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Collective Farming: Empowering Small Farmers

Context: India’s agricultural landscape portrays a stark contrast between large landowners and small and marginal farmers. Holistic Collective Farming practices can bridge this divide.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Collective Farming- Meaning, Features. 

Mains: Collective Farming- Benefits, Features, Need. 

What is Collective Farming?

  • Definition: Collective Farming is a system of agricultural production in which a group of farmers collectively owns and operates their farms as a collective farm.
  • Holistic collective farming aims to pool fragmented landholdings and empower small farmers through collective efforts.
  • Types: There are generally two types of collective farming:
    • Agricultural Cooperatives: Owned by members of the farm.
    • State Farms: owned by governments.
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Need for Collective Farming in India:

  • As per the latest agricultural census (2015-16), the average land holding size in India is 1.08 hectares.
    • Land inheritance traditions have led to a steady reduction in farm sizes over generations. 
    • Small plots of land are insufficient to sustain a family. 
  • Without access to reliable water sources, quality seeds, or market knowledge, small and marginal farmers struggle to make ends meet. 
  • Many fall prey to moneylenders who charge exorbitant interest rates, pushing them deeper into debt. The result is a cycle of poverty and despair, which has contributed to India’s agricultural distress.
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Features of Collective Farming:

  • Pooling Land: 
    • Farmers retain ownership of their land but agree to pool their plots into a collective unit.  This creates larger, contiguous areas for farming, which improves efficiency and scalability.
  • Collaborating with Social Entrepreneurs: 
    • A non-exploitative social entrepreneur provides initial capital, access to water resources, seeds, and marketing channels. 
    • They also bring in agricultural experts to train farmers in sustainable practices.
  • Natural Farming Techniques: 
    • Farmers are taught to prepare organic fertilizers using cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, lentil flour, and virgin soil. This is done to enhance soil fertility and reduce dependency on expensive chemical inputs.
  • Revenue Distribution: 
    • Farmers receive daily wages for their labour, ensuring financial stability. 
    • After the harvest, revenue from the sale of produce is distributed. 
    • Operational expenses are deducted, and the remaining profits are shared among farmers based on their land contribution.
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Benefits of Collective Farming:

  • Economic stability: By earning both wages and profit shares, farmers experience immediate and long-term financial benefits.
  • Sustainability: Natural farming practices improve soil health and reduce environmental harm, creating a sustainable agricultural system.
  • Social Empowerment: Collective farming fosters community cooperation, reduces dependence on moneylenders, and gives farmers greater bargaining power in markets.
  • Prevention of Land Fragmentation: Joint ownership through a pooled model halts the physical division of land, ensuring its viability for future generations.

Steps to promote Collective Farming in India

  • Financial incentives, such as subsidies for natural farming inputs or tax benefits for social entrepreneurs, could accelerate adoption.
  • Development of Aggregating apps to aggregate agri-mechanised inputs on rental basis. This would enable mechanisation of farms in the collective farming model. 
  • Ease of financing: Like KCC, procedures to avail term loan may be simplified with minimum documentation. Capacity building of bank staff dealing with agriculture term loan products may be ensured.

The holistic collective farming model is not just an economic initiative; it is a vision for social transformation. By integrating traditional knowledge with modern sustainability practices, it offers a way to rejuvenate India’s farming sector.

Decoding India’s Growth Slowdown

Context: The National Statistics Office (NSO) released the first advance estimates of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2024-25. It shows a decline in the real GDP growth rate to 6.4% from 8.2% registered in 2023-24. The official diminution of India’s projected GDP growth rate may still be an underestimation of the extent of economic slowdown.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Economic Slowdown- Trend Analysis

Data Discrepancies in GDP Estimates

1. Issues with GDP Deflator:

  • GDP deflator is a weighted average of wholesale and retail price indices. It is used for the estimation of real or constant price GDP to estimate values of GDP components in constant prices.
  • The Wholesale Price Index (WPI), 2011-12 series has shown high volatility over the past decade. The WPI volatility leads to inexplicably large divergences between the WPI and CPI inflation rates.
  • This has had serious implications for the accuracy of the GDP deflator and real GDP estimates.
    • For instance, nominal GDP growth rate was at 14.2% in 2022-23 and 9.6% in 2023-24, which indicated a sharp decline in growth.
      • However, the real GDP growth rate was estimated to have grown from 7.0% to 8.2%, indicating growth acceleration. 
    • This implied that the GDP deflator was only 1.4% in 2023-24, even as retail inflation was at 5.4%
      • This is because the WPI inflation rate was estimated to have fallen from a high of 9.4% in 2022-23 to a negative of -0.7% in 2023-24. 
    • Thus, because of high volatility in the WPI, the nominal GDP estimate showed a growth deceleration in 2023-24 but the real GDP estimate reflected growth acceleration. 
image 93
  • IMF Observations:
    • IMF has criticised India’s reliance on WPI as a deflator, recommending Producer Price Index (PPI) for better accuracy.
    • The absence of seasonally-adjusted GDP data and discrepancies between GDP by activity and expenditure hinder real-time economic analysis.

2. Elusive Private Investment:

  • Investment Trends:
    • The latest GDP estimates have shown a significant decline in the growth of real gross fixed capital formation from 9% in 2023-24 to 6.4% in 2024-25. 
  • Irrational official expectations:
    • Economic Survey 2023-24 indicated a vigorous expansion of investment by the private-sector. 
    • However, the Chief Economic Advisor highlighted the sluggish corporate investments in machinery and equipment and intellectual property products. 
    • The Union Budget over-relied on private corporate investment for massive job creation through ‘Prime Minister’s Package for Employment and Skilling’.
    • A longer view of India’s growth trajectory over the past decade shows the irrationality of official expectations.
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3. Sectoral Trends:

  • Downward trends in manufacturing, mining, construction, and key services sectors.
  • Only public administration, defence, and other government services show increased growth, emphasizing the role of public expenditure.
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4. Fiscal Challenges:

  • Tax revenue growth has slowed, with only 56% of the annual target achieved by November 2024.
  • Less than half of the budgeted capital expenditure (₹11.11 trillion) was utilised during the same period.
  • Balancing fiscal consolidation with growth-enhancing public spending remains a critical challenge.
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Way Forward: Balancing Growth with Fiscal Discipline

  • Economic slowdown has disrupted budgetary plans by slowing down tax revenue growth. Adhering to the fiscal consolidation path would imply a squeeze on public spending, including capital expenditure. This in turn would further aggravate the slowdown. The way out is to rework the revenue mobilisation strategy by enhancing taxation on wealth and profits in order to enhance capex and welfare spending.

Sedition law: Section 152 of BNS

Context: The Rajasthan High Court, in Tejender Pal Singh v. State of Rajasthan (2024) has raised caution about the misuse of Section 152 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) to stifle legitimate dissent.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Challenges posed by Section 152 of BNS to citizens rights and freedom. 

