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Unlawful Activities Prevention Act

Context: On January 7, Delhi Police opposed the bail pleas of activists Umar Khalid, Sharjeel Imam and others, who are accused in the 2020 north-east Delhi riots case. These activists have been jailed under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), 1967.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Unlawful Activities Prevention Act. 

Mains: Significance of UAPA. Challenges Posed by the UAPA Act, 2019.

Background:

  • UAPA was first introduced, during the British era, in the form of the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1908, aimed at curbing dissent against the Crown.
  • Post-independence, it remained in place, and in 1967, after wars with Pakistan and China, it was expanded to grant extensive powers for identifying unlawful associations and penalizing those involved in activities supporting India’s secession.
  • Amendments in 2004 introduced a chapter on ‘terrorist activities,’ while post the 2008 Bombay attacks, further amendments allowed for prolonged detention based on personal information, restricted anticipatory bail, and permitted the categorization of individuals as ‘terrorists’ in the 2019 amendment. 
  • Over the years, UAPA which was originally designed to combat terrorism with a focus on national security, has evolved over the years into a tool criticized for suppressing dissent. It faces criticism for its vague definitions and the extensive discretionary powers it grants to the government in designating individuals as terrorists.

About The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967:

  • Act defines “Unlawful activity” as “any action taken by individual or association that leads to cession of a part of the territory of India, questions the sovereignty of India or disrupt the integrity of India etc.
  • Terrorist act: Section 15 of UAPA defines terrorist act as any act with intent to threaten or likely to threaten the unity, integrity, security, economic security, or sovereignty of India or with intent to strike terror or likely to strike terror in the people or any section of the people in India or in any foreign country.
  • Powers with the government: Under the Act, Central government can declare a person or an organization as a terrorist/ terrorist organisation, if it/ he:
    • commits or participates in acts of terrorism, prepares for terrorism, promotes terrorism, or is otherwise involved in terrorism.
    • Government can impose all-India bans on associations which are declared ‘unlawful’ under the Act.
    • Both Indian nationals and foreign nationals can be charged under the Act.
    • Act holds offenders accountable in the same manner if crime is committed on foreign land outside India.
    • It provides for the death penalty and life imprisonment as the highest punishments for terrorist acts.
    • It allows for the detention of suspects without charge or trial for up to 180 days, and for the denial of bail to the accused unless the court is satisfied that they are not guilty.
  • Investigating powers: Cases can be investigated by both State police and National Investigation Agency (NIA).
  • Appeal mechanism: It provides for tribunal to review or to hear an appeal against the ban.

Significance of UAPA in present time for India:

  • Uproot terrorism from India: Terrorists and insurgents continue to receive material support and funds, UAPA provides law enforcement agencies with enhanced powers to prevent and investigate terrorist activities. It allows for the designation of individuals and organizations as terrorist entities, enabling authorities to take proactive measures to disrupt their operations and networks.
  • Focus on individuals: Not designating individuals as terrorists, would give them an opportunity to circumvent the law and they would simply gather under a different name and keep up their terror activities.
    • This is also important in the context of lone wolf attacks, which do not belong to any organisation.
  • Quickens process of justice delivery by empowering officers in the rank of Inspector to investigate cases and investigation has to be completed within 90 days.
  • Reduces delay in attaching proceeds: Act allows seizure of property connected with terrorism without taking approval of Director General of Police in case investigation is conducted by an officer of National Investigation Agency (NIA).
  • Preventing Radicalization: Act includes provisions for preventing radicalization and promoting deradicalization initiatives by targeting individuals and organizations involved in promoting extremist ideologies.

Challenges Posed by the UAPA Act, 2019:

  • Erosion of Fundamental Rights, including Article 14, 19(1)(a), 21: The Act denies individuals labeled as terrorists the opportunity to present their case before arrest, allowing detention for up to 180 days without a formal charge sheet, thus significantly infringing upon their fundamental rights.
  • UAPA being used against journalists: In recent times, there is a trend of UAPA being slapped against journalist which is contrary to the fundamental rights enjoyed by press in India (NewsClick case)
  • Contrary to the Principle of ‘Innocent Until Proven Guilty’: The Act contradicts universally recognized principles by not upholding the right to be considered innocent until proven guilty, which is a fundamental tenet of justice.
  • Excessive Discretionary Authority: There is a lack of objective criteria for classifying individuals as terrorists grants the government almost unchecked authority to designate anyone as a terrorist, posing a significant risk of misuse of power.
  • Ambiguous and Unclear Definitions: Vagueness in definitions of terms like “terrorism” and its broad definition of ‘unlawful activity’ create confusion and leave room for differing interpretations, impacting the Act’s effectiveness and fairness.
  • Concerns in the Appeals Process: While the Act provides for appeals, the establishment of a government-appointed three-member review committee, including serving bureaucrats, raises concerns about the independence and fairness of the appeals process.
  • Rise in number of cases: There has been a drastic rise in UAPA cases in recent years. As per a report of the National Crime Bureau Records, 814 UAPA cases were filed in 2021, while 1,005 cases under the UAPA were filed in 2022.
  • Low Conviction Rates: Less than 3% of cases registered under the UAPA Act between 2016 and 2020 (PUCL report) resulted in convictions underscores significant challenges in effectively prosecuting cases under the Act, although this is less immediate but still a notable issue.
  • Criticism of government being considered as terrorist act: Over the period, the critics of government and its policies are also being prosecuted under UAPA. (Peerzada Shah Fahad v. Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir & Anr. (2023))

Recent cases and opinion of judiciary on UAPA:

  • Arup Bhuyan vs State of Assam (2011):  Supreme Court held that mere membership of a banned organisation will not incriminate a person. It can be done if a person resorts to violence or incites people to violence or does an act intended to create disorder.
  • K.A. Najeeb v. Union of India (2021): The Supreme Court concluded in Union of India v. K A Najeeb (2021) that, despite the UAPA’s restrictions on bail, constitutional courts can nevertheless grant bail if the accused’s fundamental rights have been violated.
  • Asif Iqbal Tanha v. Union of India: The Delhi High Court carried this logic a step further in Asif Iqbal Tanha v. State of NCT (2021), saying that courts should not wait until the accused’s right to a speedy trial has been completely revoked before releasing them. 

