International Relations & Security

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Why did India condemn the Doha Strike?

Context: India’s condemnation of Israel’s strike in Qatar as a “violation of sovereignty” marks a rare departure from its otherwise muted responses to Israeli operations in Iran, Lebanon, Syria, and elsewhere.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India - Qatar Relations.

Israel targets Hamas leadership in Qatar strike

  • Israeli Defence Forces (IDF) carried out an airstrike in Doha, Qatar, targeting a house where senior Hamas leaders were meeting to discuss a U.S. backed ceasefire proposal.
  • At the UN Human Rights Council, India has stated that the attacks threaten peace, stability and security and condemned the attacks as a violation of Qatar’s sovereignty and territorial integrity. India invoked the UN Charter and international law emphasising that escalation must be avoided. 

Traditionally, India has reacted with caution or silence to Israeli strikes across West Asia, often limiting itself to expressions of “concern.” Even when Israeli actions affected Indian interests in Iran, India’s response was inconsistent, initially distancing itself from an SCO statement condemning Israeli strikes before later joining a similar declaration. 

Why is Qatar Treated Differently? 

Qatar’s importance for India stems from multiple factors : 

  • Qatar hosts a large Indian diaspora of over 7.5 lakh people whose welfare and remittances are vital for India.
  • Qatar is a key supplier of liquefied natural gas (LNG) making it crucial for India’s energy security. 
  • Strong personal and leadership-level ties exist between the Indian Prime Minister and the Qatari Emir adding weight to the bilateral relationship. 
  • The Israeli strike in Doha directly threatens the security architecture of the Gulf where the U.S. bases are located, raising concerns for India’s broader regional interests.

While New Delhi’s partnership with Israel in defence and technology remains strong, its silence on Gaza amid heavy civilian casualties has strained goodwill in the Arab world. India’s condemnation of Israel’s strike in Doha coupled with India’s recent UNGA vote for a two-state solution, suggests a balancing effort to reassure Arab partners while maintaining ties with Israel.  

Also Read: India Qatar elevate ties to Strategic Partnership 

This recalibration becomes even more significant in the backdrop of the Saudi-Pakistan Mutual Defence Pact and the Gulf Cooperation Council’s push for a joint defence mechanism. 

India gets licence to explore Indian Ocean for Polymetallic Sulphides

Context: India has bagged a 15-year contract for exploration of polymetallic sulphides in the northwest Indian Ocean from the International Seabed Authority (ISA). 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Polymetallic Sulphides; International Seabed Authority; Carlsberg Ridge. 

Licence to explore Indian Ocean for Polymetallic Sulphides: 

  • This is the first licence granted globally for exploring polymetallic sulphur nodules in the Carlsberg Ridge. 
  • The contract area covers 10,000 sq. km. in parts of the Carlsberg Ridge in the Indian Ocean.

Polymetallic Sulphides Nodules: 

  • PMS nodules are hydrothermal mineral deposits or concentrations of rock found in the deep ocean (mid-ocean ridges and hydrothermal vents). 
  • They form when hot, mineral-rich fluids from the Earth's mantle mix with cold ocean water, resulting in the precipitation of metal sulphides. 
  • These metalliferous muds contain large amounts of copper, zinc, lead, iron, silver and gold. 
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Carlsberg Ridge: 

  • The Carlsberg Ridge is 3,00,000 sq. km. stretch that lies in the Indian Ocean, specifically in the Arabian Sea and northwest Indian Ocean. 
  • It forms the boundary between the Indian and Arabian tectonic plates.
  • The ridge separates the Arabian Sea to the northeast from the Somali Basin to the southwest.
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Key facts about Exploration Process: 

  • For exploration in areas part of the ‘high seas’ or part of the ocean not part of their territories, countries must obtain permission from the International Seabed Authority (ISA).
  • These rights are specifically designated for regions within the open ocean defined as marine expanses encompassing the air above, surface, and seabed; where no nation holds sovereignty claims.
    • Countries have exclusive rights extending up to 200 nautical miles from their borders, including the underlying seabed. 
    • Countries can claim up to 350 nautical miles from their coasts as their continental shelf. Countries in the Bay of Bengal can claim up to 500 nautical miles as per the United Nations Convention on the Laws of the Sea (UNCLOS).
  • If the claim is approved, the country gains priority to explore and potentially exploit both living and non-living resources in the designated region. 