Background:

  • Section 152 of BNS: 
    • Section 152 of BNS criminalises acts related to secession, rebellion, and activities endangering national integrity. 
    • Whoever, purposely or knowingly, by words, either spoken or written, or by signs, or by visible representation, or by electronic communication or by use of financial mean, or otherwise:
      • excites or attempts to excite, secession or armed rebellion or subversive activities
      • encourages feelings of separatist activities or endangers sovereignty or unity and integrity of India indulges in or commits any such act.
    • shall be punished with imprisonment for life or with imprisonment which may extend to seven years, and shall also be liable to fine. 
  • Section 152 of BNS has its genesis in Section 124 A of Indian Penal Code, 1860 (IPC).
  • Despite the Supreme Court’s suspension of sedition trials under Section 124A of the IPC in 2022 and verbal assurances from the government regarding the repeal of sedition, Section 152 of BNS has retained elements that can serve as a proxy for sedition. 

Problems with Section 152 of BNS

  • Vagueness and expansive interpretation:
    • Section 152 criminalises ‘acts endangering the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India’ without clearly defining what constitutes such endangerment.
    • This vagueness creates scope for expansive and subjective interpretations by law enforcement. E.g., A speech criticising a political figure or sympathising with a controversial ideology could be construed as endangering unity, leading to legal action.
  • Lower threshold for offence – Use of ‘Knowingly’:
    • The inclusion of the term ‘knowingly’ in Section 152 lowers the threshold for prosecution. 
    • Even if a person does not intend to incite secession or rebellion, merely sharing a post on social media with the knowledge that it might provoke such feelings can result in arrest.
  • Chilling effect on freedom of expression: 
    • Since Section 152 is a cognisable and non-bailable offence, individuals can be arrested without sufficient prima facie evidence, leading to harassment, prolonged detentions, and a chilling effect on free speech.
  • Scope of Misuse: 
    • According to NCRB data, between 2015 and 2020, out of 548 persons arrested under Section 124A IPC, only 12 people were convicted. The broader scope of Section 152 suggests the potential for even higher misuse.
  • Absence of Safeguards Against Misuse:
    • Unlike Section 124A, which had judicial interpretations limiting its misuse, Section 152 lacks clear statutory safeguards as of now.

Argument of Government for Section 152 of BNS: 

  • The government has argued that there is a notable distinction between IPC Section 124A and BNS Section 152.
    • While IPC Section 124A deals with acts against the Government.
    • BNS Section 152 shifts the focus to actions endangering the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India.
  • Colonial interests have been replaced by needs of the democratic interests in Independent India.
  • Criticism of the Government policies and actions are not punished under the new law. The requirement of ‘intent’ in law further raises the threshold for applicability of the provision.

Judicial approach and precedents in case of Section 124A of IPC:

  • Kedarnath Singh v. State of Bihar (1962): The Supreme Court upheld the validity of sedition law but restricted its application to cases where speech incites violence or public disorder by differentiating between ‘disloyalty to the government’ and ‘strong criticism of government policies’.
  • Balwant Singh v. State of Punjab (1995): The Court acquitted individuals for shouting slogans like “Khalistan Zindabad”, as it found no direct link between the slogans and any actual threat to national integrity.
  • Javed Ahmad Hazam v. State of Maharashtra (2024): The Court ruled that the impact of words must be judged from the perspective of reasonable and courageous individuals, not overly sensitive or weak-minded persons.
  • D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal (1997): The Supreme Court laid down guidelines for arrest and detention, ensuring personal liberty is not infringed arbitrarily.

Way Forward

  • Judicial guidelines for Section 152: The Supreme Court should frame specific guidelines for the enforcement of Section 152, ensuring clear demarcation of what constitutes an offence.
    • Similar to D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal, guidelines should focus on protecting personal liberty and preventing arbitrary arrests.
  • Statutory safeguards: Parliament should consider incorporating statutory safeguards in the BNS to prevent abuse regarding:
    • Mandatory judicial oversight before initiating arrests.
    • Requirement for prima facie evidence of incitement or public disorder.
  • Promoting a marketplace of ideas: Drawing on Justice Holmes’ concept of the ‘marketplace of ideas’ (Abrams v. United States), liberal spaces for thoughts, beliefs, and dissent must be preserved. In a democracy, the best way to test the validity of ideas is through free and open discussion.
    • In the age of social media, it is critical to protect speech while maintaining a balance with national security.

While national security is paramount, laws like Section 152 of BNS must not be allowed to become instruments for curtailing free speech. Ensuring checks against misuse and protecting personal liberty are essential in safeguarding democratic values. The judiciary, through its careful interpretation and well-defined guidelines, can play a pivotal role in striking this balance.

Background of Section 124A of IPC: 

  • Section 124A: Sedition: Whoever by words, either spoken or written, or by signs, or by visible representation, or otherwise, brings or attempts to bring into hatred or contempt, or excites or attempts to excite disaffection towards, the Government established by law in India, shall be punished with imprisonment for life, to which fine may be added, or with imprisonment which may extend to three years, to which fine may be added, or with fine. 

Judicial Pronouncements to restrict the application of Section 124A of IPC:

  • Kedarnath Singh v. State of Bihar (1962): The Supreme Court upheld the constitutional validity of Section 124A but limited its application.
    • Criticism of the government, unless it incites violence or public disorder, cannot be considered sedition.
  • Balwant Singh v. State of Punjab (1995): Merely shouting slogans (e.g., "Khalistan Zindabad") without incitement to violence does not constitute sedition.

Criticism of Sedition Law: 

  • Restricts Freedom of expression: The law infringes upon Article 19(1)(a), which guarantees freedom of speech and expression.
    • E.g.: Cartoonist Aseem Trivedi (2012) was charged for depicting political corruption in his cartoons.
  • Vagueness: Phrases like "disaffection" and "visible representation" are vague, leading to subjective interpretation and potential misuse.
    • E.g.: Disha Ravi (2021), a climate activist, was arrested for allegedly sharing a toolkit related to the farmers' protests.
  • Misuse to curb political dissent: Often used as a tool to suppress dissent and target critics of the government.
    • Vinod Dua (2021), a journalist, was charged with sedition for criticizing the handling of the COVID-19 crisis. The Supreme Court later quashed the FIR.
  • Overzealous application of this law to please political masters (important particularly considering the lack of police reforms)

Subsequently, Section 124A of IPC has largely been retained in the form of Section 152 in the new Bhartiya Nyaya Samhita.

Draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025

Context: The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology has published the Draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025 on January 3, 2025 for public consultation. The Draft Rules have evoked a mixed response, with criticism that the rules might go against the concept of privacy.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Right to Privacy; Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023; Draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025. 

