2024

Current Affairs

What is a Safe Harbour?

Context: The legal action initiated by the French authorities against Pavel Durov impinges on the protection that is accorded to social media platforms across jurisdictions under a provision known as “safe harbour”.

What are ‘Safe Harbour’ Rules?

Since social media platforms are generally understood to be crucial tools of free speech, safe harbour is viewed as a basic tenet of enabling freedom of expression on these platforms.
The basic premise of safe harbour protection is: since social media platforms cannot control at the first instance what users post, they should not be held legally liable for any objectionable content that they host, provided they are willing to take down such content when flagged by the government or courts.

Legal Protection in India

Section 79 of Information Technology Act, 2000 it classifies social media platforms as intermediaries and broadly shields them from legal action over the content that users post.
However, this protection extends to companies operating in India with some caveats.
- Under The Information Technology Rules, 2021, social media companies with more than 5 million Indian users have to appoint a chief compliance officer who can be held criminally liable if the platform does not adhere to a takedown request, or violates other norms.
Hence, certain officials from the social media company in question can be legally prosecuted if the platform violates laid-down rules.

What is Social Capital?

Context: Social capital in today’s world has emerged as a transformative force. The jobs situation, economic disparities and environmental degradation necessitate a re-evaluation of traditional business models.

About social capital

It refers to the connections among individuals' social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. It is closely related to civic virtue but emphasizes the importance of social networks in making these virtues effective.
It is often described as the "glue" that holds society together, consisting of trust, mutual understanding, shared values, and behaviours that enable cooperative actions.
It allows a group of people to work together effectively to achieve a common purpose or goal.
These rely on voluntary action and may require external funding for expansion.
In India, social capital is evident in various community-driven initiatives and traditional practices.
- Self-help groups (SHGs), especially among rural women, foster economic empowerment and collective bargaining.
- The Panchayat system strengthens local governance by promoting participation and accountability. It is considered a vital component in development theory. It helps explain why certain economic policies fail when social factors are not taken into account.
- Handicraft-oriented cottage industries rely heavily on strong community bonds, trust, and collaboration among artisans, where skills are passed down through generations, strengthening intra-community ties.
India has a rich tradition of social capital, with collective social entrepreneurship evident since ancient times. The Maurya and Gupta empires saw the emergence of community organizations like Sabhas and Village Councils. These organizations played a significant role in fostering social and cultural nationalism.
It plays a crucial role in promoting inclusive growth, particularly by involving the poor and marginalized in development processes.
It broadens government accountability, encourages compromise, and fosters innovation in policy making. It also enhances the efficiency of public service delivery through the involvement of community groups like Self-Help Groups (SHGs).

Roles of social capital organizations

Service role: Non-profit organizations often lead the way in responding to public needs, functioning as a flexible mechanism to address critical problems.
Value guardian role: These organizations act as value guardians in society, promoting individual initiative for the public good and fostering pluralism, diversity, and freedom.
Advocacy/social safety-valve role: They mobilize public attention to societal problems and represent under-represented groups, thus preserving democracy.
Community building role: Nonprofits create and sustain social cohesion through bonds of trust and reciprocity, essential for the functioning of a democratic society and a market economy.

Recommendations for strengthening social capital

The 2^nd ARC report suggests drafting a model law for Societies and Trusts, with changes to enhance independence, transparency, and dynamism in these institutions.
There is a call for an independent accreditation agency for the voluntary sector and for exemptions in foreign contribution regulations for smaller organizations.
The expansion of the SHG movement is recommended, particularly in financially underserved areas, with support from institutions like NABARD.

De-hyphenating rice – wheat

Context: Wheat is grappling with production challenges despite increasing consumption, while rice is experiencing a surplus issue, causing the two cereals to diverge significantly in their circumstances.

Scenario of wheat and rice production and export of India

Rice Surplus:
- Export Data: India exported 21.21 million tonnes (mt) of rice in 2021-22, 22.35 mt in 2022-23, and 16.36 mt in 2023-24.
- Stock Levels: As of August 1, 2024, rice stocks were at an all-time high of 45.48 mt.
Wheat Shortage:
- Export Data: Wheat exports fell from 7.24 mt in 2021-22 to 0.19 mt in 2023-24, with a ban on exports since May 2022.
- Stock Levels: Central pool stocks of wheat on August 1, 2024, were at 26.81 mt, the lowest in recent times.
Usually, rice stocks are below that of wheat at this time of the year.
This is because wheat is harvested and marketed during April-June, whereas the main kharif rice crop comes in only from October.
The last three years have been unusual, with rice stock levels on August 1, at the tail-end of the crop marketing year, being higher than that of wheat.