About International Seabed Authority: 

  • Autonomous international organisation established under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). 
  • It is the organisation through which States Parties to UNCLOS organise and control all mineral-resources-related activities in ‘the Area’ for the benefit of humankind as a whole. 
  • The international seabed area represents around 50% of the total area of the world’s oceans.
  • ISA has the mandate to ensure the effective protection of the marine environment from harmful effects that may arise from deep-seabed-related activities. 
  • All States Parties to UNCLOS are members of ISA (including India). 
  • Headquarters: Kingston, Jamaica 

India’s third exploration contract with ISA: 

  • The contract is India’s third exploration contract with the ISA and is its second for PMS.
    • India had exploratory rights from the ISA in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (till 2027). 
    • India had obtained exploratory rights for polymetallic sulphides in the Indian Ocean Ridge (2031).
  • India has become the first ISA Member State to hold two contracts for PMS exploration and to have the largest area allocated in the international seabed area. 

India continues to conduct its exploration activities in areas beyond national jurisdiction strictly within the framework of the UNCLOS and under the mandate of ISA. 

Yudh Abhyas 2025: India-US Joint Exercise 

Context: The 21st edition of Yudh Abhyas 2025, India-US Joint Exercise, concluded in Alaska in the United States. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Yudh Abhyas 2025. 

Yudh Abhyas 2025: India-US Joint Exercise 

  • It is an annual bilateral army-to-army drill between India and the US. 
  • The exercise has steadily grown in scale and complexity alternating between locations in India and the US. 
  • Infantry units, artillery, aviation, electronic warfare and counter-drone systems were employed under joint command and control. The joint exercise provides valuable lessons in operational planning, command and control, precision, adaptability and joint targeting.

Yudh Abhyas is a hallmark of the growing military-to-military interaction between India and the US, aligned with the Comprehensive Global Strategic Partnership between both countries. 

Important bilateral exercises between India and the US

India has the largest number of military exercises with the US, which are growing in scale and complexity. Important bilateral exercises include: 

  • Yudh Abhyas (Army)
  • Vajra Prahar (Special Forces)
  • Malabar (Navy)
  • Cope India (Air Force)
  • Tiger Triumph (tri-services)  

Also Read: US-India Defence Ties 

Why has the United Nations Lost Relevance?

Context: The repeated failures of the United Nations in preventing conflicts such as Ukraine, Gaza, and Sudan along with veto paralysis in the UN Security Council have raised doubts about its effectiveness in the 21st century.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Declining Relevance of the United Nations.  

About United Nations

  • The UN is a global intergovernmental organisation established by the signing of the UN Charter in 1945.
  • It was established with the articulated mission to:
    • maintain international peace and security
    • develop friendly relations among states
    • promote international cooperation
    • serve as a centre for harmonising the actions of states in achieving those goals.
  • It has increasingly come under criticism for its lack of effectiveness in addressing global challenges. Its decline stems from its structural flaws, financial dependence, and failure to act at the times of crises.

Reasons for Declining Relevance of the United Nations: 