Right to Privacy in India

  • Justice K.S. Puttaswamy vs. Union of India Case, 2017: In the landmark case, the Supreme Court held that Right to Privacy is a distinct and independent Fundamental Right under Article 21 of Indian Constitution. 
  • Privacy is essential to the dignity and autonomy of individuals, the Right ensures protection from state overreach.
  • The SC held that the Right to Privacy was not absolute in nature. It may be restricted, but such restrictions must meet the three-fold requirement, to ensure that the restrictions are not arbitrary or excessive.
    • Legality (Restrictions on privacy must be backed by an existing law. A mere Executive order or arbitrary action is insufficient).
    • Need (Restrictions must serve a legitimate purpose of the state).
    • Proportionality (Restrictions must not be excessive or disproportionate to the objective sought)

Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023

  • The Digital Personal Data Protection Act received Presidential assent in August 2023.
  • Need: Digitisation using the personal data of individuals has transformed the delivery of services enhancing ease of living, but it is also increasingly at risk of misuse. Therefore, it is imperative that digitised personal data be protected.
  • The DPDP Act 2023, obligates data fiduciaries to protect personal data and makes them accountable.
    • Digital platforms can collect only those data that are required for their functioning and providing services which users have opted for. 
    • E.g., Users will not have to give a microphone or contact access to use a torch app on their mobile phone.
  • The Act 2023 has provisions to impose penalties of up to ₹250 crore on data fiduciaries. The Act provides for graded financial penalties in case of violation of the Act and the rules.

Key Terms:

  • Data Principal: Individual to whom the personal data belongs to. 
  • Data Fiduciary: Entities such as social media platforms, e-commerce companies and online gaming platforms, etc. that collect and process an individual's personal data. They can use such data only after the individual's consent for specified purposes.
  • Significant data fiduciaries: Digital platforms with a large number of users such as Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, Amazon, Flipkart, Netflix, etc.
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Draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025:

  • Aim: To operationalise the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 and ensure robust protection and privacy of personal data in the digital realm. 

Notable provisions of the Draft Rules are mentioned below

1. Notice for Consent: 

  • To obtain informed consent from a Data Principal, a Data Fiduciary must provide the Data Principal with a clear and standalone notice outlining- what data is to be collected, the purpose for the processing, and how consent can be withdrawn. 

2. Consent Managers and Rights of Data Principals: 

  • Defined under the DPDP Act, a Consent Manager is registered with the Data Protection Board and serves as a single point of contact for Data Principals to give, manage, review, and withdraw consent through a transparent and secure platform.
  • Data Fiduciaries and Consent Managers must clearly publish on their website or app the process for Data Principals to exercise their rights under the Act, including the right to request access to or deletion of their personal data.

3. Security Safeguards: 

  • Data Fiduciaries must implement adequate security measures to protect personal data, such as encryption, access control, monitoring for unauthorised access, and data backups.
  • Contracts between Data Fiduciaries and Data Processors must also ensure that security measures are in place to prevent data breaches.

4. Data Breach Notification: 

  • In the event of a breach, Data Fiduciaries must promptly notify affected Data Principals, with explanation of the nature, extent, and timing of the breach. 
  • Within 72 hours, Data Fiduciaries must additionally notify the Data Protection Board of the breach. 

5. Data Retention: 

  • Certain e-commerce entities, online gaming intermediaries, and social media platforms with a significant number of registered users in India must delete personal data within a specified period of time, unless the user actively maintains their account. 
  • Generally, these entities may only retain personal data for up to three years from the date of a user’s last interaction.

6. Processing Personal Data Of Children: 

  • A Data Fiduciary is required to adopt technical and organisational measures to ensure verifiable consent of parents is obtained for processing the personal data of a child.
  • Certain Data Fiduciaries, such as healthcare providers or educational institutions, may be exempt from specific obligations, under defined conditions.

7. Data Protection Impact Assessments (DPIAs): 

  • If the Central Government identifies an entity as a Significant Data Fiduciary based on certain enumerated factors (including volume, sensitivity of data) that entity must conduct annual DPIAs to assess risks associated with their data processing activities.

8. Cross-Border Data Transfers:

  • The rules provide for the transfer of personal data outside India, but only of certain as approved by the government from time to time.
  • The draft rules envisage a committee that may recommend restrictions on such transfer by a significant data fiduciary with respect to specified personal data.

9. Penalty provisions:

The draft rules do not elaborate on the penalty but spell out a mechanism to set up a Data Protection Board that will levy penalties based on the nature of the breach as listed in the DPDP Act 2023.

Sudden Cardiac Deaths in Athletes

Context: Instances of sudden cardiac death (SCD) in athletes, while rare, remain a significant concern that requires careful attention and preventive measures.

Relevance of the Topic: Key facts about Sudden Cardiac Death & Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). 

What is Sudden Cardiac Death (SCD)?

  • The most common cause of SCD is sudden cardiac arrest (SCA), characterised by an unexpected circulatory arrest (a condition where blood circulation suddenly stops) typically due to cardiac arrhythmia, occurring within an hour of symptom onset.
    • Sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) is the sudden loss of all heart activity due to an irregular heart rhythm.
    • Breathing stops, the person becomes unconscious. Without immediate treatment, sudden cardiac arrest can lead to death.
  • It is concerning as it causes sudden death in a structurally normal heart with no other explanation and a history consistent with cardiac-related death.
- A cardiac arrhythmia is an irregular heartbeat. It occurs when the electrical signals that tell the heart to beat don't work properly. The heart may beat too fast or too slow. Or the pattern of the heartbeat may be inconsistent.

-A heart arrhythmia may feel like a fluttering, pounding or racing heartbeat. Some heart arrhythmias are harmless. Others may cause life-threatening symptoms.

Risk Factors:

  • The risk factors for SCA and SCD include: 
    • Coronary artery disease - Narrowing or blockage of coronary arteries (due to plaque/cholesterol buildup in these arteries), which supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart.
    • Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy- A disease in which the heart muscle becomes thickened, also called hypertrophied. The thickened heart muscle can make it harder for the heart to pump blood.
    • Arrhythmias - An irregular heartbeat.
    • A genetic predisposition
    • Pre-existing heart conditions
    • Weight issues
    • High-intensity exercise without proper training
    • History of smoking 
    • Increased ambient temperature.

Exercise and Cardiovascular Health: 

  • Exercise is a vital tool for promoting health and well-being. It improves cardiovascular risk factors like lipid levels, hypertension, insulin sensitivity, and weight.
  • Multiple studies have established a positive correlation between moderate aerobic exercise and reduced risk of coronary artery disease.

