Context – Two people were rescued from the attack of Orcas in the strait of Gibraltar.
Key facts related to Orcas:
Common name – Killer whale
Family - They are largest of the Dolphin family.
Biology & Size - Adults, Killer Whale males are considerably larger than the females. They are about 9.5 m long and weigh up to 8 tons, whilst females are 7 to 8.5 m long and weigh 4 tons or more. Calves at birth, 2-2.4 m long.
Along with pilot whales and sperm whales, this is the only mammal species other than humans, where females are known to have an extended post-reproductive period (menopause)
Social being - Extended family groups of Killer Whales live together and cooperate in hunting.
Behaviour - Killer Whales are usually approachable, as they are undisturbed by shipping. They might respond by spy hopping, which involves rising vertically so that the head and body – as far as the flippers– are above the surface.
Diet - The diet of a Killer Whale is very diverse, including fish, squid, turtles, birds and dolphins. This animal is one of the only predators of large marine mammals, including the largest whales.
Natural predators - Killer whales have no known natural predators except possibly other killer whales.
World distribution - : Killer Whales may be found in coastal as well as deeper waters. The Killer Whale is very cosmopolitan, occurring in all oceans, from the tropics to the polar regions. But these unique mammals are most abundant in colder regions like the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica, the North Atlantic around Norway and Iceland, and the northern Pacific around Alaska.
Records from India: Killer whales have been reported from the Andaman and Nicobar islands, southeast coast of India, off Andhra Pradesh, northern Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry and from the west coast of India, mainly Maharashtra to Kerala.
Context: In a mere three years, from 2019 to 2022, India may have lost close to 5.8 million full-grown trees in agricultural lands, says a satellite-imagery-based analysis by researchers at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, published this week in the peer-reviewed journal Nature Sustainability.
Findings
A satellite-imagery-based analysis by researchers at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, published in Nature Sustainability.
Between 2019 and 2022, nearly 5.8 million full-grown trees disappeared from Indian agricultural lands.
An additional 11% of trees detected between 2010-2011 were not visible in satellite images from 2018 to 2022, indicating disappearance.
The analysis focused on large trees above a certain size, not implying an overall decline in India's tree cover.
Forest Survey of India (FSI) data indicates an increase in India's tree cover in 2021 compared to 2019.
Research Methodology:
Researchers focused on farmlands, tracking individual trees using satellite maps from micro-satellites.
Data from RapidEye and PlanetScope satellites with resolutions of three to five meters were utilized, enabling the identification of individual trees.
The FSI relies on Sentinel satellite data, which has a coarser resolution of 10 meters, unable to detect individual trees.
Impact and Hotspots:
Trees detected by RapidEye had an average crown size of 96 sq.m.
Large losses of mature farmland trees were observed, particularly in central India, notably Telangana and Maharashtra.
Hotspot areas experienced losses of up to 50% of large farmland trees, with up to 22 trees per square kilometre disappearing.
Other hotspot areas include eastern Madhya Pradesh around Indore.
Uncertainty and Trends:
Authors noted the estimate of tree loss was conservative, with most losses likely occurring between 2018 and 2020.
Images from 2010-2011 were not consistently reliable for mapping all trees.
Authors observed clustered tree loss, particularly in areas where farmland was converted to paddy fields.
Paddy field expansion and intensification, facilitated by new water supplies, contributed to the loss of large and mature trees.
Large-scale disappearance of trees on Indian farmlands within a short timeframe highlights the need for further research and conservation efforts. The conversion of farmland to paddy fields and changes in agroforestry management systems are identified as major contributing factors. The study underscores the importance of monitoring individual trees to understand localized trends in tree cover and loss.
Context: Indian Army is all set to begin receiving another set of Russian Igla-Svery short-range air defence systems (VSHORAD), filling a critical void in its air defence requirement.
About Igla-S system:
In 2023, the Army contracted 48 Igla-S launchers, 100 missiles, 48 night sights, and one missile testing station under a ₹260 crore contract and deliveries are set to begin by end of this May, 2024.
In April 2024, India received the first batch of 24 Igla-S launchers.
Igla-S is a man-portable air defence system (MANPADS) developed by Russia.
It is being assembled by Adani Defence Systems And Technologies Limited (ADSTL) in India under technology transfer from Rosoboronexport (Russia).
The hand-held defence system can be operated by an individual or crew.
The anti-aircraft missile launcher can bring down low-flying aircrafts, helicopters and can also identify and neutralise air targets such as cruise missiles and drones to provide a comprehensive air defence solution.