Stock in central pool: top wheat producers top rice producers

Production constraints

Rice:
- Geographical Spread: Cultivated across 16 states including Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and others. Grown in both rabi and kharif season
- Water Dependency: Limited primarily by water availability, with Telangana significantly increasing its rice output due to improved irrigation and support prices.
Wheat:
- Geographical Concentration: Grown mainly in eight states, with the top four states (UP, MP, Punjab, Haryana) contributing over 76% of the output. Wheat has a single rabi cropping season.
- Climate Sensitivity: Vulnerable to changing climate conditions such as shorter winters and fluctuating temperatures, affecting production.

Divergence in Consumption: Wheat vs. Rice

Wheat Consumption Trends: Current Consumption Levels:
- Rural India: 3.9 kg per capita per month.
- Urban India: 3.6 kg per capita per month.
- Total Consumption: Approximately 65 million tonnes (mt) for a population of 1,425 million.
Forms of Wheat Consumption:
- Whole-Grain Flour (Atta): Used for basic bread items like roti, chapati, paratha, and poori, as well as dishes like upma and rava kesari.
- Semi-Processed Flour (Sooji/Rava): Coarse flour used in various dishes.
Processed Wheat Products:
- Maida: Refined flour produced from wheat that has been stripped of its bran and germ.
- Production: Involves grinding the endosperm of the wheat grain, filtering, and bleaching.
- Uses: Key ingredient in bakery products (bread, buns, biscuits, cakes), convenience foods (sandwiches, noodles, pasta, pizza, momos, pav-bhaji), and sweetmeats (gulab jamun, jalebi).
- Characteristics: Known for its fine texture, softness, and longer shelf life, but lacks dietary fiber, minerals, B vitamins, and proteins.
Consumption Trends:
- Increasing Use of Processed Wheat: With rising incomes and urbanization, the consumption of wheat in processed forms like maida is growing.
- Data Gaps: Exact figures for processed wheat consumption are not available, but the trend indicates a significant increase.
Rice Consumption Trends:Current Consumption:
- Limited Innovation: Processing and convenience food innovations for rice have been relatively minimal.
- Common Products: Includes traditional dishes such as idli, dosa, murukku, puffed rice (murmura), puddings, and biryani.
Consumption Dynamics:
- Less Diversification: Unlike wheat, rice has not seen significant growth in processed forms or new food products.
- Wheat: Increasing consumption, especially in processed forms like maida, driven by rising incomes and urbanization. Consumption is significant both in traditional whole-grain forms and processed products.
- Rice: Consumption remains stable with limited diversification into processed products and convenience foods.

Policy Implications

Wheat Policy Considerations: Current Consumption Patterns:
- South India: Wheat is a staple, consumed in some form at least once daily.
- North India: Rice has not become as prevalent as wheat in South India.
Processing Infrastructure:
- Roller Flour Mills (RFMs):
  - Quantity: Approximately 1,500 RFMs.
  - Capacity: Process 50 to 500 tonnes of wheat per day into products like maida, sooji/rava, bran, and germ.
- Stone Chakkis:
  - Quantity: Numerous roadside and around 700 organized stone chakkis.
  - Capacity: Grind 50 to 300 kg of wheat per hour to produce whole atta flour.
Future Outlook:
- Short-Term: India may need to become a wheat importer due to rising consumption and production challenges.
- Long-Term Strategy:
  - Improve Yields: Focus on increasing per-acre wheat yields.
  - Develop Climate-Smart Varieties: Breed wheat varieties that can withstand changing climate conditions.
Rice Policy Considerations: Current Production vs. Consumption
- Production: High levels of rice production.
- Consumption: Domestic consumption does not match the production levels, leading to surplus.
Export Restrictions:
- Export Ban: Current ban on exports of white non-basmati rice should be lifted.
- Duties and Floor Prices:
  - Parboiled Non-Basmati Rice: Remove the 20% duty.
  - Basmati Rice: Eliminate the $950/tonne floor price on shipments.
Stock Management:
- Action Required: Immediate policy changes are needed to prevent unmanageable excess stocks.
Wheat: Requires a shift in policy to address rising consumption and production issues, including improving yields and adapting to climate change. The trend suggests India may need to import wheat soon.
Rice: Needs policy adjustments to manage surplus, including lifting export bans and duties to balance production and consumption.

India weighs Russia’s ‘doable’ SWIFT alternative

Context: Russia has proposed using its own financial messaging system, an alternative to SWIFT, to facilitate rupee-rouble trade settlements with India. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has found the proposal "doable" but ongoing discussions are still in progress. Diplomatic considerations are also influencing the decision.

Key points

Diplomatic Context: This development follows a recent meeting between Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Russian President Vladimir Putin in Moscow. Both leaders agreed to promote trade settlement in national currencies and introduce digital financial instruments.
Current Discussions: Meetings have occurred between senior RBI officials, public sector banks, and Russian counterparts regarding the proposed alternative messaging system.
SWIFT Ban: Prominent Russian banks are barred from using SWIFT due to Western sanctions imposed in response to Russia's ongoing war with Ukraine, which began in February 2022.
Russia's Request: With SWIFT access denied, Russia is seeking to involve major trading partners, including India and other BRICS nations, in its own messaging system to facilitate international transactions.
System Functionality: Russia's messaging system aims to ensure uninterrupted financial message transmission between network participants, similar to SWIFT. However, onboarding new entities may take time.
Trade Statistics: India-Russia trade reached $65 billion in 2023-24, primarily driven by Indian purchases of Russian oil. The two countries aim for $100 billion in trade by 2030.
Currency Settlement Goals: Both nations are interested in a national currency settlement system to reduce dependence on hard currencies like the US dollar. This would involve direct exchange rates between the rupee and rouble rather than pegging to the US dollar.