Conclusion:

Terrorism is an important security issue in contemporary times, but laws need to be balanced with the fundamental rights and spirit of the constitution. There should be checks and balances in the system and UAPA should not be used in haste against mere criticism of government and issues arising out of socio-economic unrest in the country.

ISRO’s Satellite Launch Vehicles

Context: The Central Government has appointed Dr V Narayanan as the new chairperson of the Indian Space Research Organisation (SRO), and also as the secretary of the Department of Space. He has played a key role in the development of the indigenous cryogenic engine technology. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV); Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV); Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3); Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV); Cryogenic Engine (CE-20). 

About Dr V Narayanan

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  • He has worked in the Solid Propulsion area of Sounding Rockets and Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) and Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) at Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC).
  • He has played a key role in India's development of the cryogenic engine, a technology that was denied to the country by Russia following pressure from the US. 
  • Prior to his elevation as the chairman of ISRO, he was serving as the head of the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) in Kerala since 2018. 
  • He is the Chairman of the National Level Human Rated Certification Board (HRCB) for Gaganyaan, India's planned human spaceflight mission.

Satellite Launch Vehicles of ISRO

1. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV): 

  • PSLV is an expendable launch vehicle developed and operated by ISRO since its first successful launch in 1994. 
  • ​​Workhorse of ISRO known for its reliability, versatility, and cost-effectiveness since 1994.
  • Stages: Four-stages launch vehicle
    • First stage is powered by a solid rocket motor (strap-on motors to provide additional thrust to the rocket to overcome air resistance).
    • Second stage uses a liquid propulsion system (Vikas Engine)
    • Third stage is a solid rocket motor 
    • Fourth stage is a liquid-fueled engine 
  • PSLV can deliver payloads of up to:
    • 3250 kg to Low Earth Orbit 
    • 1600 kg to Sun Synchronous Orbit 
    • 1400 kg to Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit 
  • Successful launches: Chandrayaan-1 Mission (2008), Mars Orbiter Mission/Mangalyaan (2013), 104 satellites at one go (2017). 
  • It has been used for launching a wide range of payloads, including Earth observation satellites, navigation satellites, communication satellites, and scientific payloads for various domestic and international customers. 
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2. Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV):

  • Stages: Three-stage launch vehicle
    • First Stage: Uses four strap-on solid boost motors (HS200).
    • Second Stage: Liquid core stage (L110) powered by two Vikas liquid engines. 
    • Third Stage: Cryogenic Upper Stage with cryogenic engine using liquid Hydrogen and liquid Oxygen for high specific impulse and efficiency.
  • GSLV can carry more than 2,200 kg to geostationary orbits, and over 6,000 kg to LEO. Ideal for large communication satellites.
  • Issues: GSLV has a patchy track record, has flown 16 times of which 4 are unsuccessful (high failure rate for any rocket). The problems have mainly been with the cryogenic engine used by GSLV that is reverse-engineered on a Russian design. 

3. Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3):  

  • LVM3 (previously referred to as Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III, GSLV Mk III) is a three-stage medium-lift launch vehicle developed by ISRO.
  • Stages: Three-stage launch vehicle
    • First stage: Solid fuel S200 stage.
    • Second stage: Liquid fuel L110 stage. (Vikas Engine)
    • Third stage: Cryogenic fuel C25 stage (uses 25 tonnes of a mixture of liquid Hydrogen and Liquid oxygen). This upper stage (CE-20 cryogenic engine) is developed entirely in India. 
  • Payload capacity (one of the most powerful rockets in ISRO's fleet):
    • 4,000 kilograms to geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO).
    • 10,000 kilograms to low Earth orbit (LEO). 
  • Primarily designed to launch communication satellites into geostationary orbit. 
  • Successful launches: Chandrayaan-2, Chandrayaan-3. Human-rated LVM-3 is due to launch crewed missions under Gaganyaan Mission. 
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4. Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV):

  • New small satellite launch vehicle developed by ISRO to launch small satellites to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) on ‘launch-on-demand’ basis. 
  • Three-stage Launch Vehicle configured with three Solid Propulsion Stages and liquid propulsion based Velocity Trimming Module (VTM) as a terminal stage.
  • Can launch Mini, Micro, or Nanosatellites (10 to 500 kg mass) up to 500 km in LEO.
  • Capable of multiple orbital drop-offs i.e., launch multiple microsatellites in one launch. 
  • SSLVs will cost 1/10th of a PSLV and will need only 72 hours for launch in comparison to 45 days for PSLV. 