Range:
Interception Range: upto 6 kms
Limiting altitude of effective target destruction: 3.5 km
Igla-S has a 2.5 kg high-explosive fragmentation (HE-FRAG) warhead, contact and timed fuzes, and infrared homing guidance.
It has the fire and forget guidance system i.e., the operator is not required to guide the missile to its target. They are fitted with infrared seeker that identify and target the airborne vehicle through heat radiation being emitted by the latter.
Significance:
The Igla-S system would enhance the Indian Army’s Very Short Range Air Defence (VSHORAD) capabilities.
The Igla-S acquisition addresses the Indian Army's need to replace the outdated Igla-1M systems, replacing the obsolescence of existing air defence systems.
Context: Lead poisoning poses a significant threat to public health, particularly among children, with pervasive exposure across various facets of daily life.
Lead Pollution
It is ubiquitous and found in air we breathe, the spices we cook, the toys our children play with, the paint on our walls and many more.
Sources of Lead Pollution
Industrial Emissions: Lead is emitted into the air through various industrial processes such as mining, smelting, refining, and manufacturing of lead-based products like batteries, paints, and ceramics.
Automobiles: Historically, leaded gasoline was a major source of lead emissions. While leaded gasoline has been phased out in many countries, vehicle emissions still contribute to lead pollution, particularly in areas with high traffic density.
Lead-Based Paints: Lead-based paints, commonly used in buildings and infrastructure before regulations restricted their use, can deteriorate over time, releasing lead particles into the environment. This is a significant concern, especially in older homes and buildings.
Battery Recycling: Improper recycling of lead-acid batteries, such as those used in cars and industrial equipment, can lead to the release of lead into the environment, particularly through soil and water contamination.
Industrial Waste and Landfills: Improper disposal of industrial waste containing lead, as well as inadequate management of landfills, can result in leaching of lead into soil and groundwater, posing risks to nearby communities.
Lead Pipes and Plumbing Fixtures: Lead pipes and plumbing fixtures, particularly in older homes and infrastructure, can leach lead into drinking water. Corrosion of these materials can increase lead levels in tap water, especially in areas with acidic water or inadequate water treatment.
Mining and Ore Processing: Mining activities, particularly for lead and other metals, can release lead-containing dust and particles into the air and water, contaminating soil and aquatic ecosystems.
Smoking: Tobacco smoke contains lead, and smoking in indoor environments can lead to the accumulation of lead dust on surfaces, contributing to indoor lead pollution.
Food and Water Contamination: Lead can enter the food chain through contaminated soil, water, and air. Certain food items, particularly those grown in lead-contaminated soil or water, may contain elevated levels of lead.
Hobbies and Crafts: Some hobbies and crafts involve the use of materials containing lead, such as stained glass making, pottery glazes, and ammunition reloading. Improper handling and disposal of these materials can lead to lead exposure.
Magnitude of the Issue
A 2020 report by UNICEF estimated that nearly 27 crore Indian children have unsafe blood lead levels (BLLs).
Unsafe concentration of lead in the body can deter their neuro-cognitive development, leading to decreased IQ, behavioural problems, lowered educational achievement and eventually lowered earning potential.
Challenges in Detection and Diagnosis
Lead poisoning is extremely difficult to diagnose given that it may be asymptomatic or manifest with unrelated symptoms like abdominal pain, constipation, and headaches.
Unfortunately, there is no cure for lead poisoning. By the time it is diagnosed, the adverse impacts it has had on the child’s brain and body are irreversible. Thus, the old adage, ‘Pollution Prevention Pays’ holds very true here.
Role of Testing and Surveillance
Routine screening emerges as a vital tool in safeguarding children from lead exposure.
Venous blood tests offer insights into lead levels, enabling timely interventions. While private diagnostic facilities offer individual testing, mass surveillance demands a cost-effective and efficient approach.
Utilizing Advanced Technology
ICPMS India boasts a robust medico-scientific infrastructure equipped with state-of-the-art analytical instruments, notably the ICPMS.
This advanced technology, available in academic institutions and research facilities nationwide, enables high-throughput lead testing with unparalleled accuracy and sensitivity.
Leveraging this resource can revolutionize lead poisoning surveillance, fostering a comprehensive database akin to global standards.
Government Initiatives and Collaborative Efforts:
The NITI Aayog's commissioning of CSIR-NEERI to corroborate UNICEF's findings underscores the government's commitment to addressing lead poisoning.
