Daily Current Affairs

2024

Current Affairs

Time for proportional representation

Context: After the recently concluded Lok Sabha elections, there is a debate around the system of elections in India, and should India go for the Proportional representation system in place of the presently used First Past the Post System.

Proportional Representation System vs FPTP

First Past the Post System (FPTP): Under this system, the candidate who polls more than any other in a constituency is declared elected.

Proportional Representation System: The Proportional Electoral System is an electoral system where the political parties get as much representation (number of seats) in the legislature as per the share of votes they secure in the elections.

Advantages of Proportional Representation (PR) over First-Past-the-Post (FPTP)

  • Fairer Representation:
    • PR: Ensures that political parties gain seats in proportion to the number of votes they receive. This means minority groups and smaller parties get better representation in the legislature.
    • FPTP: Often results in a significant disparity between the percentage of votes a party receives and the percentage of seats they win. Smaller parties may be underrepresented.
  • Reduces Wasted Votes:
    • PR: Fewer votes are "wasted" as most votes contribute to the election of a representative.
    • FPTP: More number of votes can be wasted (i.e., not contributing to the election of any candidate) if they are cast for losing candidates.
  • Encourages Multi-Party Systems:
    • PR: Facilitates the existence and success of multiple political parties, promoting a broader spectrum of political viewpoints and policy options, essential for a vibrant democracy like India.
    • FPTP: Often leads to a two-party system, marginalizing smaller parties and reducing voter choice.
  • Higher Voter Turnout:
    • PR: Voters may be more motivated to participate when they feel their vote has a higher likelihood of influencing the outcome.
    • FPTP: Voter turnout can be lower if individuals feel their vote is unlikely to impact the result, particularly in "safe" seats. (As observed in 2024 General elections)
  • Coalition Governments:
    • PR: Encourages coalition governments, which can lead to more collaborative and consensual policymaking.
    • FPTP: Usually leads to single-party majority governments, which may result in more adversarial politics.

Challenges associated with Proportional Representation (PR) compared to First-Past-the-Post (FPTP)

  • Complexity:
    • PR: Involves a more complex voting and counting processes, which can be harder for voters to understand and may require more administrative resources.
    • FPTP: Simple and straightforward, with voters selecting one candidate and the candidate with the most votes winning.
  • Instability:
    • PR: Coalition governments can be less stable, potentially leading to more frequent elections if coalitions break down. 
    • FPTP: Single-party majority governments are generally more stable and less prone to collapse.
  • Fragmentation:
    • PR: Can lead to a fragmented legislature with many small parties, making it difficult to form a cohesive government leading to stalemate on basic issues.
    • FPTP: Typically results in fewer parties with clearer majorities, enabling more decisive governance.
  • Accountability:
    • PR: Coalition governments can dilute accountability as it may be unclear which party or individual is responsible for specific policies or decisions.
    • FPTP: Voters can more easily identify who is responsible for government actions, facilitating greater accountability.
  • Extreme ideologies Parties:
    • PR: May give seats to extremist parties that receive a small but significant portion of the vote, potentially allowing them to influence policy. (Far Right AfD of Germany has been able to secure 15 seats in recently held EU elections.)
    • FPTP: Less likely to give representation to extremist parties, as they typically cannot win enough votes in any single constituency.

Way forward:

Mixed-Member Proportional Representation (MMPR) system can be explored.

  • The Mixed-Member Proportional Representation (MMP) system combines elements of both proportional representation (PR) and first-past-the-post (FPTP) electoral systems.
  • The law commission in its 170th report, ‘Reform of the electoral laws’ (1999), had recommended the introduction of the Mixed-Member Proportional Representation (MMPR) system on an experimental basis. It suggested that 25% of seats may be filled through a PR system by increasing the strength of the Lok Sabha.

Working of Mixed-Member Proportional Representation (MMP): A proportion of the parliament (E.g.: roughly half in the cases of Germany, Bolivia, and Venezuela) is elected by plurality-majority methods, usually from single-member constituencies, while the remainder is constituted by PR lists.

  • Two Votes per Voter:  In some of these systems, the voters are entitled to two kinds of votes.
    • Party Vote: Voters cast a vote for a political party. This vote determines the overall proportion of seats each party will receive in the legislature.
    • Candidate Vote: Voters also cast a vote for a specific candidate to represent their local constituency. The candidate with the most votes in each constituency wins a seat in the legislature.
Merits of Implementing MMPRChallenges associated with the implementation of MMPR
-Proportional Representation: The overall distribution of seats matches the proportion of votes each party receives, addressing the issue of disproportionality in pure FPTP systems.
-Local Representation: Voters still have a direct representative for their local constituency, maintaining the link between constituents and their representatives.
-Reduced Wasted Votes: Votes for smaller parties are less likely to be wasted since these parties can gain compensatory seats even if they do not win many (or any) seats.
-Increased Voter Choice: Voters can support a local candidate from one party while voting for a different party on the party list, providing greater flexibility and choice.
-Balanced Governance: Combines the stability of FPTP (through representatives) with the fairness of PR, potentially leading to more balanced and inclusive governance.
-Implementation examples: The Bundestag (Federal parliament) of Germany uses MMP. Scotland and Wales		-Complexity: The system is more complex than either pure FPTP or pure PR, requiring voters to understand two types of votes and how they contribute to the overall result.
-Potential for Overhang Seats: If a party wins more seats than it is entitled to based on its proportion of the party vote, additional seats (overhang seats) may be created to maintain proportionality, potentially complicating the size and structure of the legislature.
-Coalition Governments: Like pure PR systems, MMP often results in coalition governments, which can be less stable and require more negotiation and compromise among multiple parties.
-Dual Accountability: Representatives elected through the party list may be less accountable to specific local constituencies, potentially leading to a perception of less direct representation.