ISRO’s Cryogenic Engine (CE-20)

  • ISRO has used three cryogenic engines over the years: KVD-1, CE-7.5, and CE-20.
    • KVD-1 was supplied to India in the 1980s by Russia (the Soviet Union).
    • CE-7.5, and CE-20 are India-made, although the design of the CE-7.5 is based on the KVD-1.
    • The GSLV Mk II launch vehicle uses CE-7.5 engines to power the third stage of its ascent.
  • CE-20 is an indigenous cryogenic engine ISRO developed to use with the GSLV Mk III (LVM3 launch vehicle). It represents an improvement on the CE-7.5 cryogenic engine.
  • Fuel: Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen as propellants stored at extremely low temperatures (around -253°C for hydrogen and -183°C for oxygen).
  • Advantages:
    • Cryogenic propellants have a high energy density, high fuel efficiency and high specific impulse (more thrust per kilogram of propellant). This allows rockets to carry less fuel, reduces their overall weight and can carry heavier payloads or travel further. 
    • Cryogenic engines are throttleable (ability to vary/adjust their thrust levels during flight). This capability is essential for precise control during ascent, orbit insertion, manoeuvring, and controlled re-entry of a rocket.
  • Challenges: 
    • They require complex and expensive infrastructure to store and handle extremely cold propellants. E.g., Hydrogen in liquid form needs to be maintained at -253 degrees C (and the liquid oxygen at -184 degrees C) and leaks very easily.
    • The initial development process of cryogenic engines and maintenance is expensive.
  • Note: ISRO accomplished the human rating of its cryogenic engine (CE-20), which will power the cryogenic stage of the human-rated LVM3 launcher for India’s first human space flight mission (Gaganyaan). 

BHARATPOL Portal

Context: The Union Home Minister has recently inaugurated the BHARATPOL portal which aims to provide police and security agencies in India with a seamless connection to INTERPOL, the international police organisation.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about BHARATPOL. 

About BHARATPOL

  • BHARATPOL is a digital platform developed by the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI).
  • It integrates CBI (Nodal agency of INTERPOL in India) with State law enforcement agencies and the Centre for sharing information on fugitives and processing requests for INTERPOL notices to enhance international law enforcement cooperation, especially in dealing with transnational crimes. 
  • Primary purpose: To facilitate faster and paperless processing of INTERPOL notices, extradition requests, and other forms of international legal assistance.
    • Previously, Indian police had to rely on manual methods and letters to coordinate with INTERPOL and foreign agencies, leading to delays in cases related to fugitives and transnational crimes. 
    • Bharatpol eliminates these inefficiencies by offering a centralised and real-time digital platform.
image 76

Core Objective

  • Provide a Broadcast Hub for Assistance and Real-Time Action against Transnational Crimes by improving collaboration between Indian law enforcement agencies and their foreign counterparts. 
  • It integrates with INTERPOL and foreign law enforcement agencies to streamline the handling of fugitives, international investigations, and legal requests.

Components of BHARATPOL system

  • Paperless system: All INTERPOL-related processes, including notices and extradition requests, are handled digitally to reduce time delays.
  • Real-Time communication: It ensures rapid transmission of alerts, requests, and notices between Indian and international authorities.
  • Comprehensive support: BHARATPOL provides access to documents, guidelines, templates, and training resources to assist officers in drafting legal requests and conducting international investigations.

Key Features of BHARATPOL

  • Real-Time Information Sharing: BHARATPOL facilitates quicker and more efficient sharing of information among law enforcement agencies both domestically and internationally.
  • Centralised Platform: It serves as a unified platform for processing international requests related to criminal investigations, including the issuance of Red Notices and other INTERPOL notices.
  • Enhanced Collaboration: It improves collaboration between Central, State, and Union Territory Law enforcement agencies, allowing seamless communication among various police bodies.
  • Streamlined Communication: BHARATPOL replaces outdated communication methods (like letters and faxes) with digital solutions, ensuring faster exchanges between the CBI and INTERPOL liaison officers.
  • Capacity Building: The portal provides resources for training field-level officers, improving their skills in handling international investigations.

Significance for India

  • Enhances India's ability to handle transnational crimes efficiently.
  • Improves the extradition process and legal proceedings by reducing delays caused by bureaucratic hurdles.
  • Strengthens India's global cooperation in law enforcement agencies, Interpol and other international bodies.

Rupee Depreciation can be Slowed

Context: The exchange rate has changed from less than ₹4 a dollar in 1947 to more than ₹85/dollar in 2025. Given the higher inflation target in India than in the US, we need to accept depreciation of the rupee. However, we can, going forward, slow down the rate of depreciation. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Relationship b/w exchange rate, inflation and exports, Rupee Depreciation- Causes. 

What is Currency Depreciation?

  • Currency depreciation is a fall in the value of a currency in a floating exchange rate system.
    • It means that the rupee is now weaker than what it used to be earlier.
  • Rupee depreciation means that the rupee has become less valuable with respect to the dollar.
    • For instance, $1 used to equal Rs. 4 in 1947, now $1 is equal to Rs. 85.
    • This implies that the rupee has depreciated relative to the dollar i.e., it takes more rupees to purchase a dollar.
image 75

Causes of Rupee Depreciation:

  • High Inflation Target: Currently, RBI has an inflation target of 4 per cent.
    • Persistent inflation weakens the value of rupee, causing its depreciation and decreasing its purchasing power.
  • Food Price Inflation: RBI has found it difficult to meet the accepted inflation target rate, mostly due to a big rise in food prices.
  • Competitiveness in Exports: A decline in India's competitiveness in production and exports weakens the rupee.
    • Factors such as high production costs, regulatory hurdles, and inadequate infrastructure contribute to reduced export performance.

How to control Rupee Depreciation?