  • Veto Paralysis of the UN Security Council: The veto power of the five permanent members (P5) USA, UK, France, Russia, and China has crippled decision-making. E.g.,
    • Russia blocked UN action during its annexation of Crimea in 2014 and its 2022 Ukraine invasion, while the US has often vetoed resolutions on Palestine.
    • Similar vetoes have prevented action in Syria, Sudan, Tibet, and Cold War conflicts, exposing the undemocratic nature of the system.
  • Failure to Prevent Conflicts and Protect Civilians:
    • The UN has been ineffective in major crises such as Ukraine, Israel-Gaza, Syria, and Sudan often reduced to passing symbolic resolutions. 
    • Peacekeeping missions in Rwanda (1994) and Bosnia (1990s) failed to prevent genocide and ethnic cleansing. 
    • The Iraq War in 2003 showed how powerful states can bypass the UN altogether.
  • Selective Humanitarianism and Double Standards: The UN has intervened selectively, for instance authorising NATO in Libya (2011) but failing to rebuild the nation. Humanitarian disasters in Africa and Asia often receive inadequate global attention compared to crises in geopolitically strategic regions.
  • Financial Vulnerability and Dependence:
    • The UN’s financial dependence on a handful of countries, especially the United States (contributing around 22% of its regular budget), makes it vulnerable to political pressures. During the Trump presidency, proposals for an 83% cut in US foreign spending and sharp reductions in UN financing has highlighted the fragility of its funding base.
    • Around 40 nations default on annual dues, while discretionary donations critical for humanitarian operations are declining. This financial fragility raises doubts about the UN’s ability to achieve ambitious goals like the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda.
  • Bureaucratic Inefficiency and Weak Enforcement: The UN has been criticised for being slow, bureaucratic, and ineffective in enforcement. Even agreements like the Paris Climate Accord (2015) lack strong compliance mechanisms, leaving issues like climate change and terrorism unresolved.
  • Geopolitical Capture and Location Concerns: Critics argue that the UN’s headquarters in New York keeps it too close to Washington, tilting influence towards the US. Relocating or rotating UN headquarters to conflict-prone regions such as Kigali, Kyiv, or Khartoum is proposed to make the organisation more grounded in global realities.
  • Crisis of Courage and Leadership: Analysts argue that the UN has lost its courage to lead, act decisively, or stand up to great powers. This leadership deficit has eroded its moral authority, leaving it as a “toothless and clawless” organization.
  • Rise of Multipolar Alternatives: The growth of regional and global groupings such as G20, BRICS, SCO, AU, and ASEAN shows that states increasingly rely on other mechanisms for conflict resolution and cooperation. These platforms are often seen as more flexible and effective compared to the UN’s slow processes.

Supporters argue that despite its flaws, the UN remains necessary. As former Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld said, the UN “was not created to lead mankind to heaven but to save humanity from hell.” Without the UN, the world may be hungrier, poorer, less safe, and less sustainable.

Key Reform Suggestions for the United Nations: 

  • Expand Security Council membership to reflect contemporary power realities and ensure equitable regional representation.
  • Restrict or suspend veto power in cases of genocide, war crimes, or humanitarian crises.
  • Diversify and stabilise UN financing to reduce donor dependence and enhance budget predictability.
  • Strengthen peacekeeping operations with clear mandates, adequate resources, and rapid deployment capacity.
  • Consider rotation of UN headquarters to conflict-prone or Global South regions for greater legitimacy.
  • Promote multilateralism by building synergy with regional platforms like G20, BRICS, and AU.
  • Strengthening of enforcement mechanisms for international treaties and agreements, including climate accords and arms control regimes.

In its current form, the UN risks becoming a symbolic institution rather than an effective guardian of peace and security in the 21st century. For the UN to regain relevance, it must reform its structure, restore courage in leadership, and rebuild trust in multilateralism.

UN backs Two-state Solution without Hamas 

Context: The UN General Assembly has overwhelmingly approved a resolution supporting a declaration that calls for tangible, timebound, and irreversible steps toward a two-state solution between Israel and the Palestinians, without the involvement of Hamas.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Israel and the Palestinian conflict; Two-state Solution. 

India votes in favour of UNGA resolution on Palestine: 

  • Recently, India voted in favour of a resolution in the UN General Assembly that endorses the ‘New York Declaration' on peaceful settlement of the Palestine issue and implementation of the two-state solution.
  • Asserting that the war in Gaza must end, the declaration said that Gaza is an integral part of a Palestinian State and must be unified with the West Bank. There must be no occupation, siege, territorial reduction, or forced displacement.
  • The resolution was adopted with an overwhelming 142 nations voting in favour. Those voting against included Israel, the US etc.
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What is the Two-state Solution?

  • The two-state solution is an internationally backed formula for peace between Israel and the Palestinians.
  • It proposes an independent Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza, with East Jerusalem as its capital. It would exist alongside Israel.
  • The Palestinian Authority backs a two-state solution but Hamas does not recognise Israel’s legitimacy. 
  • Israel rejects a two-state solution. It says any final settlement must be the result of negotiations with the Palestinians, and statehood should not be a precondition.

India announced its recognition of Israel in 1950 and has recognised Palestine in 1988. India has long advocated the need to bring about a Two-State solution through purposeful dialogue and diplomacy. 

Genocide in Gaza: UN Commission of Inquiry:

  • After a multi-year investigation, the UN Commission of Inquiry has concluded that Israeli authorities have committed genocide in Gaza. 
  • The UN Commission found reasonable grounds to conclude that four of the five genocidal acts have been carried out since the Gaza war began following Hamas’s October 2023 attack in Israel. They include:
    • killing members of a community
    • serious bodily and mental harm
    • actions aimed at destroying the group
    • preventing births

Also Read: Is Israel committing Genocide in Gaza? 