The Mixed-Member Proportional Representation (MMP) system which is a hybrid electoral model can capture the benefits of both FPTP and PR systems. It can ensure ensure fairer representation while maintaining direct local accountability.

The delimitation exercise to increase the number of seats is due based on the first Census to be conducted after 2026. Determining the number of seats in Lok Sabha solely in proportion to population may go against the federal principles of our country and may lead to a feeling of disenchantment in the States (Southern, Northeastern, and smaller States in the northern region) that stand to lose through such representation.

Mutual Funds vs AIFs

Context: The securities regulator, Sebi, is proposing a new investment option for those willing to take on more risk in exchange for potentially higher returns. This new category aims to bridge the gap between traditional mutual funds and exclusive services like portfolio management.

AIFs and Mutual Funds Explained

Currently, there's a limited selection for investors. Mutual funds offer lower minimum investments but also lower risk profiles. Portfolio management services (PMS) and alternative investment funds (AIFs) cater to high net-worth individuals with higher minimum investments and higher risk tolerance.

  Mutual FundsPortfolio Management Services/ Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs)
InvestorsLow investment size (Retail investors)High investment size-Typically above ₹50 lakh (High Networth Individuals)
RiskRelatively lowerHigh risk appetite
Nature of productsStandard products for all investorsCustomised products
RegulationHeavily regulated by SEBIRegulated by SEBI but less stringent than mutual funds

Emergence of unregulated investment products:

SEBI believes this gap has led some investors who are invest relatively high investment, seeking high returns and have risk appetite fall prey to unregulated investment schemes promising unrealistic returns. This new option would be a regulated product.

Key features of the new asset class proposed by the SEBI:

  • Investment size: Minimum investment is Rs. 10 lakh. This is significantly lower than the minimum investment size for similar high-risk investment options like Portfolio Management Services (PMS) or AIFs which typically start at Rs 50 lakh. 
  • Returns and Risk: Higher risk compared to mutual funds, offering potentially higher returns but will be a regulated product, unlike some unauthorized investment schemes.

Choosing the right track to cut post-harvest losses

Context: India’s post-harvest losses amount to approximately ₹ 1,52,790 crore annually, according to a Ministry of Food Processing Industries 2022 study.

What are post-harvest losses?

  • The post-harvest system should be thought of as encompassing the delivery of a crop from the time and place of harvest to the time and place of consumption. 
  • The expression "post-harvest losses" means a measurable quantitative and qualitative loss in a given product. These losses can occur during any of the various phases of the post-harvest system.
  • From the harvest onward, then, the grain undergoes a series of operations during the course of which quantitative and qualitative losses can occur.

What is the present status of India’s high post-harvest losses?

  • India’s post-harvest losses amount to approximately ₹1,52,790 crore annually, according to a Ministry of Food Processing Industries 2022 study.
  • The biggest loss is from perishable commodities, which include livestock produce such as eggs, fish and meat.
  • During the export of perishables, approximately 19% of food is lost.

What are the causes behind India’s huge post-harvest losses?

Direct Causes

  • Premature harvest result in lower quality and quantity.
  • Poor threshing: Inefficient separation of grain from stalks results in loss of produce.
  • Insufficient drying lead to spoilage and mold growth.
  • Insufficient cleaning-> contamination and quality degradation.
  • Bird, Rodent, and Insect Attacks
  • Improper storage conditions 
  • Poor handling and transportation can lead to physical damage and loss.

    Indirect Causes

    • Inadequate capital: Farmers often lack the financial resources to invest in modern equipment, storage facilities and modern machinery for harvesting, threshing, drying, and cleaning.
    • Lack of professionalism: Limited access to training and education on best post-harvest practices.
    • Lack of Organization: Fragmented supply chains and lack of coordination among stakeholders.
    • Social Constraints: Issues such as land fragmentation and small farm sizes affect efficiency.
    • Economic Constraints: Market inefficiencies and price volatility impact farmers' ability to invest in post-harvest technologies.
    • Political Constraints: Inadequate policy support and lack of investment in agricultural infrastructure.

      Why we should reduce post-harvest losses?

      • To maintain the quality of the product.
      • To increase the agro-export potential.
      • To double the farm income.
      • To ensure food security in the country.
      • To reduce price volatility.
      • To reduce the waste and make agriculture environment friendly.

      A report from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) using the life cycle perspective, estimated about 3.3 G tonnes of CO2 equivalent emissions due to food that was produced but not eaten, without even considering the land use change

      What steps should be taken to reduce Post harvest losses?

      • Investing In adequate storage facilities
        • India’s tropical climate can be bad news for the quality of perishable crops, and there need to be proper climate-controlled storage facilities as well as cold-storage facilities. 
      • Ensuring appropriate harvesting methods at the right stage
        • when the produce has completed its natural growth and is all set for harvesting. It is also important to use the most suitable harvesting methods to prevent losses from premature or delayed harvesting.
      • Effective handling and transportation to reduce damage
        • as the majority of the losses take place during the transportation stage. Rough handling can also cause damage to the crops. They should be properly packed for better protection, ventilation, and labeling. This along with choosing the right vehicle and other tools can go a long way in preserving the produce during transportation.
      • Following the process of sorting & grading for better quality control
        • There need to be higher standards for post-harvest handling and grading. This helps in identifying damaged or low-quality produce, following which the produce can be sorted, which is essentially the removal of bad crops from healthy ones. The continuous check on quality control invariably helps in reducing post-harvest loss.
      • Upgradation of grain drying equipment
      • This assistance encompasses a range of options, including the provision of basic materials like tarpaulins and covers, as well as more advanced grain drying equipment and shelters that offer protection against rainfall. By enabling farmers to access improved drying solutions, we can effectively reduce food losses and improve overall grain quality.