  • Reducing inflation target: Shift from 4 per cent inflation target to 3 per cent target next year when inflation targeting will be up for a review.
    • A reduced inflation target is also desirable for the less well-off. So, there is a need to amend the mandate under inflation targeting.
    • This shift requires coordinated efforts by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), the Ministry of Finance (MoF), and Parliament.
  • Controlling Money Supply: RBI must regulate the issuance of money to control inflation in the long term.
    • While this may reduce the RBI's dividend to the Ministry of Finance, alternative revenue sources or expenditure cuts can compensate for the shortfall.
  • Reducing Food Price Inflation:
    • Framing a policy of more free trade in food.
    • A calibrated policy of procurement, reserves, timely distribution, and a countercyclical tax-subsidy scheme can also help.
    • This necessitates collaboration among the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, and MoF.
  • Enhancing Export Competitiveness:
    • Improving the competitiveness of Indian goods in foreign markets through steps like simplifying regulatory frameworks, removing entry barriers, etc.
    • Facilitating Ease of Doing Business.
  • Role of RBI:
    • RBI should intervene in the currency market, but do so only when it is absolutely necessary. 
    • It is also consistent with flexible inflation targeting.

In conclusion, at least for now it is advisable to accept the long-term fall in the value of the rupee vis-a-vis the dollar but we can move to a slower rate of depreciation. This requires some serious work by the central bank and other public authorities but it is doable.

India’s GDP growth projected to fall to a 4-year low: NSO

Context: The First Advance Estimates of the National Statistics Office (NSO) for FY 2024-25 show a fall in projected GDP growth to a 4-year low pace of 6.4%. This calls for a reality check for India’s economic growth trajectory. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: GDP Growth- Trends, Components, Factors affecting GDP Growth rate. 

What is an Advance Estimate?

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  • Advance Estimates are essentially a forecast of what the government expects India’s economic output to be at the end of the financial year in March.
  • These estimates are made by extrapolating available data and past trends.

Data from NSO’s First Advance Estimates of GDP 2024-25:

  • Real GDP: expected to reach Rs. 184.88 lakh crores in FY 2024-25.
    • Provisional estimate of GDP for FY 2023-24 was Rs. 173.82 lakh crore.
  • Real GDP growth: expected to rise at a 4-year low pace of 6.4%.
    • For 2023-24, it was at 8.2%.
  • Real Gross Value Added (GVA): expected to rise by 6.4%.
    • For 2023-24, it increased by 7.2%.
  • Among 8 economic sectors, only 2 registered higher growth than last year:
    • Agriculture: expected to rise 3.8% from 1.4% last year.
    • Public Administration, Defence and Other Services: increased 9.1% from 7.8% in 2023-24.
  • Construction GCA Growth: pegged at 8.6% from 9.9% last year.
  • Manufacturing GVA Growth: expected to nearly halve from 9.9% in 2023-24 to 5.3% this year. 
  • GVA in Mining & Quarrying: expected to rise just 2.9% from 7.1% last year.
  • Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF): expected to grow at a pace of just 6.4% compared to 9% rise in 2023-24. 
  • Private Final Consumption Expenditure: expected to expand 7.3% from 4% in 2023-24.
  • Government Final Consumption Expenditure: seen rising 4.1% from 2.5% last year. 
image 72

How is GDP Calculated in India?

  • GDP is calculated by adding up all the money spent in the economy. 
  • There are 4 engines of GDP Growth:
    • Private Final Consumption Expenditure
    • Government Final Consumption Expenditure
    • Gross Fixed Capital Formation
    • Net Exports. 
image 73
  • Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE):
    • It is calculated as the total spending by individuals.
    • It accounts for almost 60% of India’s GDP. 
  • Government Final Consumption Expenditure (GFCE):
    • Spending by governments to meet daily expenditures such as salaries, etc.
    • Accounts for 10% of GDP.
  • Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF):
    • Spending towards boosting the productive capacity of the economy.
    • Includes investments by the government to build roads, companies building factories or buying office equipment, etc.
    • Accounts for around 30% of GDP.
  • Net Exports:
    • Resultant of Indians spending on imports and foreigners spending on Indian exports.
    • Since Indian exports < Indian imports, net exports for India are negative. 
image 74

Factors holding back GDP Growth in India

  • Low growth rate of Private Spending:
    • What Indians spend in their personal capacity is the most vital determinant of GDP growth.
    • If this growth rate is low, it drags down the overall GDP. Further, it discourages investments in the economy.
  • Sluggish growth in Government spending:
    • Unlike other players in the economy, governments can potentially spend in excess of their incomes.
    • When the rest of the economy is struggling, governments are expected to borrow money and spend it in a manner to re-energize the economy.
    • However, Government’s own spending has grown just 4.2% in the current year, and an average of 3.1% since 2019.
  • Petering out of Investments growth:
    • Spending towards productive capacity increases if:
      • Private businesses find it profitable to expand capacity (in the hope of selling it to the public)
      • Governments boost capital expenditure (spending towards physical infrastructure).
    • In FY 2024-25, this spending has gone up by just 5.3% annually.
    • Investment growth in the economy has been fading away since 2014.
    • Unless private consumption rebounds, businesses will not invest in fresh capacity, regardless of tax incentives.

Thus, over a longer period, India’s real economy has grown at less than 5% per annum- almost half the rate at which it would need to if it is to become Viksit Bharat by 2047. 