The establishment of the India Working Group on Lead Poisoning further signifies a concerted effort to combat this pervasive threat through research, advocacy, and policy interventions.
Harnessing Scientific Expertise for Action
Through collaborative endeavours and interdisciplinary cooperation, India possesses the capacity to combat lead poisoning effectively.
The convergence of technical expertise, research endeavours, and policy advocacy underscores the nation's resolve to safeguard the health and well-being of its populace.
The fight against lead poisoning demands a multi-pronged approach, encompassing detection, prevention, and advocacy. With concerted efforts, leveraging advanced technology, and harnessing scientific expertise, India can mitigate the scourge of lead poisoning and secure a healthier future for its children.
Context: A “La Nina watch” has been issued with some early signs pointing to the weather event that brings rains and floods to Asia, particularly India, forming in the Pacific Ocean later this year by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BoM).
El-Nino Southern Oscillation
East-West zonal circulation of tropical winds is an important variant from general atmospheric circulation.
This typical east-west circulation of tropical wind is called Walker Circulation named after a famous scientist G.T. Walker.
Walker circulation is convective cell of air circulation, which is formed due to development of pressure gradient from east to west in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
After two-three years this general condition of east-west pressure gradient is reversed. i.e. pressure gradient becomes west to east.
Walker called such oscillations as southern oscillations.
In normal conditions high pressure develops on the sea surface of the equatorial east Pacific Ocean and the western coastal lands of South America due to subsidence of air from above and upwelling of cold oceanic water.
The low pressure is formed in the equatorial western Pacific Ocean due to rise of air from the warm sea surface.
This pressure gradient from east to west generates east-west circulation of trade winds on the surface while there is reverse upper air circulation i.e. from west to east which completes a convective cell.
El Niño:
It is a climate pattern that describes the unusual warming of surface waters in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
El Niño is the “warm phase” of a larger phenomenon called the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). La Niña, the “cool phase” of ENSO, is a pattern that describes the unusual cooling of the region’s surface waters. El Niño and La Niña are considered the ocean part of ENSO, while the Southern Oscillation is its atmospheric changes.
During El Niño, the trade winds weaken or even reverse:
Instead of blowing from east (South America) to west (Indonesia), they could turn into westerlies.
As the winds blow from the west to east, they cause the masses of warm water to move into the central and eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean.
The rise in SSTs there, thus, produces increased rainfall along western Latin America, the Caribbean, and US Gulf Coast, while depriving Southeast Asia, Australia and India of convective currents.
El Niño occurs simultaneously with the Southern Oscillation. The Southern Oscillation is a change in air pressure over the tropical Pacific Ocean. When coastal waters become warmer in the eastern tropical Pacific (El Niño), the atmospheric pressure above the ocean decreases.
An El Niño event can be identified by the variations in sea surface temperature (SST) over the equatorial Central Pacific.
El Niño events are classified as weak, moderate, strong, and very strong depending on the strength of the positive SST variations.
An El Niño event is announced when monthly Nino 3.4 SST deviations reach +0.50 °C, along with consistent atmospheric features, and when these anomalies persist for three consecutive months.
La Niña:
La Niña basically refers to an abnormal cooling of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean waters off the coasts of Ecuador and Peru.
Such cooling (sea surface temperatures i.e. SSTs falling) is a result of strong trade winds blowing west along the equator, taking warm water from South America towards Asia.
The warming of the western equatorial Pacific, then, leads to increased evaporation and concentrated cloud-formation activity around that region, whose effects may spread to India as well.
Indian monsoon: Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)
IOD measures differences in sea surface temperatures between the western and eastern parts of the Indian Ocean. It is basically like the El Nino weather system that develops in the Pacific Ocean. It is characterized by an irregular oscillation of sea-surface temperatures in the eastern and western Indian Ocean
Impact on weather patterns: IOD alters the wind, temperature, and rainfall patterns in the Indian Ocean region.
Positive IOD event is known to bring floods to eastern Africa and droughts and bushfires to eastern Asia and Australia. Ex. 2020 Australian Bushfires.
Positive IOD is known to increase the intensity of Monsoon in the Subcontinent and leads to above normal rainfall. A simultaneous occurrence of Positive IOD and El Nino balances the negative impact of El Nino on the Indian Monsoon rainfall. Ex. above normal rainfall in India in 2019.