The International Court of Justice is hearing genocide charges against Israel, and the International Criminal Court had issued an arrest warrant for Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in 2024. 

What is the Scarborough Shoal and what is China planning there?

Context: China has approved the creation of a national reserve at Scarborough shoal - one of Asia’s most contested maritime features and a diplomatic flashpoint between China and the Philippines.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Scarborough Shoal. 

Recent Developments: 

  • China has approved creation of a national nature reserve at Scarborough Shoal that it says is to preserve 3,524-hectare area of the coral reef ecosystem. It would cover the entire north-eastern side of the triangle-shaped atoll, with close proximity to the sole entrance for larger vessels.
  • The Philippines has urged China to respect the sovereignty and jurisdiction of the Philippines over Scarborough Shoal, and any Chinese construction at Scarborough would be a red line.
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What is Scarborough Shoal? 

  • Chain of reefs in the South China Sea forming a triangular atoll with a central lagoon. It is a disputed atoll in South China Sea claimed by both China and the Philippines.
  • Located about 200 km west of Luzon, Philippines, it lies well within the Philippines’ Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) under UNCLOS.
  • Coveted for its rich fish stocks, potential hydrocarbon reserves, and safe haven for vessels during storms. 
  • It is named Huangyan Island by China, while the Philippines calls it the Panatag Shoal, or Bajo de Masinloc. 

Who does the atoll belong to? 

  • The Philippines and China both lay claim to the Scarborough Shoal, but sovereignty has never been legally established.
  • The shoal is effectively under Beijing’s control, with Chinese coast guard and fishing vessels maintaining constant presence.
  • China seized the shoal in 2012 after a standoff with the Philippines and has held it since then. Filipino boats continue to operate there, but they are dwarfed by China’s larger deployment and face restrictions.
  • The Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) in 2016 ruled in favour of the Philippines on various South China Sea issues, but establishing sovereignty over Scarborough Shoal was not within its scope, leaving ownership unresolved. The ruling affirmed that the China blockade violated international law as it is a traditional fishing ground for multiple countries, including the Philippines, China, and Vietnam.

Bilateral Investment Agreement between India and Israel

Context: Recently, Israel’s Finance Minister visited India and signed a Bilateral Investment Agreement (BIA) with India. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Bilateral Investment Agreement (BIA).  

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Key Features of Bilateral Investment Agreement

  • Israel has become the first Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member state with which India has signed a BIA under its new model Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) framework. 
  • Aim: To facilitate reciprocal investments by providing investors from both countries with legal certainty, transparency and protections.
  • The BIA replaces the earlier investment agreement signed in 1996, which was terminated in 2017.

Significance of Bilateral Investment Agreement: 

  • Groundwork for FTA negotiations: The agreement lays the groundwork for future Free Trade Agreement (FTA) negotiations between India and Israel.
  • Expected to increase bilateral investments between the two countries, which presently stands at a total of $800 million. Includes provisions to safeguard investments against expropriation, ensure transparency, and enable smooth transfers and compensation for losses. 
  • Protection for investors: Incorporates provisions for independent dispute resolution through arbitration, ensuring that investors have recourse in case of disputes.
  • Labour mobility: Israel has already hired a large number of Indian blue-collar workers. BIA may further increase avenues for Indian labour mobility.
  • Balances investor protection with the State’s regulatory rights, preserving sufficient policy space for sovereign governance.

The agreement is expected to strengthen Israeli exports, open new opportunities for both Indian and Israeli investors, and expand trade flows.

India-China Border Relations 

Context: India and China have renewed diplomatic activity such as border patrol agreements, resumption of direct flights and efforts to expand trade and cultural exchanges. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India - China bilateral relations. 

India-China border is un-demarcated and is referred to as the Line of Actual Control (LAC). The border length is around 3,488 km as per India, while China claims it to be about 2,000 km. The different interpretations by the two countries leads to frequent disputes. 