      Agarwood

      About Agarwood

      • Agarwood, also known as oud, aloeswood, or gaharu, is a highly valuable and fragrant resinous wood formed in the heartwood of Aquilaria trees. It is an evergreen tree that can grow to 40 metres.
      • Agarwood is produced when Aquilaria trees are infected by a type of mold, usually Fusarium solani. The tree reacts to the infection (stress-response) by producing a dark aromatic resin, which gives the wood its characteristic fragrance.
      • Geographical Distribution: The tree is native to the countries in South and South-East Asia, particularly India (North-East Indian states), Bangladesh, Bhutan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Thailand.
      image 42
      • Economic value:
        • Agarwood is one of the most expensive natural raw materials in the world. Its value can range to $100000 per kilogram for high-grade resin.
        • Agarwood oil or oud is extracted through steam distillation. This oil is highly prized in the perfume industry, and termed as ‘liquid gold.’
      • Uses: Agarwood is used in the production of high-end perfumes, incense sticks, traditional medicine, and religious and cultural rituals. It is highly valued in Middle Eastern and East Asian cultures.
      • Artificial induction: Given the high demand and conservation issues, methods to artificially induce resin production in Aquilaria trees have been developed. These include mechanical wounding, chemical treatments, and biological inoculation with fungi.
      • Conservation status:
        • Due to unchecked demand for agarwood, trade in the tree and its products is protected by CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). It is listed in Appendix II of the CITES. 
        • IUCN status: The most renowned species for agarwood production is Aquilaria malaccensis which is ‘critically endangered’. Its population has declined over 80% in the past 150 years due to indiscriminate logging and commercial exploitation. 

      One Scientist and One Product

      Context: The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) will launch its “one scientist, one product” programme to improve research in the field of agriculture and animal husbandry.

      About One Scientist and One Product

      • Under this initiative, all 5,521 scientists within the institution (ICAR) are given a target to come up with a product, technology, model, concept, or a good publication. 
      • The program aims to drive maximum productivity without duplicating efforts. 
      • Scientists identify their products, and the ICAR monitors progress at the institute and headquarters levels.
      • The scheme operates over five years, focusing on seed hubs for high-yielding oilseeds and pulses varieties.
        • The council will formally announce the release of 323 varieties of 56 crops, including cereals, oilseeds, forage crops, and sugar cane.
        • These crops include 289 climate-resilient varieties and 27 bio-fortified varieties.
      • Additionally, the ICAR is working to develop 100 new seed varieties and 100 farm technologies in 100 days as part of the Centre’s 100-day action plan.

      Kukrail Reserve Forest

      Context: Adityanath allays razing fears of families living in ‘marked’ houses on Kukrail floodplain.

      Kukrail Reserve Forest explained

      Location and History

      • Established: Planted in the 1950s as an urban plantation forest near Kukrail Pul, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.
      • Purpose: Originally intended as the city's green lungs and a picnic spot.

      Flora

      • Species: Teak, peltophorum, acacia, prosopis juliflora, mango, eucalyptus, holoptelea integrifolia, Dates, Ficus infectoria, peepal, neem, and various other plant species.
      • Nurseries: Includes herbal, medicinal, and sapling nurseries; provides saplings for afforestation across the state.

      Fauna

      • Birds: Over 200 species, including local and migrant birds; best bird watching season from March to April.

      Conservation Efforts:

      • Gharial Conservation:
        • Initiative: Started in 1978 due to dwindling gharial population.
        • Facility: Kukrail Gharial Rehabilitation Centre, known for successful captive breeding.
        • Impact: Released over 5,410 gharial juveniles into various rivers, aiding in species recovery in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and beyond.
        • Collaboration: Managed by Uttar Pradesh Forest Department in partnership with the Ministry of Environment and Forests, India.

      Research and Conservation Activities:

      • Gharial Breeding Program:
        • Breeding Stock: Includes 4 resident females and 2 resident males.
        • Egg Collection: Eggs collected from rivers like Ramganga, Suheli, Girwa, and Chambal; artificial hatching and rearing of young crocodiles.
        • Release: Young gharials released into rivers such as Chambal, Sharda, Ghaghra, Girwa, Ramganga, and Ganges.
      • Scientific Research:
        • Tagging: Juveniles tagged with color-coded and VHF radio tags for monitoring.
        • Biologging: Studies on underwater behavior using lightweight cameras attached to gharials, collecting data on diving depths, swimming speeds, etc.

      Mugger Rehabilitation and Turtle Conservation

      • Mugger Rehabilitation: Rescued crocodiles treated and rehabilitated before release back into rivers.
      • Turtle Conservation: Collaboration with Turtle Survival Alliance under the Ganga Action Plan, focusing on endangered softshell turtles.

      Indian Softshell Turtle

      image 5

      Conservation status:

      • IUCN:   Endangered
      • IWPA:    Schedule I (Part II)
      • CITES :   Appendix I
      • U.S ESA :    Not listed

      Distribution:

      image 6

      Indian softshell turtle’s distribution is restricted to the Ganges, Indus, and Mahanadi River systems in Northen India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Southern Nepal.

      Characteristics, Habitat, and Behaviour:

      • Appearance:
        • Indian softshell turtle has a prominent, tube-like snout and an incredibly flattened shell.
        • Shell (carapace) is smooth, round to oval, olive or green in colour with a yellow border.
        • Limbs are green, underside of the shell is grey to cream.
        • Broad head with black stripes running from the centre towards the sides.
      • Adaptations:
        • Long neck and snorkel-like snout allow it to extend its nose out of water to breathe.
        • Compressed shell facilitates streamlined swimming, making it a fast swimmer.
      • Habitat:
        • Inhabits deep rivers, streams, large canals, lakes, and ponds with mud and sand bottoms.
        • Prefers turbid water conditions.
      • Behaviour:
        • Omnivorous diet includes mollusks, insects, fish, amphibians, waterfowl, carrion, and aquatic plants.

