, health, sanitation, village- and town-level policing, inheritance, marriage and divorce, social customs and mining, etc.
The Bodoland Territorial Council in Assam is an exception with more than 40 members and the right to make laws on 39 issues.
The Sixth Schedule applies to the North-eastern states of Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram (three Councils each), and Tripura (one Council).

Advantages of Inclusion In Sixth Schedule

Autonomous District Councils (ADC): ADCs are bodies representing a district to which the Constitution has given varying degrees of autonomy within the state legislature. Each autonomous district council consists of 30 members, including nominated and elected members.
Autonomous region: If there are different Scheduled Tribes in an autonomous district, it can be divided into autonomous regions.
Legislative Power: ADCs are empowered to make legislative laws with due approval from the governor.
Limitation to power of Parliamentary or state legislature over autonomous regions: Acts passed by Parliament and state legislatures may or may not be levied in these regions unless the President and the governor gives her or his approval.
Judicial powers: councils can constitute village courts within their jurisdiction to hear trials of cases involving the tribes.
Regulatory power: The district council can establish, construct or manage primary schools, dispensaries, markets, ferries, fisheries, roads and so on in the district. It can also make regulations for the control of money lending and trading by non-tribal. But such regulations require the assent of the governor.
Tax revenue collection: The district and regional councils are empowered to assess and collect land revenue and to impose certain specified taxes. They can also receive grants-in-aids from the Consolidated Fund of India to meet the costs of schemes for development, health care, education, roads and regulatory powers to state control.

Issues with Sixth Schedule

No Decentralisation of powers and administration: For example, in Bodo Territorial Area districts, there is only district council which elects few people who enjoy unbridled power. Thus, units should be created that will represent people at all strata.
Legislative power of state over councils: The laws made by the councils require the assent of the governor. This process has no time limits which delayed the legislation for years. Also, Para 12 (A) of the Sixth Schedule clearly states that, whenever there is a conflict of interest between the District Councils and the state legislature, the latter would prevail.
Conflict in discretionary powers of governor: There are differing views over the discretionary power of governors with respect to the administration of these areas. Thus, conflict is there on the requirement of consultation of governor with council of ministers.
Lack of codification of customary law: Customary laws need to be codified and brought into practical use to ensure protection of tribal cultural identity.
Lack of skilled professionals: Almost all Councils do not have access to planning professionals which results in ad-hoc conceiving of development projects without proper technical and financial consideration.
Financial dependency: Autonomous councils are dependent on their respective state governments for funds in addition to the occasional special package from the Centre. There is no State Finance Commission for recommending ways to devolve funds to District Councils and Regional Councils.
Lack of development: Although 6th schedule was enacted to give more benefit to the people and bring fast paced development, yet due to no panchayats or parishad at people level, they have no power and money which non-6th schedule areas have for implementation of various schemes like MGNREGA etc.
Corruption: Financial mismanagement and rampant corruption have often been detected in the functioning of different Councils under the Sixth Schedule provision.

WAY FORWARD

Creation of elected village councils in all areas and ensuring accountability of Village Councils to Gram Sabha.
Ensure regular election conducted by the State Election Commission.
Recognize Gram Sabha under law and specify its powers & functions.
Ensure women and other ethnic minorities are not excluded from representation in council. · Bring transparency in planning, implementation and monitoring of developmental programmes.