Guidelines to Prevent Sudden Cardiac Death (SCD) in Athletes: 

  • According to International Olympic Committee recommendations, pre-participation screening and periodic health evaluation are the only ways to reduce the incidence of cardiovascular accidents and other injuries in athletes.
  • The World Athletics Health and Science Department, based on IOC guidelines, recommends a pre-participation medical evaluation (PPME) at the start of the season for athletes in competitive sports. 
  • A study conducted on the benefits of pre-participation screening and periodic health evaluation demonstrated a drop in the incidence of SCD by 90% in young athletes.

Challenges: 

  • Concerns with Athletes: During vigorous physical activity by athletes, there is a substantial increase in sympathetic nervous system activity. This surge can trigger arrhythmias and potentially lead to sudden cardiac arrest.
  • Pre-participation screening and periodic health evaluation may not be possible in mass endurance events where the majority of participants are recreational athletes. Despite screening, sudden cardiac arrest may be challenging to predict. 

Way Forward

  • Prompt and appropriate resuscitation - Evidence points to excellent survival rates after arrest when appropriate resuscitation is started promptly (for every minute delay, there is a 7% decreased chance of survival.) Personnel trained in CPR and access to defibrillators on the route and at sports venues are crucial in reducing the incidence of sudden cardiac death.
  • Periodic health evaluations - As athletes, competitive or recreational, it is important to have periodic health evaluations. The ECG needs to be read by a trained physician who is aware of the physiological and structural adaptations in the heart of an athlete.
  • Correct medical information should be provided honestly by the athletes during their screening.
  • Workouts under trained coach - The risk of sudden cardiac death is higher in those with pre-existing conditions, and hence it is important that exercise be carried out under supervision or with the help of a trained coach.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs): 

CVDs are a group of disorders of the heart and blood vessels, including: 

  • Coronary heart disease: It happens when the heart's blood supply is blocked or interrupted by a build-up of fatty substances in the coronary arteries.
  • Cerebrovascular disease: It is an umbrella term for conditions that impact the blood vessels in the brain. It may cause a reduction of blood flow to your brain (ischemia) or bleeding (haemorrhage) in a part of your brain.
  • Peripheral arterial disease: A condition where the arteries that supply blood to the legs or arms narrow or become blocked.
  • Rheumatic heart disease: Rheumatic heart disease is a condition where the heart valves have been permanently damaged by rheumatic fever.
  • Congenital heart disease: It is one or more problems with the heart's structure that are present at birth.
  • Deep vein thrombosis: A condition when a blood clot (thrombus) forms in one or more of the deep veins in the body, usually in the legs.
  • Pulmonary embolism: A condition that arises when a blood clot that blocks and stops blood flow to an artery in the lung.

Farmer ID

Context: The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare (MoA&FW) has made Farmer ID mandatory for new applicants to enrol into the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-Kisan) and get benefits under the scheme. The farmer ID guarantees that the applicant-farmer owns the land, and thus the PM-KISAN registration process would be vastly simplified.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims- Farmer ID, Digital Agriculture Mission, Agristack, PM-KISAN Scheme.

What is a Farmer ID?

  • Farmer ID (also known as Kisan Pehchaan Patra) is an Aadhaar-linked Unique Digital Identity of the farmers.
  • Created and maintained by: State Governments/ Union Territories.
  • The IDs will be linked to various farmer-related data including:
  • The database created through the Farmer ID will be known as Farmer’ registry. It is one of the three registries under Agri Stack component of the Centre’s Digital Agriculture Mission for creation of digital public infrastructure in the farm sector.

Benefits of Farmer ID: 

  • Targeted delivery: Only legitimate and eligible farmers receive subsidies and benefits and eliminates duplication in government schemes.
  • Precision agriculture: Facilitates data-driven policy-making for better crop planning, insurance, and market linkages.
  • Empowerment of farmers: Encourages financial inclusion by enabling easy access to credit and crop insurance.
Farmer ID - kisan ki pehchaan

About AgriStack:

  • AgriStack is designed as a farmer-centric Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) to streamline services and scheme delivery to farmers. It comprises three key components:
    • Farmers' Registry
    • Geo-referenced village maps
    • Crop Sown Registry
  • The AgriStack is a part of the Digital Agriculture Mission (2021–2025) which aims at modernisation of Indian agriculture. The three DPIs to be built under the Mission are Agristack, Krishi Decision Support System, and Soil Profile Mapping. 

Key targets of AgriStack include:

  • Creating digital identities for 11 crore farmers over three years (6 crore in FY 2024-25, 3 crore in FY 2025-26, and 2 crore in FY 2026-27).
  • Launching the Digital Crop Survey nationwide, within two years, covering 400 districts in FY 2024-25 and all districts in FY 2025-26.

What is the PM KISAN scheme?

  • The Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN) Scheme is a Central Sector Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) Scheme, under which, financial assistance of Rs.6000/- per annum is provided to all landholding farmer families across the country, subject to certain exclusion criteria relating to higher income strata.
  • Objective: To enable them to take care of expenses related to agriculture and allied activities as well as domestic needs.  
  • The amount is transferred in three 4-monthly installments of Rs. 2000/- each, directly into the bank accounts of the beneficiary farmers identified by the State/UT Governments.
  • Eligibility: Extended to all farmer families irrespective of the size of their landholdings. (Originally, landholding farmers having a farming area up to 2 hectares were eligible for the scheme).
  • Exclusions: 
    • Farmer families who pay income tax, with government employees and professionals like doctors etc. are excluded.
    • Former and current constitutional officeholders.
    • Previous and current Ministers/State Ministers, MPs/MLAs/SLCs/ Mayors former and present District Panchayat Chairpersons.
    • All serving or former officials and workers of Central/State Government Ministries/Offices/Departments and their field units.
    • All superannuated/retired pensioners whose monthly pension is Rs.10,000/- or higher (excluding Multi-Tasking Staff / Class IV/Group D employees).
  • Recently, a Parliamentary panel has recommended doubling the yearly payouts under the PM-Kisan to Rs 12,000 per annum from the present Rs 6,000.

Idea of Dual Citizenship in India

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Questions related to provisions related to citizenship, NRI, PIO and OCI. 

Mains: Analytical questions regarding feasibility of dual citizenship in India.