      Major Threats:

      • Habitat Loss:
        • Pollution of water bodies.
        • Closure of canals.
        • Introduction of dams and tidal barrages.
        • Channelization of rivers.
        • Drainage of floodplains.
      • Commercial Exploitation:
        • Professional fishing.
        • Meat consumption.
      • Reduction of Fish Stock:
        • Overfishing leading to depletion of prey species.

      Mugger

      Taxonomy:

      image 7

      Conservation status:

      • IUCN :   Vulnerable
      • IWPAA :    Schedule I
      • CITES :   Appendix I
      • U.S. ESA :    Not listed

      Species Distribution:

      • Countries: India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, and possibly Bangladesh.
      • Westward Range Extension: Extends into eastern Iran.

      Population Status:

      • Local Extinction:
        • Extensive across its historical range.
        • Viable populations now confined to Protected Areas.

      Major Populations:

      • India:
        • Present in 15 states.
        • Significant populations in:
          • Middle Ganga region (Bihar and Jharkand).
          • Chambal River basin (Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh).
          • Gujarat.
          • wii images
      • Characteristics, Habitat, and Behavior:
        • Size and Appearance:
          • Mugger crocodiles are medium to large, with adult males reaching up to 4.5 meters (18 ft) in length and weighing about 450 kg (1000 lbs).
          • They resemble alligators the most among all crocodile species.
          • Juveniles are light tan with black cross-banding, while adults are generally gray to brown.
        • Reproduction and Nesting:
        • Mugger crocodiles are hole-nesting species.
        • Females reach sexual maturity at approximately 1.8-2 meters.
        • They lay 25-30 eggs during the annual dry season.
        • Nests are found in various habitats, including inside their burrows.
        • In captivity, some females can lay two clutches in a single year, though this is not observed in the wild.
        • Incubation period ranges from 55 to 75 days.
      • Diet and Feeding Habits:
        • Muggers are opportunistic predators, utilizing a wide range of food resources.
        • They prefer fish but also feed on crustaceans, insects, small fish, amphibians, reptiles (especially snakes and possibly turtles), birds, and mammals (such as monkeys).
        • Large adults have been documented preying on larger animals like deer and buffalo.

      Major Threats:

      • Habitat Destruction:
        • Agricultural and industrial expansion leading to loss of natural habitats.
      • Entanglement and Drowning:
        • Accidental entanglement in fishing equipment leading to drowning.
      • Illegal Activities:
        • Egg predation by humans for consumption.
        • Illegal poaching for their skin and meat.
        • Use of body parts in traditional medicine.
      • Human-Wildlife Conflict:
        • Increasing incidents of conflict due to human encroachment into the natural habitats of mugger crocodiles.

      Gharial

      15. WWF-India has recently launched a Gharial conservation initiative to protect the animal from ... © Sandeep Behera/WWF-India
      • Scientific Name: Gavialis gangeticus
      • Length: 3-6 meters (Male), 2.5-4 meters (Female)
      • Weight: 150-250 kg
      • Population: Approximately 800
      • Status: Listed in Schedule I of Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and as Critically Endangered on IUCN Red List

      Characteristics

      • Gharial derives its name from "ghara," an Indian word for pot, referring to the bulbous knob (narial excrescence) at the end of their snout.
      • It is the only visibly sexually dimorphic crocodilian species due to this knob.
      • Gharials are largely piscivorous (fish-eating) among all extant crocodilians.
      • They possess a strongly attenuated (narrowed) snout, rows of uniform sharp teeth, and a relatively long, well-muscled neck, making them efficient fish catchers.

      Conservation Issues

      • Habitat Alteration: Dam construction, barrages, and water abstraction convert suitable river habitats into marginal or unsuitable lakes, affecting the quantity and quality of water downstream.
      • Entanglement in Fishing Nets: Gharials, with their long, toothy rostrum, are highly vulnerable to getting trapped underwater in fishing nets, leading to drowning or injury. They are often killed or mutilated while trying to disentangle.
      • River Bed Cultivation: Cultivation on river beds disrupts gharial habitat, alienating them from essential terrestrial components and forcing them to migrate or abandon areas.
      • Sand Mining: Removal of sand from riverbanks destroys gharial basking and nesting sites, impacting their behavior and nesting success. Mining activities can directly harm eggs during nesting seasons.
      • Egg Harvesting: Harvesting of gharial eggs for subsistence food increases egg mortality, reduces recruitment rates, and exposes nests to additional predation by natural predators.

      WWF-India’s Initiatives

      • Species Recovery Programme: Initiated after the National Chambal Gharial crisis in December 2007.
      • Reintroduction Programme: Collaborated with the Uttar Pradesh Forest Department to reintroduce gharials at Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary. Since 2009, 250 captive-reared gharials from Kukrail Rehabilitation Centre have been released into River Ganga.
      • Research Collaboration: Partnered with the University of Tokyo, Japan, for Gharial Bio-logging Science to study underwater behavior and habitat preferences of free-ranging gharials.
      • Community Engagement: Worked with local communities along the River Ganga for biodiversity conservation through education, awareness programs, and Village Panchayat Meetings (Ganga Samrakshan Panchayat).
      • Environmental Conservation Efforts: Focused on maintaining ecological flows (e-flows), reducing impacts of illegal sand mining, pollution control, and addressing issues related to riverbed farming within the Upper Ganga Basin.

      National Green Hydrogen Mission

      Context: The Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE) said that it has developed guidelines for funding of testing facilities, infrastructure and institutional support for the development of standards and regulatory frameworks under the National Green Hydrogen Mission.