The border is divided into three main sectors

  • Western Sector (Ladakh, ~1597 km): Aksai Chin (~38,000 sq. km) under Chinese occupation, and China also controls Shaksgam Valley ceded by Pakistan in 1963.
  • Middle Sector (Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, ~545 km) which is the least disputed, though differences exist near the Barahoti plains.
  • Eastern Sector (Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim, ~1346 km) where China claims about 90,000 sq. km of Arunachal Pradesh as “South Tibet,” while the Sikkim boundary is formally settled but still faces PLA activity.
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India-China Border Dispute

  • Historically, the 1914 Simla Agreement drew the McMahon Line between British India and Tibet, but China rejected it.
  • China occupied Tibet in 1950 and built a road in Aksai Chin in the 1950s.
  • The 1962 India-China war resulted in India’s defeat, with China retaining Aksai Chin and withdrawing from its advances in Arunachal Pradesh, leaving the boundary issue unresolved. India-China relations after the 1962 war remained tense, with little progress on the boundary dispute.
  • In 1988, Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to Beijing marked a turning point, as it re-opened dialogue after decades of mistrust.
  • However, political instability in India (1989-1991) slowed progress until P.V. Narasimha Rao’s government (1991-1996) was able to re-focus on China.
image 38

Initial Steps (1988-1992): 

  • Between 1988 and 1993, six rounds of talks of the Joint Working Group (JWG) were held.
  • The dialogue included both diplomats and military commanders, with first meetings at Bum La (eastern sector) and Chushul/Moldo (western sector) in 1992.
  • Border trade resumed in 1992 after a gap of over 30 years, and consulates were re-opened in Mumbai and Shanghai in December 1992.

Border Peace and Tranquillity Agreement (BPTA), 1993: 

  • Signed during Prime Minister Narasimha Rao’s visit to Beijing in September 1993.
  • Core Principle: The boundary dispute would be resolved peacefully, and neither side would use or threaten force.
  • The Agreement recognised the Line of Actual Control (LAC) for the first time in an official bilateral document. Both sides agreed :
    • Not to cross the LAC; if intrusions occurred, forces would withdraw upon caution.
    • To jointly check and determine contested segments of the LAC.
    • To maintain minimal force levels along the LAC and reduce them on the principle of mutual and equal security.
    • To freeze the military situation, acknowledging India’s geographic disadvantage compared to China’s easy access through the Tibetan plateau.

The agreement emphasised setting aside the boundary dispute to build cooperation in other areas.

1996 Agreement on Confidence-Building Measures: 

  • Signed during Chinese President Jiang Zemin’s visit to India in 1996.
  • Expanded upon the 1993 BPTA by specifying military confidence-building measures (CBMs).
  • Both sides agreed :
    • Not to use force and to continue peaceful consultations.
    • To reduce or limit military forces and heavy weaponry (tanks, artillery, missiles) in border areas.
    • To avoid large-scale military exercises near the LAC; if held, exercises would be directed away from the other side.
    • Article X: Stressed the need for a common understanding of the LAC alignment. Both sides committed to exchange maps for clarification and confirmation.

Challenge of LAC Clarification

  • In 2000, both sides exchanged maps of the relatively undisputed Central sector.
  • In 2002, maps of the western sector were exchanged, but were rejected within minutes as they represented maximalist positions of both sides.
  • By 2005, efforts to clarify the LAC were abandoned.
  • Key contested areas included: Samar Langpa, Trig Heights, Depsang, Kong Ka La, Pangong Tso, Spanggur Gap, Mount Sajun, Dumchele, Demchok, and Chumar. These same areas became flashpoints in later standoffs, including in 2020.

The 1993 and 1996 agreements marked important milestones in institutionalising peace and stability along the border. However, the failure to define and clarify the LAC meant that the agreements could only postpone and not prevent future confrontations.

The failure to achieve a mutually accepted definition of the Line of Actual Control left the core dispute unresolved making subsequent tensions and face-offs inevitable.

Also Read: hTaking stock of India-China Bilateral Ties 

Crisis in Nepal: Why is Kathmandu Burning?

Context: Recently, Nepal witnessed a violent youth-led movement dominated by a generation known as ‘Gen Z’. It is the largest anti-establishment uprising since the abolition of monarchy in 2008. 

Nepal’s President has appointed former Chief Justice Sushila Karki as the country’s new Prime Minister and dissolved Parliament. He announced fresh elections on March 5, 2026.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India and its Neighbourhood: Crisis in Nepal & its Implications on India. 