Concept of Citizenship in India

  • India follows the single citizenship provision. In the Constitution of India, Part II i.e., from Article 5 to Article 11 deals with the provisions of Citizenship. 
  • Article 11 empowers the Parliament to make statutes and provisions for citizenship. In line with the Article, the Parliament has passed the Citizenship Act 1955 which was amended from time to time.
    • Recent notable amendments of the act were the Citizenship Amendment Act 2003 that introduced the concept of Overseas Citizen of India (OCI), mandatory National Register of Citizens (NRC) and automatic termination in case of dual citizenship.
    • Further, Citizenship Amendment Act 2019, simplified the process and reduced the time for naturalisation for certain minority communities of Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan who entered India on or before 2014.
Concept of Citizenship in India

Modes to gain Indian Citizenship

  • By Birth: A person born in India, with certain exceptions, is an Indian citizen.
  • By Descent: A person born outside India to Indian citizen parents is eligible for Indian citizenship.
  • By Registration: Persons of Indian origin, spouses of Indian citizens, and minors can apply for citizenship after meeting residency criteria.
  • By Naturalisation: Foreign nationals can acquire citizenship after 12 years of continuous residence in India.
  • By Incorporation of Territory: People from newly incorporated territories in India may acquire citizenship.
  • Under CAA, 2019: Persecuted religious minorities from Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan can acquire Indian citizenship after 5 years of residence.

Indian stand on Dual Citizenship

  • Indian Constitution and the Citizenship Act 1955 and following amendments do not allow dual-citizenship for Indians. 
  • Instead of dual citizenship, India offers the Overseas Citizenship of India Card, which provides for lifetime visa-free travel to India, right to work in India, except in government services and rights to own property, except purchase of agriculture property. Also, OCI cards do not ensure political rights like voting and holding public offices. 

Arguments against Dual-Citizenship in India

  • Security of India: Dual citizenship can complicate India’s control over national security, especially if individuals holding citizenship of hostile nations misuse it. 
  • Enforcement of law: There can be a complication to enforcing laws especially criminal laws as there can be a discrepancy between the criminal laws and degree of punishment between two nations.
    • Eg., In a hypothetical situation if a person enjoys citizenship of both India and France then it can be tough to punish such a person with life imprisonment and capital punishment as France does not have provisions for capital punishment.
  • Economic concerns: Dual citizens can exploit provision of subsidies and benefits without being fully participating in the Indian economy.
  • Dilution of loyalty: Dual citizenship can dilute loyalty and identity of a national, restraining one from participating in a nation during a situation of crisis.
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Reasons, India offers OCI instead of Dual-citizenship: 

  • Middle ground: The OCI is a middle ground of having citizenship rights and enjoying liberty to enjoy citizenship of other nations.
  • Ensuring economic control: OCI card holders cannot purchase agricultural land that makes their economic participation under control.
  • Ensuring political stability: OCI card holders do not have voting rights so it makes it feasible for the government to ensure limited political participation of people with India origin.
  • Administrative ease: Clear demarcation of rights and duties of OCI makes law enforcement easy without any complication and conflict with international law.

Conclusion

‘Citizenship is a right for having rights’, While dual citizenship is appealing to many, particularly the Indian diaspora, the government has avoided it due to concerns over sovereignty, security, and administrative challenges. The OCI card is India’s alternative, balancing diaspora connections without compromising national interests. As of now, India’s stance remains cautious, with no immediate plans to allow dual citizenship.

Right to Food and Struggle with PDS

Context: The 2023 reports from Jharkhand and Odisha highlighted that a substantial number of households have been removed from the rolls of the Public Distribution System (PDS). A substantial number of households have found themselves removed from PDS rolls in parts of north, central and east India.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Challenges in Public Distribution System. 

Right to Food

  • The ‘right to food' was recognised as a fundamental right in the People’s Union of Civil Liberties vs Union of India case, 2001.
    • The right to food is not a fundamental right explicitly mentioned in Part III of the Indian Constitution, but it can be derived from Article 21.
  • The Indian Parliament enacted the National Food Security Act (NFSA) in 2013 to address food security. 
  • National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013:
    • Provides affordable food-grains to roughly two-thirds of the Indian population.
      • 75% of Rural population
      • 50% of urban population
    • Entitlements: Provides rice, wheat or coarse grains (5kg/person/month) at Rs 3/kg, Rs 2/kg, and Rs 1/kg, respectively.
  • Targeted Public Distribution System:
    • Antyodaya (most vulnerable) people got free food grains (35 kg of food grains per household month).
    • Priority households (above Antyodaya level but below poverty line) had to pay at least half the minimum support price (MSP) being paid to the farmer.
    • Above poverty line households had to pay 90% of MSP.
image 87

Problems in the Public Distribution System

1. Incomplete Enrolment and Inadequate Access:

  • Case Study of the Musahar community in Bihar: Musahars are extremely marginalised communities that have been pushed beyond the edge of destitution by the socio-politics of caste.
    • A number of Musahar households in Patna district do not have an active ration card. 
    • Even if they do have one, the card does not have the names of all the family members.
  • Issue with Biometric Verification:
    • Several people lost access to their monthly supply of ration ever since biometric verification was made mandatory at fair price shops (FPS). 
    • Individuals are forced to get a new ration card as after verification it emerges that their names have been struck off the PDS rolls. 

2. Corruption:

  • There are reports of cases where FPS dealers are releasing only four kilograms of food grain/person.
    • A below poverty line (BPL) household which has a Priority Household (PHH) ration card is entitled to five kilograms a person. 
  • The four kilograms of grain being issued is rice, which is the lowest quality of ‘Usna’ rice. No amount of wheat is issued.

3. Documentation with no Legal basis: 

  • Bureaucrats involved in the PDS mechanism are reported to claim unnecessary documents for issuing ration cards. E.g.,
    • In Bihar, citizens applying for a ration card using a paper-based application as well as through e-PDS portal are asked to submit:
      • Aadhaar details of the applicant and their family members
      • caste certificate
      • income certificate
      • residence certificate
    • Uttar Pradesh makes it mandatory to provide an income certificate.
    • Madhya Pradesh requires the submission of proof of residence.
  • The requirements of these certificates do not have any legal basis.
    • Neither the National Food Security Act (NFSA) of 2013 nor the PDS control order of 2015 explicate the requirement of such documents. 

4. Exploitation by Middlemen:

  • People from marginalised communities who seek to avail the benefits of PDS, neither have the resources nor the knowledge to interact with online processes.
  • This situation is aggressively exploited by middlemen who charge a sum of ₹3,000 to have a ration card made. 