In contrast, Negative IOD coupled with El – Nino leads to poor Monsoon rainfall. Ex. Deficient rainfall in 1992.
Findings
La Nina Watch Issued: Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) issues a "La Nina watch" indicating potential formation of La Nina later in the year. La Nina brings rains and floods to Asia, especially India.
ENSO-Neutral Conditions: El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) remains neutral until at least July 2024. Positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) development has stalled.
Current Climate Patterns: ENSO-neutral conditions observed currently. Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the central Pacific have been cooling steadily since December 2023.Recent cloud and surface pressure patterns indicate ENSO-neutral conditions.
US Prediction: Transition from El Nino to ENSO-neutral likely in the upcoming month. La Nina may develop with 49% chance in June-August 2024 or 69% chance in July-September 2024, as per the US Climate Prediction Center (CPC).
Global Temperature Trends: Emergence of El Nino in June 2023 resulted in warmest global temperatures for the respective 11 months. Global sea surface temperatures (SSTs) have been recording warm for each month between April 2023 and April 2024.
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): IOD currently neutral; recent index value within historically neutral thresholds. Potential positive IOD development stalled; SST observations suggest recent development may have halted. Weaker positive IOD forecast compared to earlier predictions.
Monsoon Booster: Positive IOD can enhance India's southwest monsoon performance. Example: In 2019, a strong IOD event compensated for a 30% rainfall deficit in June.
Context - On Friday night, people from across the world were treated to a rare spectacle: vivid aurorae hanging like curtains of light in the sky. They appeared even in places where aurorae aren’t usually visible. For instance, people at the Indian Astronomical Observatory spotted an aurora over Hanle in Ladakh — far away from places near the poles.
What are Auroras?
Auroras are a natural light display in the sky, predominantly seen in the high-latitude regions (around the Arctic and Antarctic).
It is called aurora borealis or northern lights near the North Pole.
It is called aurora australis or southern lights near the South Pole.
What causes it?
Interaction of charged particles from the sun with the Earth’s atmosphere.
Apart from heat and light, the Sun also releases energetic charged particles. The protective magnetic field around Earth shields us from most of the energy and particles.
However, the Sun does not send the same amount of energy all the time. There is a constant streaming solar wind and there are also solar storms.
During one kind of solar storm called a coronal mass ejection, the Sun ejects a huge bubble of electrified gas that can travel through space at high speeds.
When a solar storm comes toward Earth, some of the energy and small particles can travel down the magnetic field lines at the north and south poles and enter into the Earth’s atmosphere.
There, the particles interact with gases in Earth’s atmosphere and result in beautiful displays of light in the sky.
Oxygen gives off green and red light.
Nitrogen glows blue and purple.
Why are Auroras found only at the Poles?
The reason that the Aurora can only be seen at the poles has to do with how the Earth's magnetic field acts.
The Earth has a metal core and acts much like a bar magnet with two poles and a magnetic field.
Charged particles from the Sun get sucked into the Earth's magnetic field and are then channelled toward the poles, where they are channelled toward a ring around each pole.
The charged particles are trapped in the loops of the magnetic field and are then carried toward the poles.
Context: The first recipient of a modified pig kidney transplant passed away recently around two months after the surgery was carried out.
About Xenotransplantation
In January 2022, the first xenotransplantation of a genetically modified pig heart was done. However, the patient passed away after two months due to a range of factors, including being tainted with a latent virus in the pig heart, which may have contributed to the dysfunction of the transplant.
Xenotransplantation is any procedure that involves the transplantation, implantation or infusion into a human recipient of either:
live cells, tissues, or organs from a nonhuman animal source
human body fluids, cells, tissues or organs that have had ex vivo contact with live nonhuman animal cells, tissues or organs.
Essentially, it is the use of animal cells and organs to heal humans.
Need: Cross-species transplantation offers the prospect of an unlimited supply of organs and cells for clinical transplantation and addresses the shortage of organs from human donors.
Source: Pigs are the most commonly considered animals due to their size compatibility and organ similarities with humans. Gene editing in pigs to reduce immune rejection has made organ transplants from pigs to humans possible. Natural lifespan of a pig is 30 years, they are easily bred and can have organs of similar size to humans.
Limitations: However, successful xenotransplantation faces challenges such as organ rejection, risk of cross-species infections and social acceptance.
Context: In a pre-election survey carried out by CSDS, 79% of people voted that India belongs to all religions. The belief in plurality and diversity of India is more pronounced in urban areas (84%) and higher among educated classes (83%).