      About: National Green Hydrogen Mission

      image 37
      • The Union Cabinet has approved the National Green Hydrogen Mission. The initial outlay for the Mission will be Rs.19,744 crore, including an outlay of Rs.17,490 crore for the SIGHT program, Rs.1,466 crore for pilot projects, Rs.400 crore for R&D, and Rs. 388 crores towards other Mission components.
      • MNRE will formulate the scheme guidelines for implementation of the respective components.

      The Mission will result in the following likely outcomes by 2030:

      • Development of green hydrogen production capacity of at least 5 MMT (Million Metric Tons) per annum with an associated renewable energy capacity addition of about 125 GW in the country
      • Over Rs. Eight lakh crores in total investments
      • Creation of over Six lakh jobs
      • Cumulative reduction in fossil fuel imports over Rs. One lakh crore
      • Abatement of nearly 50 MMT of annual greenhouse gas emissions
      image 41
      • The Mission will facilitate demand creation, production, utilization and export of Green Hydrogen.
      • Under the Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition Program (SIGHT), two distinct financial incentive mechanisms – targeting domestic manufacturing of electrolysers and production of Green Hydrogen – will be provided under the Mission.
      • The Mission will also support pilot projects in emerging end-use sectors and production pathways.
      • Regions capable of supporting large scale production and/or utilization of Hydrogen will be identified and developed as Green Hydrogen Hubs.
      • A robust Standards and Regulations framework will be also developed.
      • Further, a public-private partnership framework for R&D (Strategic Hydrogen Innovation Partnership –SHIP) will be facilitated under the Mission; R&D projects will be goal-oriented, time bound, and suitably scaled up to develop globally competitive technologies.

      Why Hydrogen?

      • A general trend towards development of better fuels is hydrogen-rich fuels.
      • This means more of hydrogen in the fuel and less of carbon or more hydrogen to every carbon atom. Eg: Natural gas 4 hydrogen to every carbon as opposed to very little hydrogen in coal.
      • This is because just like carbon, hydrogen is also combustible, i.e. it mixes with oxygen in the air and gives heat.
      • In addition, moving from a solid to a liquid and then finally to a gaseous state energy carrier.

      Nature Of Hydrogen

      Hydrogen as an energy carrier

      • It is important to understand that all fuels we have seen so far are energy carriers.
      • Hydrogen is the best energy carrier as there are no harmful impact (read carbon emissions)
      • This is because hydrogen is not freely available on earth, but it is in abundance in the form of in water and hydrocarbons.
      • However, to extract hydrogen from water or hydrocarbons you need to expend energy and the energy spent in extracting hydrogen is much more than the amount of energy the so-extracted hydrogen gives out. This is why hydrogen is energy carrier and not an energy source.  (in fact all fuels we have seen are energy carriers)

      Combustible nature

      • Hydrogen is highly combustible i.e. it mixes readily with oxygen to produce heat.

      High energy density per gram

      • Further the amount of energy out of this process is about 3 times higher than that you get when you burn petrol. (26 Kcal/gm for hydrogen compared to 10 Kcal/gm for gasoline).

      Extremely low density per volume

      • However, the problem with hydrogen is that it has low density, meaning the amount of hydrogen mass you can hold in 1 liter is about 71 grams.
      • That means the tank size at normal temperature and pressure to hold hydrogen is very big.
      • In other words, though the fuel itself is lightweight the tank size and therefore the weight of the tank goes higher.
      • This puts a limitation on hydrogen being used as a fuel in private transport.
      • Thus, hydrogen is suitable for large vehicles like buses which requires a limited range but can hold a large tank.
      • This requires hydrogen to compressed at high pressure. Alternately you can liquify hydrogen by compressing and taking away heat.

      How to Make?

      image 40
      • You can’t mine hydrogen. There is virtually no hydrogen gas (or liquid) in the environment.
      • But there’s lots of hydrogen in water and in fossil fuels (hydrocarbons)-but not “free” hydrogen, the molecule H2.
      • That’s what we want for the hydrogen economy.
      • Two major sources of hydrogen on earth are water and hydrocarbons
      • From hydrocarbons
      • Take any hydrocarbon and treat it with steam we get syn gas which is a source of hydrogen.
      • Any hydrocarbon+H2Oà CO+H2
      • Hydrocarbon could be either fossil or biofuel or even organic waste.
      • However, hydrocarbon source of hydrogen is again a problem because the left-over carbon has to go to atmosphere.
      • This makes it dirty. That’s why hydrogen from these sources is colour coded with ‘dirty’ colours like grey, blue, black etc.

      African Elephant

      Context: Shankar (lone African Elephant) may be called sick but scientifically it is undergoing a condition called ‘musth’ which began in the last week of June.

      Musth: (of a male elephant or camel) in a condition marked by heightened aggression and unpredictable behavior that usually occurs annually in association with a surge in testosterone level.

      African Elephants: Key Points

      African Elephant
      1. Size and Physical Features:
        • African elephants are the largest land animals on Earth, characterized by their immense size and distinctive features.
        • They typically weigh between 4,000 to 7,500 kilograms (8,800 to 16,500 pounds) and stand around 3 to 4 meters (10 to 13 feet) tall at the shoulder.
        • Notable physical features include their trunk, which is a fusion of their upper lip and nose used for grasping objects, feeding, and communication.
        • Their large ears are crucial for regulating body temperature by radiating excess heat.
        • Upper incisor teeth develop into tusks, which grow throughout their lifetime.
      2. Distribution:
        • These elephants inhabit 37 countries across the African continent, primarily in sub-Saharan Africa.
        • They are found in a variety of habitats including savannas, forests, marshes, and deserts.
      3. Species and Variations:
        • There are two recognized species of African elephants:
          • Savanna Elephant (Loxodonta africana):
            • Larger in size compared to forest elephants.
            • Characterized by tusks that curve outwards.
          • Forest Elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis):
            • Smaller in size and darker in coloration than savanna elephants.
            • Their tusks are straighter and tend to point downward.
            • Adapted to the dense forests of central and western Africa, particularly the Congo Basin.