Microsoft to invest $3 billion on AI, cloud infrastructure in India

Context: Microsoft CEO has announced plans to invest $3 billion in India in AI and cloud infrastructure, including setting up new data centres over the next two years. The company is also aiming to train 10 million Indian people with AI skills by 2030.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Key facts about AI, Cloud infrastructure in India, Government Initiatives.  

Major Highlights:

  • Efficiency metrics for AI applications: The formula to measure the efficiency of AI applications is stipulated to be: Tokens per dollar per watt.
    • Tokens per dollar per watt signify how many tokens (units of information) can be generated per dollar spent on computing power, per unit (watt) consumption of energy, required to produce those tokens. 
image 69

Key Terms:

What is Artificial Intelligence?

  • Artificial intelligence (AI) is broadly defined as the capability of a machine (computer systems) to imitate intelligent human behaviour. E.g., Machines can perform cognitive tasks like thinking, perceiving, learning, problem-solving and decision-making. 

What is Cloud Computing?

  • Cloud computing involves the rental of computing resources—such as servers, storage, applications, and databases— over the internet, as opposed to owning physical infrastructure. At its core, cloud computing relies on the infrastructure provided by data centers. 
  • E.g., Software as a Service (SaaS): SaaS grants users access to software applications hosted by the cloud service provider.

What are Data Centres?

  • Data centers are highly specialised facilities designed to house computing systems and their related components, such as, physical hardware, servers, networking equipment and storage systems. 
  • The primary purpose of data centers is to process, store, and distribute data for various applications and services, such as websites, cloud computing, and enterprise operations.
  • Data centers empower organisations to handle large volumes of data securely and efficiently and enable cloud computing to function seamlessly.
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Potential of Data Centres in India

  • India aims to become a global hub for AI innovation and data centre development. 
  • Current capacity: 
    • As of 2024, India's data centre capacity is at approximately 1,255 MW, which is expected to surge to 17 GW by 2030. 
    • India holds 20% of global data but only 3% of data centre capacity.
  • Expansion potential of data centres in future, due to:
    • Increasing digitalisation & data consumption 
    • Rise in demand for AI and generative AI projects
    • Nationwide roll-out of 5G
    • Need for edge computing to allow data processing on devices
    • Need to store data locally (within National borders).  
  • Concentration of data centres in India: About 95% of the existing data centre capacity is in metros and big cities. Mumbai has >50% of current capacity due to its central location, reliable power and cable landing stations. 

Government Initiatives in this Regard

1. Data Localisation Rules: India’s laws mandate that certain data be stored locally, such as:

  • Reserve Bank of India's Directive (2018) mandates payment system providers to store entire payment data (transaction details, customer information and related data) within India. 
  • IRDAI (Maintenance of Insurance Records) Regulation, 2015 requires covered organisations to store insurance data within India.
  • The draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules focus on targeted data localisation, addressing children's online age verification challenges, and data protection.
    • Digital Personal Data Protection Act permits cross-border data transfers to all countries, unless restricted by the Central Government by notification.

2. Digital India Mission:

  • Digital India campaign launched in 2015, aims at the development of secure and stable digital infrastructure (including data centres), delivering government services digitally, and universal digital literacy.

3. IndiaAI Mission:

  • The Rs 10,370 croreIndiaAI Mission aims to:
    • establish a computing capacity of more than 10,000 GPUs.
    • help develop foundational models with a capacity of more than 100 billion parameters trained on datasets covering major Indian languages for priority sectors like healthcare, agriculture, and governance. 
  • The idea is that if such an infrastructure exists in the country, start-ups could plug into it for developing AI systems.
  • Of the total outlay, Rs 4,564 crore has been earmarked for building computing infrastructure. 

Read More: IndiaAI Mission 

Global Water Monitor Report 2024

Context: According to the Global Water Monitor Report 2024, climate change has been wreaking havoc on Earth’s water cycle by disrupting how water circulates between the ground, oceans and atmosphere.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Water Cycle; Global Water Monitor Report 2024. 

Water Cycle

  • It involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system. 
  • There are many processes involved in the water cycle, the most important are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. 
Water Cycle
  • Although the total amount of water within the cycle remains essentially constant, its distribution among the various processes is continually changing.
  • Most water cycles through the planet because of the energy from the Sun and changes in temperatures.
  • The water cycle is crucial as it not only enables the availability of water for all living organisms but also regulates weather patterns on the Earth. 

Components and Processes of the Water Cycle

ComponentsProcesses
Water storage in oceansEvaporation, Evapotranspiration, Sublimation
Water in the atmosphereCondensation, Precipitation
Water storage in ice and snowSnowmelt runoff to streams
Surface runoffStream flow, freshwater storage, infiltration
Groundwater storageGroundwater discharge springs

What is Climate Change?

  • Climate change refers to long-term shifts in weather patterns and average temperatures on Earth, primarily caused by human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes.
  • Characterised by: Increase in greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide, which traps heat in the Earth's atmosphere and leads to global warming.
  • Impacts: Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, melting glaciers and polar ice caps, sea-level rise, and altered ecosystems.
  • Consequences: Far-reaching consequences for human societies, ecosystems, agriculture, water resources, and natural disasters, posing significant challenges to global sustainability and the well-being of future generations.

Global Water Monitor Report 2024

  • Report: Global Water Monitor Report – 2024
  • Published by: Consortium of researchers from universities and organisations in countries like Australia, Saudi Arabia, China, Germany, Austria, USA, Netherlands and Denmark etc.