About pluralism
Pluralism refers to the country's rich diversity in terms of cultures, religions, languages, and traditions coexisting within one nation. India is celebrated as a pluralistic society where various communities with different backgrounds and beliefs live together harmoniously.
Constitutional provisions with respect to pluralism:
Preamble: The Preamble of the Indian Constitution declares India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic. It further gives liberty of thought expression belief faith and worship to all; this reflects the respect towards the ideal of secularism and religious pluralism from the outset.
Article 25 - Freedom of Religion: Article 25 guarantees the freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practice, and propagate religion. This ensures that individuals have the right to follow any religion of their choice without discrimination.
Article 26 - Freedom to Manage Religious Affairs: Article 26 grants every religious denomination or section thereof the right to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes, manage its own affairs in matters of religion, and own and acquire movable and immovable property.
Article 27 - Freedom from Taxation for Religious Purposes: Article 27 ensures that no person can be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious institution.
Article 28 - Freedom from Religious Instruction in Educational Institutions: Article 28 provides that no religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution wholly maintained by state funds. However, it allows educational institutions established by religious minorities to impart religious instruction to students of that religion.
Article 29 - Protection of Interests of Minorities: Article 29 protects the interests of minorities by granting them the right to conserve their distinct language, script, or culture. This ensures the preservation of religious and cultural diversity in India.
Article 30 - Right of Minorities to Establish and Administer Educational Institutions: Article 30 provides religious and linguistic minorities with the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. This protects their autonomy in educational matters and allows them to impart education in accordance with their religious and cultural beliefs.
Aspects of pluralism in India:
Cultural Diversity: India is home to multiple cultures, each with its own distinct traditions, art forms, cuisines, and languages. Cultural diversity can be seen in festivals of Holi, Diwali, Eid, and Christmas to the varied cuisines of different regions, Indian culture reflects a variety of influences.
Cultural pluralism ensures a state in which minority groups maintain their own cultural identities while participating actively in all aspects of the dominant society.
In a culturally pluralistic society, different groups are tolerant and can coexist without major conflict, but minorities are encouraged to maintain their ancestral customs.
Racial diversity: 1931 census classified India’s racial diversity in the following groups- The Negrito, The Proto-Australoid, The Mongoloid, The Mediterranean, The Western Brachycephals and the Nordic. Representatives of all the three major races of the world, namely Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid, are found in the country.
Religious Pluralism: India is birthplace to several major religions like Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism, among others. People of various faiths coexist peacefully, and religious tolerance is a fundamental value enshrined in the Indian Constitution.
Linguistic Diversity: India has over 1,600 languages and dialects, which make it one of the most linguistically diverse countries in the world. Linguistic diversity of india has been given constitutional protection under Article 343-351 and Eighth schedule of Indian Constitution.
Political Pluralism: India is a federal parliamentary democratic republic, where power is shared between the central government and individual states. Our democratic system allows for diverse political ideologies and parties to participate in elections and governance, enhancing our country's pluralistic ethos.
Social Pluralism: Indian society comprises various social groups based on factors such as caste, ethnicity, and economic status. Despite historical challenges like the caste system, efforts towards social equality and inclusivity have been undertaken (Article 17, Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955, SCs and STs Prevention of atrocities act 1989), which are aimed at creating a more equitable society.
Artistic and Intellectual Pluralism: India has a rich tradition of art, architecture, literature, music, and philosophy, with contributions from diverse cultural backgrounds. This plurality is reflected in classical dance forms, literary traditions, philosophical schools of thought etc.
Regional diversity: India has regions such as snowcapped mountains of Himalayas, to deserts of Rajasthan to Evergreen forests of Northeast India to the great plains of Northern India to the coastal plains of south India, all this contributes to distinct subcultures and diversity of India.
Challenges to plurality and diversity of India:
Globalization: Globalization has been held responsible for creation of a monoculture which has led to the erosion of social identity. Globalization leads to homogenization of culture, where people consume the same cultural products regardless of their location. This has led to a loss of cultural diversity and a weakening of local cultural identities.
Exclusionary Nationalism: Exclusionary nationalism is a product of interwar period in Europe, but its impact can be seen in 21st century as well, Exclusionary nationalist believe that country belongs to one community or religion which is antithetical to the idea of diversity.
Regionalism: Regionalism highlight interests of a particular region/regions over national interests. It can also adversely impact national integration. Overall law and order situation is hampered due to regional demands and socio-political agitations.