      Behavior and Ecology:

      Sleeping Pattern:

      • Elephants, particularly African elephants, have very low sleep requirements.
      • Research indicates they sleep an average of only 2 hours within a 24-hour cycle.

      Family:

      • African elephants live in family units led by a matriarch.
      • Family units consist of several adult cows, their daughters, and subadult sons.
      • Male elephants form alliances with other males after puberty.
      • They communicate using low-frequency infrasonic calls.

      Feeding:

      • African elephants use their trunks to pluck leaves and tusks to tear branches.
      • They can digest various plant parts due to fermentation in the hindgut.

      Intelligence:

      • African elephants are highly intelligent:
      • They possess a large and convoluted neocortex, similar to humans and some other intelligent animals.
      • They exhibit behaviors such as grief, learning, mimicry, play, and tool use.
      • Their cognitive abilities suggest high intelligence comparable to cetaceans and primates.

      Reproduction:

      • Mating and Reproduction:
      • Female African elephants become fertile between 25 and 45 years old.
      • Gestation period lasts up to nearly two years.
      • Calves are cared for by the mother and other young females (allomothering).
      • Females are selective about mating partners, especially during musth in males.
      • Male elephants experience musth, characterized by heightened testosterone and aggression.
      • Older males in musth have higher reproductive success due to competition for females.

      Conservation Status and Threats:

      • Both species of African elephants face significant threats to their survival.
      • Poaching: Illegal hunting for ivory remains a major threat, particularly for tusks that are highly valued in international markets.
      • Habitat Loss: Increasing human populations and expanding agriculture result in habitat fragmentation, limiting their range and access to resources.
      • Human-Wildlife Conflict: Encounters with humans can lead to conflicts, particularly in areas where elephants come into contact with agricultural lands.
      • Conservation efforts focus on anti-poaching measures, habitat protection, and community-based initiatives to mitigate human-elephant conflicts.

      Conservation Efforts:

      • African Elephant Database (1986): Initiated to monitor African elephant populations. Includes data from aerial surveys, dung counts, interviews, and poaching statistics.
      • CITES Listing (1989): African elephant listed on CITES Appendix I. Bans international trade of elephants and their parts among CITES signatories. Hunting banned in Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Côte d'Ivoire, and Senegal.
      • Impact of Trade Ban: After 1990 ban, ivory sales in South Africa dropped over 95% in a decade. Southern African elephant populations recovered post-trade ban.
      • Human-Elephant Conflict Mitigation: African Elephant Specialist Group's Human-Elephant Conflict Task Force established. Aims to develop strategies to mitigate conflicts. 
      • West African Elephant Memorandum of Understanding (2005): Signed by 12 West African countries. Supported by the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. Implemented West African Elephant Conservation Strategy with financial backing for four years.
      • Ban on Export to Zoos (2019): Export of wild African elephants to zoos globally banned. Exception for "demonstrable in-situ conservation benefits". Previously, Zimbabwe exported over 100 baby elephants to Chinese zoos since 2012.
      • Conservation and Climate Change: Elephant conservation has been shown not to conflict with climate change mitigation efforts. Elephants promote soil carbon sequestration despite reducing above-ground biomass.
      • Cultural and Regional Context: Mention of an elephant mask from Ivory Coast highlights cultural significance. Illustrates local engagement and conservation challenges.

      Electroencephalogram (EEG)

      Context: EEG, or electroencephalography, measures brain electrical activity and celebrates its 100th anniversary. Invented by Hans Berger in 1924, EEG captures neuron activity via scalp electrodes, essential for diagnosing epilepsy and assessing brain states like sleep or coma.

      Though limited by volume conduction and surface bias, it remains cost-effective, non-invasive, and useful in clinical and research settings, especially when combined with other technologies like MRI.

      Introduction to EEG

      • EEG (Electroencephalography): A diagnostic test used to detect electrical activity in the brain. It records the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a period of time using multiple electrodes placed on the scalp.
      • Historical Background: The first human EEG was produced by Hans Berger in 1924, marking the centenary of its invention.

      Invention and Development:

      • Pioneering Studies:
        • Richard Caton (1875): Discovered electrical activity in the brains of animals.
        • Adolf Beck (1890): Found fluctuating brain activity in response to sensory stimulation in dogs and rabbits.
        • Vladimir Pravdich-Neminsky (1912): Created the first mammalian EEG on a dog's brain.
        • Hans Berger (1924): Produced the first human EEG, named it, and demonstrated its clinical utility.

      Working Principle

      • Mechanism: EEG measures voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current within the neurons of the brain.
        • Neurons communicate by exchanging ions, generating electrical activity.
        • Electrodes: Small, flat metal discs attached to the scalp that detect this activity.
        • Recording: The detected signals are amplified and recorded on a computer as wavy lines.

      Clinical Applications:

      • Diagnosis:
        • Epilepsy: Primary diagnostic tool for epilepsy.
        • Anesthesia Effects: Monitors brain activity during surgery.
        • Sleep Disorders: Evaluates sleep patterns and disorders.
        • Coma and Brain Death: Assesses neurological function in coma patients and confirms brain death.
      • Research Uses:
        • Neuroscience: Studies brain function and cognition.
        • Cognitive Psychology and Neurolinguistics: Investigates brain processes related to language and cognition.
        • Neuromarketing: Analyzes consumer behavior and brain responses to marketing stimuli.
        • Brain-Computer Interfaces: Develops systems that allow direct communication between the brain and external devices.