Key Global Findings

  • Climate change has intensified the water cycle by increasing the rate of evaporation, driven by rising air temperatures. This has resulted in increasing the strength, duration and rainfall intensity of monsoons, cyclones and other storm systems, causing severe flooding across the world.
  • Water-related disasters caused major damage in 2024. They caused over 8,700 deaths, displaced 40 million people, and inflicted more than US$550 billion in damages. Flash floods, landslides, and tropical cyclones were the worst types of disasters in terms of casualties and economic damage.
  • Both High rainfall and Drought are becoming more extreme. In 2024, months with record-low precipitation were 38% more common than during the baseline period of 1995-2005, while record-high 24h rainfall extremes were 52% more frequent.
  • Rainfall records are being broken with increasing regularity. For instance, record highs for monthly rainfall were set 27% more often in 2024 than in the year 2000, and daily rainfall records were set 52% more frequently.
  • Global temperatures continue to increase rapidly. Average air temperature over land area hit an all-time high, reaching 1.2°C above the 1995-2005 average. Over 111 countries experienced their warmest year yet, while 34 countries set new maximum temperature records.
  • Last year, most of the world’s dry regions experienced ongoing low values of the terrestrial water storage (TWS). However, the values increased in western, Central and Eastern Africa.
  • The outlook for 2025 shows increased risks. Seasonal climate forecasts and current catchment conditions signal potential worsening of droughts in northern South America, southern Africa, and parts of Asia. Wetter regions like the Sahel and Europe may face elevated flood risk. 

Other Reports Cited

  • Nature journal – Study titled ‘Observed poleward freshwater transport since 1970’ (published in 2022) found that climate change had intensified the global water cycle by up to 7.4%.
  • The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) - In its sixth assessment report in 2021 said climate change will cause long-term changes to the water cycle. This would lead to more frequent and intense droughts and extreme rainfall events, the report added.

Read More:  Impacts of Climate Change 

Indonesia joins BRICS bloc as full member

 Context: Indonesia has formally joined the BRICS group, a bloc of emerging economies featuring India, Russia, China and others, viewed as a counterweight to the West.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about BRICS; New Development Bank. 

Mains: BRICS as platform for South-South Cooperation, challenges faced by BRICS. 

 What is BRICS? 

  • BRICS is an intergovernmental organisation comprising ten countries – Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, Iran, Egypt, Ethiopia, United Arab Emirates and Indonesia.
    • The acronym ‘BRIC’ was coined by economist Jim O'Neill in 2001.
    • Founding countries of BRIC: Brazil, Russia, India, and China. 
    • First formal BRIC summit: Held in 2009 in Yekaterinburg, Russia
    • South Africa joined BRIC in 2010, transforming BRIC to BRICS. 
  • New members:
    • In 2024, four new members- Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, and the United Arab Emirates - joined BRICS as full-time permanent members.
    • In 2025, Indonesia was admitted as a full member of the BRICS.
  • BRICS was conceived as a counterweight to the Group of Seven (G7) developed economies, made up of the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy and Japan.
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Objectives:

  • To promote economic growth, strengthen cooperation in areas like trade, investment, and infrastructure.
  • Coordination in global governance and advocating for reforms in institutions like the United Nations (UN) and International Monetary Fund (IMF). 
  • Cultural and social exchange by enhancing people-to-people connections.

Economic Importance:

  • BRICS+ represents over 45% of the world's population and accounts for around 35% of global GDP, based on purchasing power parity.
  • Growing influence in global trade and investment through the New Development Bank. 
  • Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA) under BRICS USD 100 billion CRA is established to provide financial support to member countries in times of balance of payments crises.

New Development Bank: 

  • The New Development Bank (NDB) is a multilateral development bank established by BRICS.
  • Objective: To mobilise resources for infrastructure and sustainable development projects in emerging markets and developing countries (EMDCs).
  • Initial authorised capital: $100 billion.
  • Headquarters: Shanghai, China.

BRICS as platform for South-South Cooperation:

BRICS grouping has emerged as a significant platform for fostering South-South cooperation in the evolving global order. 

  • Diversified Representation: BRICS+ has included countries from Africa and Asia to enhance BRICS' representation of developing nations. Diverse BRICS gains legitimacy to advocate for Global South issues like fair-trade, climate justice, and technology access.
  • Economic Collaboration: Intra-BRICS integration encompasses free trade agreements and export-oriented strategies, including tariff exemptions and reductions. This has led to trade expansion, and rise in both inward and outward foreign direct investment. 
  • Financial Independence:
    • The New Development Bank (to finance infrastructure and development projects) is a credible alternative to existing financial institutions (IMF, World Bank dominated by western powers).
    • BRICS nations have agreed to promote use of local currencies in trade. E.g., UAE and India trade in Rupees and Dirhams instead of the US Dollar.
    • The plans to launch a common BRICS currency is under consideration. 
  • Global Governance Reforms: BRICS have collectively called for reforms to the UN Security Council to include more representation from the Global South.
  • Technology Sharing: BRICS+ members share technology particularly in areas like digital payments and renewable energy. E.g., Collaboration in digital payment systems (India’s UPI and China’s Cross-Border Payment Systems). 

Challenges faced by BRICS:

  • Diverse Interests:
    • Member states have varying economic interests and geopolitical alignments which can hinder collective action. E.g., India and Brazil maintain strong ties with the US, while Russia and China adopt anti-West stances​. 
    • New members like Iran and UAE add to the ideological diversity complicating consensus-building.
  • Lacks Institutional Framework: BRICS lacks formal treaty or secretariat, or enforcement mechanisms and thus relies on consensus-based decision-making​. This makes it difficult for coordination and policy implementation.
  • External Pressures and Sanctions: BRICS members (particularly Russia) face economic sanctions from Western countries. This can limit their ability to cooperate and implement joint initiatives.
  • Internal Economic Challenges: Some BRICS members (such as Brazil and South Africa) face significant domestic economic challenges which can divert attention from regional cooperation.