5. Delays in Issuance of Ration Cards:

  • There is no guarantee that the applicants will get their ration card. There are cases of people whose applications have been pending for long (between 4-18 months).
    • The 2015 order states that ration cards should be issued within 30 days of the application being filled.
image 88

Recommendations of Shanta Kumar Committee on PDS Reforms

  • Need for End to End Computerisation: Given that leakages in PDS range from 40 to 50 percent, Government should defer implementation of NFSA in states that have not done end to end computerisation; have not put the list of beneficiaries online for anyone to verify, and have not set up vigilance committees to check pilferage from PDS.
  • Reducing the Coverage: Reduce the current coverage of 67% of the population under NFSA to 40% (comfortably cover BPL families and some even above that).
  • Increased quota of Food grains: The amount of food grains should be increased to 7kg/person from the present 5kg grain per person.
  • Pricing: Antyodaya households can be given grains at Rs 3/2/1/kg for the time being, but pricing for priority households must be linked to MSP, say 50 percent of MSP
  • Timely Allocation: Targeted beneficiaries should be given 6 months ration immediately after the procurement season ends. This will save the consumers from various hassles of monthly arrivals at FPS and also save on the storage costs of agencies.
  • Cash Transfers: Gradual introduction of cash transfers in PDS, starting with large cities with more than 1 million population; extending it to grain surplus states, and then giving option to deficit states to opt for cash or physical grain distribution. This would lead to saving of Rs 30,000 crores.
  • Storage, movement and Transport of Food Grains: FCI should outsource its stocking operations to various agencies such as Central Warehousing Corporation, State Warehousing Corporation to bring down costs of storage. Covered and plinth (CAP) storage should be gradually phased out. The Movement of grains needs to be gradually containerised to reduce transit losses. 
  • Buffer Stocks: On an average, buffer stocks with FCI have been more than double the buffer stocking norms costing the nation thousands of crores of rupees loss without any worthwhile purpose being served. There has to be a comprehensive liquidation policy which gives sufficient flexibility to FCI to either export or sell the surplus stocks in the market.

Centre’s Share in States’ Revenue has surged

Context: Over the last decade, States have been relying more and more on transfers and grants from the Centre. The falling efficiency of States in collecting more taxes has deepened their dependency on the Centre.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: States’ sources of revenue- Key Facts, Trends Analysis. 

What are the sources of Revenue for States?

1. States’ share of Central Taxes:

  • According to the Constitution, the Union Government is required to share a part of all the tax revenue that it raises with State Governments. 
  • This part of the tax collection that the Central Government shares with State Governments is known as the States’ Share in Central Taxes.

2. States’ Own Tax Revenue (OTR):

  • There are many taxes that are either levied by State Governments, or where the collection goes directly to State Governments.
    • Except Goods and Services Tax (GST), the rates of such taxes are determined by State Governments. Hence, there is a variance across States. 
  • Goods and Services Tax (GST): 
    • Components of the total GST collection, known as State GST (SGST) and part of integrated GST (IGST) goes directly to State Governments.
  • State Excise Duty: 
    • Levied on the production of goods that are not under GST. 
    • After the introduction of GST, the main item on which State excise duty is applied is alcohol. 
  • Sales tax and VAT: 
    • There are certain items whose sale is not covered by GST. 
    • The sale of such items falls under the State sales tax or State value added tax (VAT). 
  • Stamps and Registration Duty: 
    • This is generally levied on the sale of land and/or immovable properties such as flats/houses/buildings.
  • Vehicle Registration Tax: 
    • Applied on the registration of new vehicles or in the case of a change in the ownership of a vehicle.
  • Entertainment Tax: 
    • This levy is generally applied on the sale of movie tickets, etc.

3. States’ Non-Tax Revenue:

  • Lease/sale of natural resources:
    • States can either sell or lease out natural resources for the economic purposes for which they receive receipts. 
    • Lease of minerals is a major source for many states, such as Odisha, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, among others. 
  • Economic services: 
    • There are certain services provided by the government for which it charges the user, such as - irrigation, health, education, forestry and wildlife, etc. 
    • The user charges are not done with the purpose of profit, and are generally much lower than the charges by the private sector. 
    • Nonetheless, they do provide some revenue to the government.
  • Sale of lotteries:
    • Some states engage in the activity of selling lotteries
    • The net proceeds from these goes to the government funds.
  • Interest receipts:
    • State governments can provide loans to certain entities like public sector undertakings (PSUs), local bodies, etc. 
    • Interest receipts are the interest received on such loans.
image 83

Trends of States’ revenue share among different sources

  • Increasing share of Transfers from Centre: 
    • In the last decade (FY16 to FY25), 23-30% of the total revenue of States was collected from the Centre as transfers. 
    • However, in the 2000s and 2010-15, the share was 20-24%. 
  • Increasing share of Grants from Centre in States’ non-tax revenue:
    • 65-70% of the non-tax revenue of States was collected from the Centre as grants in the last decade.
    • In the 2000s and 2010-15, the share was lower at 55-65%.
  • Diminishing share of non-tax revenue:
    • Revenue from non-tax revenue, other than Central grants, has been diminishing. This share is likely to go below the 24% mark in FY25 for the first time in the past 25 years.
    • Interest receipts have not exceeded 5% of non-tax revenues in the last decade.
      • Compared to the 2000s and first half of 2010, when it formed 5-9% of non-tax revenue.
    • The share of dividends and profits garnered from State public sector enterprises has remained under 1%.
image 84
  • Stagnant Own Tax Revenue:
    • States have also not done enough to efficiently collect taxes to increase their own tax revenue. 
    • For over a decade now, States’ own tax revenue as a share of their total revenue has remained considerably below 50%.
    • In the 2000s and in the early 2010s, it had crossed the 50% mark for many years or remained close to it.
  • SGST-driven Own-Tax Revenue:
    • While SGST accounted for 15% of the States’ total revenue in FY18, it currently makes up about 22%. 
    • Consequently, the share of own tax revenue, without the contribution from SGST, has declined from 34% to 28%.
    • What it implies: Share of States’ own tax revenue is not only consistently below the 50% mark, but also an increasing share of it is derived from SGST.
image 85
  • A marked decline in ratio of select States’ own tax revenue to its GSDP:
    • For Tamil Nadu, the own tax revenue to GSDP ratio has gradually declined from 7.72% in FY13-15 to 6.17% in FY 22-24. This has also been the case in Karnataka, Kerala, Bihar, Delhi, and Madhya Pradesh, too. 
    • While the ratio has risen in Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Odisha, and Uttarakhand, it has remained stagnant in other States.
image 86

Concerns

  • The combination of these factors indicates increasing dependency of States on Central funds.
    • The Centre is playing a major role in the revenue earned by the States. 
    • However, it is also true that many States are not efficiently collecting taxes using avenues at their disposal.
  • While expenditure responsibilities have been rapidly spiralling, the nearly stagnant own tax revenue mobilisation impedes the States’ counter-cyclical expansionary fiscal measures in a sustained manner to boost aggregate demand in the economy.

Reservation for Transgender Community

Context: The reservation demand for transgenders in educational institutions and government jobs is picking up pace across the country.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Reservation for Transgenders: Debate, Government Initiatives & Way Forward. 

Issue of Reservation for Transgenders

  • Background of Reservation demand: Since the 2014 NALSA judgment by the Supreme Court, there has been a push for reservations for transgender people in government jobs and education.
    • The demand for reservation arises from the socio-economic and educational backwardness of the transgender community.
    • However, there is ambiguity in the nature of reservation to be provided—whether it should be vertical (separate quota) or horizontal (within existing categories).