      Technical Aspects

      • Volume Conduction: The process of electrical signals passing through the brain's tissues to reach the electrodes. This necessitates correction for accurate interpretation.
      • Electrode Placement:
        • International 10-20 System: Standardized method for placing electrodes on the scalp, ensuring consistent and comparable results.

      Advantages and Limitations:

      • Advantages:
        • Non-invasive, relatively simple, and cost-effective.
        • Portable and doesn't require confinement in a small space.
        • Does not emit radiation.
      • Limitations:
        • Bias towards detecting signals near the scalp.
        • Difficulty in pinpointing the exact origin of deeper brain activity.
        • Requires correction for volume conduction and noise.

      Procedure

      • Preparation: Patients should wash their hair without using conditioners or styling products. They may need to avoid caffeine and certain medications​​.
      • During the Test:
        • Electrodes are attached to the scalp, and the patient is asked to relax and remain still.
        • The procedure typically lasts 20-40 minutes, but can be longer for specific conditions.
      • After the Test: Electrodes are removed, and any sedatives administered during the test are allowed to wear off.

      Affordability and Accessibility

      • EEG is accessible and affordable compared to other neuroimaging techniques like MRI. It is widely used in clinical and research settings due to its simplicity and effectivenes.

      Additional Points

      • Risks: EEG is generally safe, though in rare cases it might trigger seizures in patients with epilepsy due to flashing lights or deep breathing during the test​​.
      • Data Interpretation: The EEG data requires careful interpretation to account for noise and the effects of volume conduction, ensuring accurate diagnostic outcomes.
      • Technological Integration: Modern EEGs often integrate with other imaging modalities such as MRI to improve spatial resolution and diagnostic accuracy​.

      Conclusion:

      • Significance: EEG remains a crucial tool in both clinical diagnostics and scientific research, providing invaluable insights into brain function without invasive procedures. Its historical development and continued advancements underscore its importance in medical science​.

      Chandipura virus (CHPV) infection

      Context: In Gujarat, six children have died of suspected Chandipura virus (CHPV) infection. So far, a total of 12 suspected cases have been reported.

      What is CHPV infection and how is it transmitted?

      Chandipura virus (CHPV) infection
      • CHPV is a single-stranded RNA virus of the Rhabdoviridae family, which also includes other members such as the lyssavirus that causes rabies.
      • Several species of sandflies like Phlebotomine sandflies and Phlebotomus papatasi, and some mosquito species such as Aedes aegypti (which is also the vector for dengue) are considered vectors of CHPV.
      • The virus resides in the salivary gland of these insects, and can be transmitted to humans or other vertebrates like domestic animals through bites. The infection caused by the virus can then reach the central nervous system which can lead to encephalitis — inflammation of the active tissues of the brain. Chandipura virus is not contagious. 

      What are the symptoms of CHPV infection?

      • The CHPV infection presents initially with flu-like symptoms such as acute onset of fever, body ache, and headache. It may then progress to altered sensorium or seizures and encephalitis. Retrospective studies from India have also reported other symptoms such as respiratory distress, bleeding tendencies, or anaemia.
      • The infection progresses rapidly after encephalitis, which may then lead to mortality within 24-48 hours of hospitalisation. Susceptibility has largely remained limited to children below 15 years. 

      How can the infection be managed?

      • The infection can only be symptomatically managed as currently there is no specific antiretroviral therapy or vaccine available for treatment. As a result, it becomes crucial to manage brain inflammation to prevent mortality.

      Which are the worst affected regions in India?

      • The CHPV infection was first isolated in 1965 while investigating a dengue/chikungunya outbreak in Maharashtra. 
      • However, one of the most significant outbreaks of the disease in India was seen in 2003-04 in states such as Maharashtra, northern Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh, with the three states reporting more than 300 deaths of children.
      • The infection has largely remained endemic to the central part of India, often reported in rural, tribal and peripheral areas where the population of CHPV infection-spreading sand flies and mosquitoes is higher. Additionally, the outbreaks are more pronounced in the monsoon season because sand flies multiply more during the season.
      • Sandflies
        • Sand flies are tiny flies — about the quarter of the size of a mosquito — that live in warm areas, usually those that are rural and forested. 
        • They are known to transmit a protozoan parasite — a single celled organism — that causes an infectious disease called leishmaniasis.
        • There are changes in patterns of disease being reported. Sandflies usually do not fly at a height more than 3 feet from the ground but this time during surveillance, sandflies have been found on terraces and higher heights.

      Last Universal Common Ancestor - LUCA

      Context: Researchers in UK have dated the existence of Last Universal Common Ancestor from which all life forms evolved using the theory of molecular clock.

      Theories of origin of life on Earth

      Many theories have been propounded by scientists on the origin of earth. However, there is no consensus on the exact mechanism of origin of life on earth.

      • Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis: Alexander Oparin and J. B. S. Haldane independently proposed that the first molecules making up the earliest life form gradually self-organised from a 'primordial soup' in a young earth's difficult, prebiotic environment. 
      • Miller-Urey experiment: Stanley Miller and Harold Urey from the University of Chicago showed that in right conditions, inorganic compounds could give rise to complex organic compounds. They mixed methane, ammonia and water and then applied a strong electric current - like a lightning strike. The result of this experiment was that the mixture contained amino acids, which are building blocks of proteins. 
      • Meteoritic origin: Some scientists believe that meteorites from space could have brought buildings blocks of life, which was sustained by Earth. In 2019, French and Italian scientists reported discovering extra-terrestrial organic material 3.3 billion years old. Japan's Hayabusa 2 mission to asteroid Ryugu indicated the presence of more than 20 amino acids there.