BRICS+ marks an important step toward a multipolar world and empowerment of the Global South. However, the grouping needs to overcome internal divisions, address external pressures and build a strong institutional framework to meet its long-term goals and objectives. 

India & U.S. to jointly manufacture Sonobuoys for Indian Navy

Context: In a significant development, India and the U.S. announced cooperation on co-production of U.S. Sonobuoys for the Indian Navy, a high-end technology that allows tracking submarines in the deep seas and oceans, to enhance undersea domain awareness (UDA). 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Sonobuoys, P-8I Maritime Aircraft.

Recent Development

  • India and the U.S. will manufacture sonobuoys for the Indian Navy to US Navy standards in accordance with ‘Make in India’ principles. 
  • Co-production of sonobuoys:
    • US-based Ultra Maritime and Indian defence PSU Bharat Dynamics Ltd (BDL) will co-produce sonobuoys.
    • Co-production will happen through transfer of technology from Ultra Maritime to BDL.
    • These will be produced at a facility in Visakhapatnam, which will go operational by 2027.
  • The Indian Navy operates 12 P-8I maritime patrol aircraft. These sonobuoys are dropped from the aircraft into the sea for anti-submarine warfare.
  • Significance: Help augment the Indian Navy’s capability to detect and track underwater objects, particularly the submarines and enhance undersea domain awareness.  

What are Sonobuoys?

  • Sonobuoys are expendable, electro-mechanical acoustic sensors that relay underwater sounds emitted from ships and submarines.
  • They remain active for about 24 hours and help in detection, classification and prosecution of adversarial ships and submarines. 
  • Working Mechanism: 
    • A naval helicopter or fixed-wing aircraft generally drops sonobuoys in a pattern. They are dropped in canisters and are deployed automatically upon impact with water.
    • An inflatable system with a radio transmitter remains on the surface for communication with the ship or aircraft tracking it, while sensors descend below the surface to a pre-determined depth. It then relays acoustic information back to those monitoring them. 
    • A group of sonobuoys deployed in a pattern can find out the exact location of the submarine which then can be tracked by other systems.
  • Types of Sonobuoys:
    • Active sonobuoys emit sound energy and receive the echo, based on which it transmits information back to the aircraft.
    • Passive sonobuoys only listen for sounds coming from ships or submarines. They then transmit the sound back to the aircraft.
image 66

About P-8I Maritime Aircraft

  • P-8 Poseidon is a maritime patrol and reconnaissance aircraft developed and produced by United States' Boeing Defense.
  • The P-8I is a variant of the P-8 Poseidon specially designed for the Indian Navy.
  • Utility: P-8I is responsible for coastal patrolling, maritime surveillance, anti-submarine and anti-surface warfare, search-and-rescue, anti-piracy, and supporting operations of other arms of the military.

Mystery of the Indus Valley Script

Context: The Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu has announced a $1 million prize for deciphering the script of the Indus Valley Civilisation. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Indus Valley Civilisation and Indus Valley Script. 

About Indus Valley Civilisation

  • In 1924, Sir John Marshall announced the discovery of the Bronze Age culture  or Harappan Civilization in the valley of the Indus between c. 3300 BCE and 1300 BCE.
  • IVC flourished in the northwestern regions of South Asia, primarily in present-day Pakistan and northwest India. Key archaeological sites include:
    • Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan): One of the first sites to be excavated, giving its name to the civilisation.
    • Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan): Known for its advanced urban planning and the Great Bath.
    • Dholavira (Gujarat, India): Notable for its unique water conservation system.
    • Lothal (Gujarat, India): An important port city with a dockyard.
    • Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India): One of the largest Harappan sites.
Indus Valley Civilisation

Indus Valley Script: 

  • Harappan script is largely undeciphered. Attempts have been made to compare it with the contemporary scripts of Mesopotamia and Egypt, but it is the indigenous product of the Indus region and does not indicate any connection with the scripts of western Asia. 
  • Key Features: 
    • Short inscriptions: Indus inscriptions are very short – with only about five characters on average – with the longest having only 26 characters.
    • Boustrophedon script: Harappan script is boustrophedon, i.e., it is written from right to left on one line and then from left to right in the next line. 
    • Pictographic script: The Harappan script is not alphabetical but largely pictographic. There are about 250 to 400 pictographs in the form of a picture; each letter stands for some sound, idea, or object. 
  • There are nearly 4000 specimens of Harappan writing on stone seals and other objects.
    • Unlike the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the Harappans did not write long inscriptions. 
    • Most inscriptions were recorded on seals and contain only a few words. These seals may have been used by the proprietors to mark and identify their private property. 
image 65

Trends of Women’s Workforce Participation in India

Context: The National Sample Survey Office’s (NSSO) most recent annual report of Periodic Labour Force Survey indicates an increase in aggregate employment rates, after a prolonged period of decline since 2011-12. 

This is dominantly due to a significant rise in women’s work force participation. However, this spurt in women’s workforce participation must be interpreted with great caution.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Women’s workforce participation- Trends, Concerns, etc.