Gen Z Protests in Nepal

  • Youth-led movement dominated by those born between 1996 and 2012, a generation known as “Generation Z”, frustrated with corruption, nepotism, unemployment, and political dysfunction. 
  • The protest began after the government banned 26 social media platforms in August 2025, cutting off their main space for expression and mobilisation. 
  • The situation escalated when several protestors in Kathmandu were killed by police firing, turning a demand for digital freedom into a nationwide anti-establishment uprising.

Enraged youth set fire to government buildings, vandalised the homes of former Prime Ministers, attacked ministers, and even freed political prisoners from Central Jail.

Causes of the Protests?

  • Unfulfilled promise of 2008 Republic: Wave of discontent against geriatric and nepotistic leadership that ran Nepal with 17 different prime ministerships in the last 20 years. The governance has remained weak, unstable, and unresponsive.
  • Corruption and Nepotism: Anger against entrenched political elites and their children’s lavish lifestyles while ordinary citizens face unemployment and poverty due to economic stagnation.
  • Youth Disillusionment: Nepal has one of the world’s youngest populations (median age 25). Youth face high unemployment, lack of opportunities, and widespread inequality.
  • Ban of Social Media Platforms: The government’s ban on 26 social media platforms (Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, X, YouTube) cut off Gen Z’s primary space for political expression.
  • State Violence: The killing of protesters by security forces was the tipping point that transformed peaceful dissent into nationwide outrage. 

Nature of the Protests: 

  • Leaderless Mobilisation: Unlike the Jana Andolans of 1990 and 2006, the movement lacked structured leadership or clear political objectives.
  • Spontaneous and Digital-Driven: Mobilisation was initially through social media pages such as Next Generation Nepal.
  • Nihilistic Rage: Protesters attacked homes of five former Prime Ministers, vandalised state institutions, and freed political prisoners, showing an anti-establishment thrust rather than specific reform demands.
  • Urban-Centric but Spreading: While centred in Kathmandu, protests spread to other cities, reflecting nationwide disillusionment.

As protests turned violent, the Prime Minister of Nepal resigned, while the President remained absent deepening the leadership vacuum. In response, the Army was deployed to restore order.

Implications of the Gen Z Protests in Nepal: 

  • Delegitimisation of Political Elites: Attacks on the homes of former Prime Ministers and ministers reflected a collapse of public trust in traditional parties and leaders. 
  • Expansion of Military Role: The Army’s takeover of security functions raises concerns about potential military influence in political decision-making.
  • Emergence of New Political Voices: The protests weakened trust in established political parties and created space for new leaders. At the same time, pro-monarchy groups tried to use the unrest to push for a return of the old order.
  • Regional and Economic Impact: Instability threatens Nepal’s economy, deters investment and tourism, and poses security and diplomatic challenges for India and South Asia.

Implications for India: 

  • Border Management and Security: Political instability in Nepal poses risks of refugee inflows, illegal activities, and cross-border crime across the open India-Nepal border.
  • Strategic Competition: Prolonged chaos could allow China or other external actors to expand their influence in Nepal, challenging India’s traditional strategic space.
  • Economic Disruptions: Instability undermines India’s trade and investment in Nepal, including energy, infrastructure, and hydropower projects.

India must focus its attention on supporting a crucial transition towards a new, more democratic and developed Nepal. 

Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam

Context: Recently, Ethiopia has inaugurated the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, Africa’s biggest dam, despite protest from downstream Egypt. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam. 

Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam

  • Africa’s largest hydroelectric project (largest dam by power capacity). 
  • GERD is built on Blue Nile (spreads over 2 kms), a tributary of the River Nile.
  • Location: Benishangul-Gumuz Region of Ethiopia, near the Sudanese border. 
  • Height: 145 m. It is designed to hold 74 billion cubic metres of water and generate 5150 megawatts (~5 GW) of electricity. 
  • Construction began in 2011, and completed in 2025. 
  • Significance: Electricity generation; Ethiopia can earn revenue by electricity export to neighbouring countries. 
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Associated Concerns

  • Threat to water security: Downstream countries like Egypt (dependent on the Nile for 97% of its water), and Sudan fear that the dam would adversely impact agriculture and undermine water supplies.
  • Risk of Military confrontation: Successive Egyptian presidents have even threatened military action if an agreement is not reached between the countries on fair water usage.
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Key facts about Nile River:

  • The Nile is the longest river in the world. It rises south of the Equator and flows northwards through north-eastern Africa to drain into the Mediterranean Sea. 
  • Length: ~6650 kms
  • The Nile has two major tributaries:
    • White Nile: begins at Lake Victoria and flows through Uganda and South Sudan. 
    • Blue Nile: begins at Lake Tana in Ethiopia and flows into Sudan from the southeast.
  • The two rivers meet at the Sudanese capital (Khartoum). 
  • The Nile River basin spreads in 11 African countries: Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda.