Communal and divisive politics: At the time of elections, ascriptive identities such as caste, religion etc. are evoked by politicians to garner votes. This type of divisive politics results in violence, feeling of mistrust and suspicion among minorities.
Development deficit: Uneven pattern of socio-economic development, inadequate economic policies and consequent economic disparities can lead to backwardness of a region. Consequently, this can result in violence, migration and demands of separatism. For instance, economic backwardness was one of the reasons for the demand of Uttarakhand as a separate State.
Nativism: It leads to clashes between different ethnic groups due to factors such as job competition, limited resources, threat to identity etc. E.g. frequent clashes between Bodos and Bengali speaking Muslims in Assam.
Son of soil theory: This doctrine is exclusionary in nature. It ties people to their place of birth and confers some benefits, rights, roles, and responsibilities on them, which may not apply to others. (Discrimination against migrants from Bihar in Maharashtra)
Inter-religious conflicts: They hamper relations between communities by spreading fear and mistrust. They also destroy secular fabric of the country. (Muzaffarnagar riots.) It can be divided into following sub forms-
Communal violence: Communal violence is a major issue in India, with incidents of violence occurring between different religious communities.
Religious conversion: Religious conversion is controversial in India, with some religious communities accusing others of forcibly converting people to their religion. The issue of religious conversion has led to tensions and conflicts in parts of the country.
Religious extremism: Extremist groups advocate violence and promote hatred towards other religious communities for vested interests.
External factors: Terrorism and armed militancy in Kashmir region and Northeast region are responsible for destroying the interfaith and ethnic harmony in the regions.
Despite the challenges, there is no denying its essential role in sustaining and evolving Indian society. The real issue lies in how diversity is managed. Problems like regionalism, communalism, and ethnic conflicts arise when development benefits are unevenly distributed, and certain cultural groups are not given proper recognition. Therefore, addressing these disparities through equitable development and fostering cultural understanding is vital to mitigating such challenges and building a more inclusive and harmonious society.
Context: Despite robust economic expansion, the employment ratio of India has fallen more than other south Asian nations. This has re initiated the debate around the phenomenon of jobless growth in India.
Associated concepts:
Employment rate: It is a macroeconomic statistic that measures the civilian labor force currently employed against the total working-age population of a country. Present employment rate of India is 37 percent.
Jobless growth: Jobless growth refers to a situation in which an economy experiences economic growth (typically measured by GDP or other economic indicators), but this growth does not lead to a proportional increase in employment opportunities or a decrease in unemployment rates.
Reasons for jobless growth in India:
Mismatched Skill Sets: There exists a gap between the skills demanded by the industries and those possessed by the workforce. The education system often fails to equip students with the necessary skills for the job market, leading to unemployment or underemployment.
A study by the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) found that a significant percentage of graduates in India were unemployed or underemployed due to a lack of relevant skills.
Labor Market Rigidities: India's labor laws are often criticized for being rigid and complex, making it difficult for businesses to hire and fire workers. This discourages formal job creation and incentivizes informal employment.
The World Bank's Ease of Doing Business report consistently ranks India low in terms of ease of hiring and firing workers due to stringent labor laws.
Informal Sector Dominance: A significant portion of India's workforce is employed in the informal sector, which often lacks job security, social protection, and decent wages. Economic growth may not translate into formal job creation, leading to jobless growth.
According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), the informal sector in India accounts for a significant portion of employment, particularly in sectors such as agriculture, construction, and small-scale industries. Despite economic growth, many workers remain trapped in low-productivity, informal jobs with little job security or social protection.
Technological Disruption: Automation and technological advancements have the potential to replace labor-intensive jobs, particularly in sectors such as manufacturing and agriculture, without creating equivalent new job opportunities.
There are case studies of decline of jobs due to the impact of Industrial Revolution 4.0, AI, ML, Robotics and 3-D printing etc. There are also examples of job losses among urban women due to violence, travel time etc. and rural women due to mechanization of agriculture.
Slow Pace of Industrialization: India's industrial sector has not grown at the pace required to absorb the burgeoning workforce. This has resulted in a significant portion of the population being employed in low-productivity sectors such as agriculture.
Population Growth: India has a large and growing population, which puts pressure on the job market. Despite economic growth, the pace of job creation may not keep up with the expansion of the labor force.
Infrastructure Bottlenecks: Inadequate infrastructure, such as transportation, power, and logistics, can hamper the growth of industries and limit job creation opportunities.