Arguments for Vertical Reservation

  • Separate category: Vertical reservation treats transgender people as a distinct socio-economic group, similar to SC, ST, and OBC categories.
    • It further ensures a clear, fixed percentage of seats for transgender individuals across sectors.
  • Uniform Identity: Proponents argue that transgender people face discrimination purely on gender identity, not on caste, hence a separate category is justified.
    • It simplifies the process of implementation by avoiding overlap with caste-based reservations.
  • Legal basis: The NALSA judgment identified transgender people as Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBC), implying eligibility for OBC-like reservations.
    • Madhya Pradesh has already included transgender people in its OBC list following this interpretation.
image 82

Arguments for Horizontal Reservation

  • Addressing Intersectional Discrimination: Horizontal reservation acknowledges that transgender people belong to various caste groups, facing layered forms of discrimination based on both caste and gender identity.
    • Without horizontal reservation, Dalit and Bahujan transgender individuals may remain underrepresented.
  • Existing High Court Rulings: The Karnataka, Madras, and Calcutta High Courts have ruled in favor of horizontal reservations for transgender people.
    • Horizontal quotas ensure representation in each socio-economic category (SC/ST/OBC/General), preventing exclusion of marginalized caste trans individuals.
  • Grassroots Support: Various activists argue that vertical reservation ignores caste realities and perpetuates caste hierarchies by lumping all transgender people into a single category.
    • Horizontal reservation provides equitable access to resources for trans people across different caste identities.

Significant Cases and Rulings in this context

  • NALSA Judgment (2014): Directed governments to treat transgender people as socially and educationally backward classes, eligible for reservation in jobs and education.
    • However, it created ambiguity by not specifying whether reservation should be vertical or horizontal.
  • Madhya Pradesh Government (2023): Included transgender people in the OBC category, aligning with the vertical reservation approach.
  • High Court rulings: Karnataka (Sangama v State of Karnataka), Madras, and Calcutta High Courts have directed State governments to implement horizontal reservation for transgender individuals.
  • Supreme Court (March 2023): Refused to entertain a petition seeking clarification on the type of reservation to be provided, leaving the ambiguity unresolved.

Way Forward

  • Legislative Framework: A comprehensive legislative framework should be developed to provide clarity on the type of reservation—preferably horizontal, given the layered discrimination transgender people face.
  • Intersectionality in Public Policy: Policy-making must adopt an intersectional approach, recognizing the compounded disadvantages faced by Dalit and Bahujan transgender individuals.
  • Awareness and Sensitisation: Government bodies and society must be sensitized to the unique issues faced by transgender people, ensuring better implementation of reservation policies.
  • Inclusive Dialogue: Engage with diverse stakeholders, including transgender activists from marginalized castes, to ensure that reservation policies reflect the needs of the entire community.
  • Uniformity of Policy across States: A national-level directive should be issued to ensure consistency in reservation policies for transgender people across all States.

Status of progress on Horizontal Reservations for Transgender Persons in India:

  • Absence of Central Government Direction:
    • Despite the Supreme Court’s 2014 NALSA judgment recommending affirmative action for transgender persons, there has been no concrete policy from the central government regarding horizontal or vertical reservations.
    • The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 failed to include any provision for reservations, either vertical or horizontal.

Legislative Attempts so far:

  • Rights of Transgender Bill, 2015 (Private Bill):
    • This bill proposed reservations for transgender persons in both public and private sectors. It was rejected in the Lok Sabha.
  • Parliamentary Standing Committee Recommendation (2018):
    • A committee under the Ministry of Social Justice recommended that transgender persons be provided reservations in education and public employment.
  • Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 (introduced by the Centre):
    • The Act has no mention of reservations for transgender persons.
    • National Council for Transgender Persons: Established under Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019.
    • Equal opportunity policy issued in pursuance of Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 and Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Rules, 2020.

Progress in Various States:

  • Tamil Nadu (2015): The government categorized trans women under the Most Backward Classes (MBC) category, though this policy only applies to trans women and not the entire transgender community.
  • Karnataka (2021): Following the Sangama v. State of Karnataka case, Karnataka became the first state to implement 1% horizontal reservation for transgender persons across all categories (SC/ST/OBC/General).
  • Madhya Pradesh (2023): Transgender persons were included in the OBC category, adopting a vertical reservation model, similar to Tamil Nadu’s earlier approach.

What is the Polar Vortex?

Context: Large swathes of Canada and the USA were hit by a massive winter storm. At least five people have died in the United States over the weekend and the storm has led to mass school closures, dangerous road conditions and power cuts. The extreme weather has been caused by the expansion of the polar vortex southwards.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Polar Vortex. 

What is Polar Vortex?

  • Polar vortex is a circulation of strong, upper-level winds that normally surround the Northern Pole, moving in a counter-clockwise direction, i.e., a polar low-pressure system. 
  • These winds tend to keep the bitter cold air locked in Arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere. On occasion, this vortex can become distorted and dip much farther South, allowing the cold air to spill Southwards.
  • There are two types of Polar Vortex: Tropospheric and Stratospheric:
  • Tropospheric polar vortex occurs at the lowest layer of the atmosphere — it extends from the surface up to about 10 km to 15 km — where most weather phenomena occur.
  • Stratospheric polar vortex occurs at around 15 km to 50 km high. Unlike the tropospheric polar vortex, the stratospheric polar vortex disappears during the summer and is the strongest during the autumn.

Formation of Polar Vortex:

  • Polar Vortex forms every winter because of the temperature difference between Equator and Poles. 
  • In the polar stratosphere, sunlight basically gets cut off during the late fall and early winter—and that makes it cold, while the equator remains quite warm.
  • A jet forms to balance this temperature difference. This jet is what we call the Polar Vortex or Polar Night Jet.

Distortion of Polar Vortex:

  • When the pressure difference gets lower, the jet streams get weakened and follow a much wavier path. This change in intensity allows the dense Arctic cold wind to spill down to the lower latitudes and lead to major cold air outbreak in the US, parts of Europe, and Asia.
  • This oscillation is known as the Arctic Oscillation, and it can switch from a positive phase to negative phase a few times per year. This oscillation -- namely the Negative phase, where the polar winds are weaker, tends to lead to major cold air outbreaks in one or more regions of the planet.
Polar Vortex

Climate Change and Polar Vortex

  • Scientists are still researching the precise impact of climate change on the polar vortex. Some researchers believe that as the poles are getting warmer at a faster rate than the rest of the Earth, the polar vortex and jet stream are becoming weaker. Warmer temperatures make it easier for the polar vortex and jet stream to get disrupted.
  • This can be understood through following:
    • Jet streams are propelled forward by temperature differences and the Earth's rotation. Warm air is less dense than cold air and rushes to fill in low-pressure regions. Wider temperature differences create faster moving winds.
    • Earth is warming more quickly at the poles than at the mid-latitude regions, meaning the temperature contrast that drives jet streams has decreased.
    • Complex sequence of events involving sea ice, which is rapidly diminishing in the Arctic. As ice retreats, summertime heat is absorbed by the dark ocean that lies underneath. This heat is released into the atmosphere during winter, spurring winds that can disrupt the polar vortex.