Analysis of Women’s Workforce Participation

  • Dramatic rise in women’s workforce participation:
    • Men’s work participation rates have risen slightly from 71.2% in 2017-18 to 76.1% in 2023-24. 
    • However, for women, it rose from 22% in 2017-18, to reach 40.3% in 2023-24. 
image 59
  • Rural females vs. Urban females:
    • Women’s workforce participation increased in both rural and urban areas
    • The increase was particularly sharp in rural India. 
image 60
  • Persistence of Jobless Growth:
    • NSSO includes ‘unpaid helpers in family enterprises’ in its classification of workers.
    • It is in this category where most of the increase in women’s “employment” occurs.
    • This indicates that the benefits of GDP growth have not translated into higher employment, hence persisting jobless growth.

Concerns with Data Classification

  • ILO’s definitions of work and employment make it clear that employment is ONLY that subset of work for which remuneration is received. 
  • Since “unpaid helpers” are clearly not the primary workers who would receive remuneration, they should not really be classified as “employed” at all.
  • Further, NSSO classifies those engaged in Codes 92 and 93 as “not in the labour force”, so they are excluded from the employment data.
    • Codes 92 and 93 include the activity classifications that cover unpaid work done within households.
    • Code 92: engaged in domestic duties — essentially care work within the household.
    • Code 93: domestic duties plus extended SNA activities like fetching fuelwood, fetching water, engaging in kitchen gardening and livestock and poultry rearing, etc.

Work Profile of Rural Women

  • By 2023-24, there was a dramatic decline in unpaid workers (Codes 92 and 93) to half of the 2017-18 level.
  • Significant increase in self-employment, which amounted to 95% of the increase in recorded “employment”.
    • So, the decline in the proportion of unpaid women workers is almost completely explained by the increase in self-employment.
  • The share of both regular and casual workers barely increased at all (together they account for less than 1/10th of rural women).
image 61

Work Profile of Urban Women

  • 8 percentage point increase in women’s recorded work participation and a 6 percentage point decrease in unpaid workers. 
  • The increase in women’s recorded employment was split equally between regular workers and self-employed women. 
  • There was a decline in the proportion of both casual workers and unpaid helpers in family enterprises.
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Changes in Real Wages

  • Real wages for women regular workers fell in both rural and urban areas
    • This suggests that much of this was distress employment. 
    • This could well have been in domestic work and similar occupations (significant sources of employment in urban India for poor women). 
  • However, the decline in real incomes from self-employment for women was even greater.
    • This indicates a crowding of more women workers into relatively limited types of activities.
image 62

Gender Gap in Earnings

  • The gender gap in earnings grew significantly over this period, particularly in rural areas.
  • The gap is shockingly high for self-employed workers.
    • Women receive only around 1/3rd of the incomes from self-employment that their male counterparts earn.
image 63

Overall, this is hardly a picture of dynamism in labour markets that is leading to more employment of women.  It is necessary to move beyond that fairy tale to address the reality of women’s work in India.

RBI’s Gold Reserves

Context: According to the World Gold Council, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) added 8 tonnes of gold to its reserves in November, 2024. In 2024 Central banks, mostly from the emerging markets, were keen gold buyers, driven by the need for a stable and secure asset amid global economic uncertainties.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about RBI’s Foreign Exchange Reserves, World Gold Council

Details about Forex Reserves

RBI’s Gold Reserves
  • Meaning: Assets which are readily available to the RBI for:
    • financing Balance of Payments (Meeting shortfall in BoP).
    • Intervention in the forex market to check exchange rate volatility (i.e., to sell Dollars to check Rupee Depreciation).
  • How does RBI Build Forex Reserves?
    • In the event of surplus in the BoP, the RBI purchases the surplus dollars from the market (Authorised Dealers) and builds Forex reserves.
    • Forex reserves accrete when there is positive BoP, while negative BoP may deplete the forex reserves. 
  • Legal Framework: In India, the Reserve Bank of India Act 1934 enables the RBI to act as the Custodian of Forex Reserves.

What are the components of Forex Reserves?

  • Foreign Exchange Assets: Foreign Currency, Foreign G-Secs, Deposits with other Central Banks, Deposits with Overseas Branches of Commercial Banks.
  • Monetary Gold: Gold with the RBI as part of Forex Reserves.
  • Special Drawing Rights (SDRs): International Reserve Asset of the International Monetary Fund (IMF). 
  • Reserve Position in the International Monetary Fund (IMF). 

Adequacy of Forex Reserves:

  • Import Cover: Number of months of imports that could be paid for by Forex reserves. In India, it is presently around 9-10 months.
  • Greenspan-Guidotti rule: Forex Reserves should be sufficient to pay the short-term External Debt.

About World Gold Council (WGC):

image 58
  • WGC is a membership organisation that champions the role gold plays as a strategic asset, shaping the future of a responsible and accessible gold supply chain. 
  • It is a non-profit association of the world's leading gold producers. 
  • Formation: WGC was formed in 1987 by some of the world’s most forward-thinking mining companies.
  • Headquarters: London, United Kingdom. 
  • Governance:
    • WGC is governed by Board of Directors, comprised of:
      • member company representatives (Chairperson or Chief Executive Officer) and 
      • World Gold Council’s Chief Executive Officer. 
    • The Board has a fiduciary responsibility to all Members in ensuring that the World Gold Council fulfills its mission and objectives.
  • It aims to maximise the industry's potential growth by monitoring and defending existing gold consumption.
  • The WGC is also the global authority on gold, and they offer comprehensive analyses of the industry.
  • The WGC was the creator of the first gold exchange-traded fund. 

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