Manufacturing sector in India faces challenges related to inadequate infrastructure, such as power shortages, poor transportation networks, and inefficient logistics.
Policy Challenges: Inconsistent or ineffective government policies, including regulatory hurdles, bureaucratic red tape, and lack of investment in key sectors, can hinder job creation and economic growth.
The implementation of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India faced initial challenges, including compliance issues and administrative complexities. These challenges affected businesses, particularly small and medium enterprises (SMEs), leading to disruptions in supply chains and impacting job creation in the informal sector.
Unemployment rate rising with education levels: With rising education levels, the aspirations of the youth are rising, they are not satisfied with the indecent and low-quality jobs and seek better quality jobs.
As per an IIM Lucknow study, the unemployment rate for the illiterate and less educated class (below primary) was 0.57% and 1.13% respectively while, for the highly educated class (graduates and above), it was 14.73% in 2020–21 for the age group ‘15–29 years.
Suggestions and way forward:
Gender-related laws: Legislation promoting gender equality in workplaces, pay, and marriage increases women's labor supply and mobility, based on studies (Braunmiller et al. 2023a, 2023b; Roy 2019), often measured using World Bank's Women, Business, and the Law indices (Hyland, Djankov, and Goldberg 2020).
Efficient land markets: Policies improving land tenure security, documenting land rights, and transparently resolving land disputes enhance efficiency (World Bank 2007). Success depends on local conditions, implementation quality, and community involvement (Deininger 2003).
Openness to international trade: Streamlining border procedures, reducing trade barriers, improving logistics, and attracting foreign direct investment can boost trade openness (Ohnsorge and Quaglietti 2023; World Bank 2023b).
Competitive product markets: Simplifying labor and tax regulations, removing subsidies for state-owned firms, and promoting private sector dynamism enhance competition (World Bank 2020).
Infrastructure investment: Investing in infrastructure boosts employment by reducing travel costs and times, facilitating market access, and enhancing productivity (Lakshmanan 2007, 2011).
Improved human capital: Enhanced skills enable easier employment transitions, especially from agriculture to non-agriculture sectors.
Female labor force participation and exports: Export-oriented sectors, driven by open trade policies, tend to promote gender equality and attract women into the workforce (Hoyos, Bussolo, and Núñez 2012). Examples include Bangladesh's garment sector and India's business processing and outsourcing industry (Jensen 2012). Similar trends are observed in Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey (Klasen 2019).
India’s economic growth is promising, but job creation remains significant challenges. Addressing these issues requires a focus on mass education, industry specific skill development, conditions for labor-intensive manufacturing along with creating a safer environment for women in the workforce.
Context: Bio-energy projects set up by the Uttarakhand Renewable Energy Development Agency (UREDA), to use the vast quantities of flammable pine needles for generating electricity have been “unsuccessful”, with officials saying appropriate technology does not yet exist to use them.
Pine Resources of Uttarakhand
Out of total forest cover of Uttarakhand, about 16.36% (i.e. 399329 hectares) is covered by chir pine.
As per the estimates, over 15 lakh tones of pine are annually generated.
Pine as flammable resource
Pine trees have a high resin content.
Resin is a sticky substance found within the tree, and it can be very flammable, especially when heated.
The presence of resin makes pine trees more likely to catch fire and burn quickly.
Reasons for Unsuccess:
Challenges in resource collection: Pine Forest are at steep slope, threat of attack from wild animals and unavailability of labor at remunerative rate.
Forest fires: Annual Forest fires becoming more severe, partly because of climate change accentuated dry spells and rising stores of organic biomass.
As per the experience of forest officials, 90% of the forest fires is manmade.
Context: Political competition often mirrors the principles of oligopolistic competition in economics, yet this intriguing connection often goes overlooked by pundits and analysts. Oligopoly is an important concept in economy. Oligopoly is a market structure dominated by a small number of large firms, each possessing significant market power.
Oligopolies are of great concern worldwide as they come with higher barriers to entry for new participants. This means that it can be difficult to enter the market because of the high costs associated with doing business, the regulatory environment, and the problems that arise when it comes to accessing supply and distribution channels.
In this context we are going to understand
Sources of Oligopolistic Power
Potential Outcomes of Oligopolies
Indian institution to control Oligopolies.
Sources of Oligopolistic Power:
The sources of this power and the potential outcomes associated with oligopolistic markets play a crucial role in understanding their dynamics.