River Interlinking: Merits & Challenges 

Context: On December 25, 2024, the Prime Minister of India laid the foundation stone for the Ken-Betwa River Link Project, which aims to solve the water scarcity in the Bundelkhand region that covers parts of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

Interlinking of rivers is necessary to overcome the anomaly of uneven temporal and spatial distribution of rainfall in the country. It is also necessary to remove the regional imbalances in the country. 

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: River interlinking: Concept, Merits & Challenges 

Evolution of the concept

  • The concept of inter-basin transfer was proposed 130 years ago by Sir Arthur Cotton, who designed irrigation dams in the Godavari and Krishna river valleys. 
  • M. Visvesvaraya, an early icon among Indian engineers, further refined this idea. 
  • K.L. Rao and Captain Dinshaw J. Dastur subsequently expanded the scope of this concept in 1970 and 1980. 
  • Initially termed the ‘National Water Grid’, this concept re-emerged as the ‘River-Interlinking Project’ (ILR) from the Ministry of Water Resources to transfer surplus waters from the Ganga and the Brahmaputra to water-deficient regions in Central and Southern India.
  • Following this, the National Water Development Agency (NWDA) was established in 1982 to conduct surveys and investigations, and to prepare feasibility reports for links under the National Perspective Plan. The NWDA identified 30 links for feasibility studies, divided into 14 Himalayan and 16 Peninsular river links.
image 80

Merits of River Interlinking

  1. Water Resource Management:
    • Helps in transferring surplus water from water-rich basins to water-deficient regions, ensuring equitable distribution of water.
  2. Agricultural Productivity:
    • Enhances irrigation potential in drought-prone areas, potentially boosting agricultural output and ensuring food security.
  3. Flood and Drought Mitigation:
    • Reduces the frequency and intensity of floods in surplus regions and mitigates drought in deficit areas.
  4. Hydropower Generation:
    • Provides opportunities for hydropower development, contributing to renewable energy and reducing dependency on fossil fuels.
  5. Inland Navigation:
    • Facilitates the development of waterways for transportation, reducing the burden on road and rail networks.
  6. Socio-economic Benefits:
    • Promotes rural development, creates job opportunities, and improves livelihoods through better water availability.
image 8

Issues and Concerns Related to River Interlinking

  1. Environmental Impact:
    • Alters natural river ecosystems, affecting biodiversity, wetlands, and forests.
    • Low flow of fresh water to the seas and Oceans can impact salinity levels, water chemistry and related impacts.
    • Regime change of rivers and consequential changes in physical and chemical composition of sediment, river morphology and shape of delta. 
    • Submergence of land leading to deforestation and soil erosion. 
    • Dams result in diversion of forest areas, increased methane emissions from reservoirs, reservoir induced seismicity. 
    • There can be waterlogging and salinity intrusion related issues. 
    • Changes in surface water distribution could alter groundwater recharge patterns, potentially causing overextraction in certain areas.
  2. Displacement of Communities:
    • Large-scale projects require land acquisition, leading to displacement of people, particularly tribal communities.
  3. High Cost and Financial Burden:
    • Projects require massive investments, which may strain public finances and lead to delays in execution.
  4. Interstate Water Disputes:
    • Sharing and transferring water across states could exacerbate existing water-sharing disputes.
  5. Climate Change Uncertainty:
    • Changing rainfall patterns and unpredictable water availability may render some projects ineffective or unsustainable.
  6. Siltation and Maintenance Issues:
    • Interlinking projects may face challenges like siltation in canals and reservoirs, increasing maintenance costs.

Also, the water surplus in most river basins of India is during the same period of monsoons. After the monsoon season even the so-called water surplus states such as Punjab, UP, Uttarakhand face water deficits. Hence, during this period there will be no surplus left to transfer to peninsular states.

Some Examples & Case Studies:

  • Channelisation of the Kissimmee river in the State of Florida, authorised by the U.S. Congress in 1954 to mitigate flooding, is an environmental disaster, resulting in the loss of wetlands. Massive resources are being spent to revive its original configuration. 
  • The current state of the Aral Sea — one of the world’s largest lakes — is another example of how geoengineering projects destroy natural systems. The lake has now become a howling desert after the rivers that sustained it were diverted by irrigation projects implemented during the heady days of the Soviet Union.
  • The Indus Delta offers a crucial lesson. Alice Albinia, in her book, Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River (2008), narrates how a delta system at the mouth of the Indus — which was once “the richest in all Pakistan” — became impoverished when the British started barrage construction, which Pakistan continued after 1947.

Ken-Betwa River Interlinking Project: 

image 9

Background: 

  • The project is a tripartite agreement between Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and the Central Government. 
  • This project includes transfer of surplus water from the Ken basin in Madhya Pradesh to the deficit Betwa basin in Uttar Pradesh. 
  • This project is part of the National river linking project to connect 14 Himalayan and 16 peninsular rivers. 
  • The central government will contribute 90% of the project. It is India’s first river linking project.

Benefits of the project as per the government: 

  • It will enhance the irrigation potential of the water starved Bundelkhand region in UP and MP. It will also facilitate ground water recharge and reduce the occurrence of floods. 

Concerns associated with the project: 

  • About 12,500 hectares of land is going to get submerged. This includes 9,000 hectares of forest and also Penna Tiger Reserve. 
  • Damage to the forest might create issues with rainfall patterns in the region. 
  • Ken river is not perennial hence could not meet the surplus demand of water.
  • About 30% of the 103 MW of energy would be spent on lifting the water as Betwa is higher than Ken.
  • The Central Empowered Committee of the Supreme Court has already raised concerns about the project.
  • The cost-benefit calculations of the project also do not take into consideration the environmental and social costs.

Read More: Ken-Betwa Link Project 

Way Forward

  • In interlinking proposals, a provision of the minimum lean season flow should be safeguarded to maintain the ecology and the river regime
  • Cumulative impact assessment for the entire project should be done and not on component-by-component basis.
  • Rehabilitation and Resettlement should be done prior to undertaking the projects.
  • First projects should be identified which has least opposition. Ken Betwa Linkage is the first Inter-linkage proposal to be taken up; it should be completed as the lighthouse of the project.
  • Focus should be on reforming the water governance (as per Mihir Shah Committee Report), focus on water use efficiency, participatory water governance and reforms in water usage in the agricultural sector.

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