      About Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA)

      • There has also been a lot of curiosity among the researchers on the evolution of life forms and the rich diversity that they have resulted into. 
      • Scientists believe that all three branches of life - bacteria, archaea and eukarya - originated from a single cell, called the last universal common ancestor (LUCA).
      • There is no fossil evidence to support the existence of LUCA.

      Evidence in support of LUCA:

      • Modern genomes share many features.
      • Theory of Molecular Clock: 
        • Scientists reconstruct the 'tree of life' using the theory of molecular clock. According to this theory, the rate at which mutations are added or removed from a population's genome is proportional to the rate of acquiring new mutations ie genetic mutations in the genetic material occur at a relatively constant rate over time. The rate of mutations also varies between species. 
        • Using this, researchers have developed a way to estimate how much time could have passed between two evolutionary events. Links between a genome and known events like the date of origin of first mammals is used to calibrate the molecular clock.
        • Researchers from university of Bristol and Exeter in UK have constructed a phylogenetic tree of 350 bacterial and 350 archaeal genomes. Using a molecular clock, the team estimated LUCA could have been originated around 4.2 billion years ago, just 300 million years after the birth of earth.
        • These are about one billion years older than earliest fossil evidence found on earth at Pilbara Craton in Western Australia. 
        • According to researchers, LUCA had a small genome with only 2.5 million bases which encoded around 2,600 proteins, just enough to help it survive in a unique environmental niche. 
        • Metabolites produced by LUCA; compounds produced as a result of its metabolism could have created a secondary ecosystem in which other microbes could have emerged. 

      Earliest fossil evidence

      • Researchers have found fossil records of the earliest life-forms in the Pilbara Craton in western Australia, which is one of the few places on the planet where archaean rocks are exposed on ground.
      • These fossils are organisms which lived around 3.4 billion years ago.
      • The origin of LUCA is around a billion years ago from this earliest fossil evidence.

      Significance of the study:

      • Contributes significantly to our understanding of origin and evolution of life on earth.
      • Enables us to look for similar forms of life across the universe.
      • Provides fillip to our abilities to engineer synthetic organisms of various industrial, chemical and biological processes on Earth and create or moderate ecosystems on other planets.

      ISRO has many rockets but too few satellites to launch

      Context: As per the Chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), the space agency’s launch vehicle capability was three-times the demand. In other words, there is less demand for space launch vehicles in the domestic Indian market.

      ISRO’s launch vehicles

      ISRO’s launch vehicles
      • India currently has four launch vehicles:
        • Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) 
        • Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) 
        • Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) 
        • Launch Vehicle Mark-III (LVM-3) 
      • These rockets can launch satellites weighing up to four tonnes to the geosynchronous orbit. India relies on foreign launch vehicles, like Europe’s Ariane V and SpaceX’s Falcon 9, when a satellite weighs more than four tonnes.
      • ISRO also needs launch vehicles for space missions like Chandrayaan 3 and Aditya L1.
      • Applications: The satellites have applications in communications, remote sensing, positioning, navigation and timing (PNT), meteorology, disaster management, space-based internet, scientific missions, and experimental missions. 

      Supply-driven vs Demand-driven model:

      • The Indian space programme used to follow a supply-driven model: ISRO would build and launch satellites and then look for customers who needed the services provided by the satellites. 
      • After the space sector reforms in 2019-2020, ISRO changed this to a demand-driven model. Here, a satellite needs to be built and launched only if there is already demand for it. 

      Present challenges: 

      • Lack of demand:
        • Lack of demand from consumers.
        • Lack of demand is also because of the fact that:
          • Due to technological advancement, the mission life of satellites has become longer. This also reduces the frequency of launch and demand for launch vehicles for replacing the old/defunct satellites. 
          • Launch vehicles are improving. In a single launch, the PSLV can deliver multiple satellites in multiple orbits. 
      • Launch capability limitations: India’s launch vehicles are not powerful enough to undertake certain missions, like Chandrayaan 4. 
      • China used its Long March 5 launch vehicle to launch its Chang’e 4 and Chang’e 5 missions in a single launch. 
      • India’s LVM-3 (most powerful launch vehicle) has less than one-third of Long March 5’s capability (28%) and will need two LVM-3 launches to launch all the components of Chandrayaan 4. 
      • Interplay between the government vs Private sector:
        • Government's Vision: Indian government wants the private sector to:
          • Creating demand among customers.
          • Building and launching satellites.
          • Providing launch services to customers both in India and internationally to generate revenue.
          • Upskilling workers and providing jobs.
        • Private-sector’s concern: Private companies prefer that the government does not compete with them in the launch business. Instead, they want the government to:
          • Be their customer.
          • Provide rule of law and reliable regulations.

      Way Forward: 

      • Educating customers: 
        • The customer of the services provided by the satellite needs to be educated about the need for the service. The customer will then create a demand for a service that will need a satellite to be launched. 
          • E.g., There needs to be a demand for space-based internet in a country already filled with affordable fibre and mobile-based internet services, so a company will launch a constellation of satellites into orbit to provide that service. 
        • The customers include companies, government institutions, defence enterprises, and ordinary people including farmers, bankers, etc. 
      • Upgrading existing launch vehicles: 
        • ISRO plans to upgrade the LVM-3 with a semi-cryogenic engine to boost its payload capacity to six tonnes to the geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). 
        • Further, ISRO should speed its Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV) project, a.k.a. Project Soorya which aims to carry 10 tonnes to GTO. 
      • More autonomy to Private-sector:
        • Government is already moving towards commercialisation of the space-sector. So, in this spirit, ISRO should phase out of the launch vehicle business, leaving it entirely to the private sector. This is akin to the U.S. model, where government agencies contract private companies like SpaceX and Blue Origin for launches.
        • This will help the private sector in revenue generation, focus on technological innovation and invest in creating demand among customers, whereas would free ISRO time and resources to invest in space research and development.  

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