Economies of Scale: Oligopolistic firms benefit from economies of scale, allowing them to reduce average costs per unit as production levels increase. This cost advantage acts as a barrier to entry for smaller firms trying to compete in the market.
Collusion and Price Setting: Oligopolies may collude to collectively set prices, enabling them to maintain higher prices and avoid intense price competition that could arise in a more competitive market environment.
Barriers to Entry: High barriers to entry, such as significant capital requirements, regulatory hurdles, and strong brand loyalty, prevent new entrants from challenging established oligopolies. This lack of competition strengthens the market power of existing firms.
Non-Price Competition: Oligopolistic firms often engage in non-price competition, such as advertising, product differentiation, and customer service enhancements. These strategies help solidify market positions and reinforce barriers to entry.
Information Advantage: Oligopolies possess detailed information about their costs and demand functions, allowing them to make strategic decisions. Information asymmetry among competitors can also provide certain firms with a competitive edge.
Potential Outcomes of Oligopolies:
Formation of Cartels: Firms in oligopolistic markets may form cartels to restrict production, inflate prices, and maximize profits. Cartels often engage in anti-competitive behavior and are subject to legal scrutiny and regulation.
Efficiency vs. Competition: Oligopolies can drive efficiency through innovation, economies of scale, and productivity gains. However, excessive market power can reduce competition and hinder innovation.
Price Wars: Competition among oligopolistic firms can escalate into price wars, where firms aggressively lower prices to gain market share. While consumers may benefit from lower prices in the short term, this can lead to reduced profitability and industry consolidation in the long run.
Market Concentration and Inequality: Oligopolies concentrate market power among a few large firms, leading to income inequality and reduced consumer choice. This concentration can impact market dynamics and economic diversity.
Regulatory Challenges: Regulating oligopolies presents challenges for competition authorities. Ensuring fair competition, preventing collusion, and protecting consumer interests require robust enforcement of antitrust laws and regulations.
The Competition Commission of India (CCI) was established in March 2009 by Government of India under the Competition Act, 2002 for the administration, implementation, and enforcement of the Act.
The Competition Commission of India (CCI) is the chief national competition regulator in India. It is a statutory body within the Ministry of Corporate Affairs and is responsible for enforcing the Competition Act, 2002 to promote competition and prevent activities that have an appreciable adverse effect on competition in India. The CCI looks into cases and investigates them if the same has a negative impact on competition.
Eliminate practices having adverse effect on competition
Context: The villagers around the Deocha Pachami proposed coal mining project got an interesting handbill from the Trinamool Congress leadership. The handbill with photograph of Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee says that after the victory in Lok Sabha polls, the Trinamool Congress will ensure a pakka house for the people.
AboutDeocha Pachami coal mine project
Location - Mohamadbazar Community Development Block of Birbhum district, West Bengal, India.
It is considered to be the largest coal block in the country
Estimated reserves - around 1,198 million tonnes of coal and 1,400 million cubic metres of basalt
Geographical area – It spreads over an area of 12.31 sq. km, which is around 3,400 acres.
Affected Population - There are around 12 villages in the project area with a population of over 21,000, comprising Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Challenges pertaining to Coal Block
Residents V/S Government
Project is facing protests over land acquisition and process involved. About 43% population in the area which falls under the proposed coal mine is inhabited by tribals. Activists insists that under the Forest Right Act,2006 there should be gram sabhas in tribal dominated areas that can only give consent for land acquisition. They allege that the due process has not been followed.
In 2022, the State government announced a revised relief & rehabilitation (R&R) package for those willing to give up land where a person having land in the area will get double its market value along with 100% solatium as land cost ( i.e. around ₹13 lakhs per bigha).
The State government added that one member of every family will be provided job as junior police constable.
Health Issues
Illegal stone quarrying and crushing is being practiced at rampant pace. Doctors in the nearby medical facilities have confirmed the reporting of cases of silicosis in the area.
Experts believe that these cases are under-reported due to pressure from owners of quarries and crushers.
SILICOSIS
Silicosis is a long-term lung disease caused by inhaling large amounts of crystalline silica dust, usually over many years.
Silica is a substance naturally found in certain types of stone, rock, sand and clay. Working with these materials can create a very fine dust that can be easily inhaled.
Once inside the lungs, it causes swelling (inflammation) and gradually leads to areas of hardened and scarred lung tissue (fibrosis). Lung tissue that's scarred in this way doesn't function properly and it becomes a life-threatening disease.