India’s Foreign Policy Challenges: Strategic Autonomy and Multipolarity

Context: In recent years, the concepts of strategic autonomy and multipolarity have become central to India’s foreign policy discourse.

Relevance of the Topic : Mains: India’s pursuit of Strategic Autonomy: Opportunities and Challenges 

Meaning of Strategic Autonomy: 

  • Strategic autonomy refers to a nation’s ability to make sovereign decisions in foreign policy and defence without being constrained by external pressures or alliance obligations. 
  • It does not mean isolationism or neutrality but implies flexibility, independence, and the capacity to engage with multiple powers on one’s own terms.
  • From non-alignment policy during the Cold War to present-day multi-alignment, strategic autonomy has remained the guiding thread of Indian diplomacy.

Meaning of Multipolarity: 

  • Multipolarity refers to a world order where several states possess roughly comparable levels of power, as opposed to unipolarity (one superpower) or bipolarity (two dominant powers).
  • India has long sought multipolarity hoping it would ensure greater fluidity and options in external relations.
  • Scholars have cautioned that multipolar systems are less stable than bipolar ones, as multiple great powers lead to unpredictable alliances and constant recalibration of interests.

India’s Practice of Strategic Autonomy in a Multipolar World:

Relations with the United States: 

  • India participates with the US in initiatives such as the Quad, Indo-Pacific dialogues, I2U2, and the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC). 
  • The friction exists as seen in Trump-era tariffs and the pressure on India to reduce energy and defence links with Russia.
  • India has responded by maintaining engagement with the US, while asserting its right to pursue independent positions. This is an example of strategic autonomy in practice.

Relations with China: 

  • China is India’s biggest trading partner but also its primary security challenge. The 2020 border clashes widened the existing fault-lines, yet India has engaged with China in BRICS and SCO.
  • Strategic autonomy means resisting both confrontation and capitulation (surrender). India balances deterrence through Indo-Pacific partnerships with cautious dialogue.

Relations with Russia: 

  • India’s relationship with Russia is rooted in Cold War solidarity, defence cooperation, and shared strategic interests.
  • Despite Russia’s growing alignment with China and its global isolation after the Ukraine war, India continues to buy oil, import defence equipment, and engage diplomatically.
  • India faces Western criticism but upholds its independent stand, treating the partnership as multidimensional. Strategic autonomy means diversifying partnerships without abandoning old allies.

Challenges of Multipolarity for India: 

  • Uncertainty and Risk of Isolation: In a multipolar world, multiple big powers constantly shift their alliances and policies. Multi-alignment sounds positive in theory, but in practice they may leave India alone in times of crisis, since no power can be fully relied upon.
  • Weakening of Multilateralism: India hoped multipolarity would strengthen global rules and institutions. Instead, many countries are acting unilaterally or making transactional deals, reducing the effectiveness of multilateral forums.
  • Secondary Power Status: In the emerging multipolar world, India is still behind the US and China in terms of economic and military power. This reduces its ability to influence major global decisions.
  • Economic and Technological Dependence: India depends on other major powers for defence equipment, advanced technology, energy, and supply chains. This dependence limits the extent of true autonomy.

Opportunities for India: 

  • Strategic autonomy allows India to engage flexibly with multiple powers without rigid bloc politics.
  • Multipolarity provides India space to assert itself as an independent pole in the Global South, championing issues like development, climate change, and equitable trade.
  • India’s balancing role between the West, Russia, and China enhances its diplomatic importance.
  • The pursuit of indigenous defence production, digital sovereignty, and economic resilience strengthens India’s long-term autonomy.

Way Forward

  • India must invest in economic growth, technological advancement, and defence modernisation to underpin genuine autonomy.
  • Strategic partnerships should be pursued without dependence, ensuring resilience against sudden shifts in global alignments.
  • Multilateral institutions should be strengthened. 
  • Autonomy must extend beyond traditional military and diplomatic domains to include data sovereignty, digital infrastructure, and critical supply chains.
  • India should continue to project itself as the “voice of the Global South,” balancing great power rivalries while asserting its independent agency.

India’s pursuit of strategic autonomy in a multipolar world would involve building economic and technological strength, diversifying partnerships, and asserting its role as an independent pole in global affairs.

India-Singapore Comprehensive Strategic Partnership Roadmap

Context: Recently, the Prime Minister of Singapore was on his official visit to India. India and Singapore marked 60 years of diplomatic ties by adopting a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership Roadmap.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Significance of India-Singapore Comprehensive Strategic Partnership Roadmap. 

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Both countries agreed on a forward-looking roadmap for the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership (CSP) covering eight priority areas. 

Key Elements of the Roadmap towards Comprehensive Strategic Partnership: 

1. Economic Cooperation: 

  • Deepen bilateral trade and market access by Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) and initiate the review of CECA in 2025.
  • Substantial review of the ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITIGA).
  • Semiconductor ecosystem collaboration through policy dialogues, resilient supply chains, R&D partnerships, workforce training, and business-to-business cooperation.
  • Jointly develop sustainable and next-generation industrial parks with advanced manufacturing capabilities.
  • Enhance capital market connectivity through NSE-IFSC-SGX GIFT Connect.

2. Skills Development: 

  • The National Centre of Excellence for Skilling in Advanced Manufacturing will be established in Chennai with Singapore’s support.
  • Both sides will promote cooperation in Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET), curriculum development, certification frameworks, internships, and teacher training.
  • State-level initiatives (such as Singapore-Assam Nursing Talent Skills Cooperation) will be scaled up.

3. Digitalisation and Technology: 

  • Strengthening digital finance and fintech cooperation, cyber security, and capital market linkages.
  • The Joint Working Group on Digital Technologies will explore opportunities in AI, quantum computing, critical and emerging technologies.
  • Specific AI collaboration will involve AI-ready datasets and sectoral applications in agriculture, healthcare, and education.
  • The UPI-PayNow linkage will be expanded to maximise paperless, secure, cross-border payments.

4. Sustainability: 

  • Collaborate on green hydrogen and ammonia production and trade. Explore cooperation in urban water management and civil nuclear energy.
  • Joint work will continue in multilateral platforms such as the International Solar Alliance and Global Biofuels Alliance.
  • Food security cooperation will include export promotion and accreditation frameworks for agricultural products.
  • Green and Digital Shipping Corridor (GDSC) will be developed to strengthen maritime connectivity and promote green maritime fuels.

5. Connectivity: 

  • Maritime connectivity will be expanded through the Green & Digital Shipping Corridor.
  • Aviation connectivity will be expanded through partnerships in aviation and aerospace Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO).
  • Cooperation in Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) will be promoted.

6. Healthcare and Medicine: 

  • The MoU on Health Cooperation will be implemented to cover digital health, disease surveillance, maternal and child health, access to medicines, and combating communicable and non-communicable diseases..

7. People-to-People and Cultural Exchanges: 

  • Student exchanges, including ITI students and Singapore-India Partnership Foundation's immersion programmes will be expanded.
  • Internships for Singaporean students in Indian companies under the India Ready Talent (IRT) programme will be encouraged.

8. Defence and Security: 

  • Deepen defence technology cooperation in AI, quantum computing, automation, and unmanned vessels.
  • Maritime cooperation will include maritime security, submarine rescue, and Maritime Domain Awareness. Singapore acknowledged India’s interest in the Malacca Straits Patrol highlighting shared maritime security interests.
  • The Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty will be used to strengthen cooperation in criminal investigations.

Institutional Mechanisms: 

  • India-Singapore Ministerial Roundtable will be institutionalised as the foremost mechanism to monitor the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership roadmap annually. Regular Foreign Office Consultations will review bilateral relations.

Strategic Significance

  • The roadmap reflects India’s Act East Policy and positions Singapore as a key partner in the Indo-Pacific region.
  • The focus on semiconductors, digital economy, and green shipping aligns with India’s strategic priorities for self-reliance and sustainable growth.
  • Cooperation in maritime security and the Malacca Straits Patrol enhances India’s strategic presence in one of the world’s busiest sea lanes.
  • Skill development initiatives and the National Centre of Excellence in Chennai will strengthen India’s human capital and industry-readiness.
  • Expansion of UPI-PayNow and fintech linkages highlights India’s global leadership in Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI).
  • Counter-terrorism coordination deepens India’s regional and global security partnerships.

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