Potential Benefits: Direct settlements in national currencies could reduce reliance on the dollar, potentially lead to cheaper, quicker, and more efficient transactions.

What is the Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)?

Context: The island nation of Tonga hosted the annual meeting of the Pacific Island Forum from August 26 to 30. The week-long meeting was held in Nuku’alofa, the capital of Tonga, and was attended by more than 1,500 delegates from around 40 countries.

About Pacific Island Forum (PIF)

Formed in 1971, PIF is an intergovernmental organisation which consists of 18 member states located in the Pacific region.
Member states (18):
- Australia, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Kiribati, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Republic of Marshall Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
  - Australia and New Zealand are among the wealthiest and largest countries which are part of the organisation.
Aim: To push for economic growth, enhance political governance, strengthen regional cooperation and enhance climate and maritime security for the Pacific region.
Working:
- Annual Forum: The Pacific Islands Forum holds an annual meeting where leaders from member countries discuss and decide on issues affecting the region. The decisions are implemented by the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat (located in Fiji).
- Dialogue Partners: The Forum engages with external partners, including countries like the USA, China, Japan, India and the European Union, through the Forum Dialogue Partners process.
- Observer Status: Some territories and organisations, like the Asian Development Bank and the Commonwealth Secretariat, hold observer status.
Agenda (2024): In this year’s annual meeting, climate change and the China-US battle for influence over the strategic region were the dominating discussions.

Important challenges faced by Pacific Island Forum (PIF) countries:

Sea-level rise due to Climate change:

The recently released World Meteorological Organization (WMO) report revealed that faster-than-average sea level rise, ocean warming, and acidification are threatening the Pacific Islands.
The South-West Pacific was worst hit by sea level rises, in some places by more than double the global average in the past 30 years. Several PIF members are among the world’s worst-affected countries due to rising sea levels.
PIF members have been pushing to raise funds for climate action. The Pacific Resilience Facility (PRF) is a regional financing facility established by PIF to fund initiatives that enhance the resilience of Pacific Island countries to climate change and natural disasters.

Tussle between China and the US for influence over the region:

Earlier, it was Australia and New Zealand which functioned as security partners in the region. In recent years, China has deepened its ties with PIF members. In 2022, China signed a security pact with Solomon Islands.
China has also pressured nations in the grouping to reject the inclusion of Taiwan, with Solomon Islands, Kiribati and Nauru now accepting this position. This has set off alarm bells in Australia and the US.

Japan bets on heat-resistant rice

Context: Japan is currently grappling with a rice shortage caused by extreme weather conditions, resulting in private rice stocks reaching their lowest levels since 1999 and a projected 20% decline in rice production by 2100. To combat this, Japan is focusing on developing heat-resistant rice varieties.

Heat-Resistant Rice

High temperatures and dry conditions last summer led to reduced rice yields and poor grain quality, resulting in the lowest rice inventories in 25 years.
- High heat disrupts starch accumulation in rice grains, causing them to become opaque and mottled, with white flecks and less desirable for human consumption, which reduces their market value.
The Saitama Agricultural Technology Centre in Japan is working on new varieties like 'Emihokoro' that can withstand higher temperatures while maintaining quality.
- Emihokoro has been planted in 31 fields as a trial this year.
- This research involves cultivating and cross-pollinating seeds to produce more resilient strains.

Cross-pollination

Cross-pollination occurs when pollen from the anther of one plant is transferred to the stigma of another plant of the same species.
Outbreeding produces seeds that incorporate both parents’ inherited features, and the resulting progeny are more diverse than those produced through self-pollination.
This genetic recombination results in offspring that often exhibit enhanced vigour, better disease resistance, and other advantageous traits.
Cross-pollinated varieties like the ‘Ambrosia’ corn have been bred for improved resistance to common fungal diseases such as corn smut, ensuring healthier crops.
The 'Golden Rice' project, which cross-pollinated different strains of rice, aimed to enhance yield while also increasing nutritional content, particularly Vitamin A.

La-Nina onset from September 2024

Context: According to the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), the onset of La Nina is expected to take place from September 2024 with the cooling of the Central Pacific Ocean. The La Nina is expected to result in heavy rainfall in September in several parts of North India.

Impact of La-Nina of September in India

Starting mid-September, North India starts experiencing retreat of the Monsoons. However, the La Nina is likely to result in vigorous 'cyclonic activity' in the Bay of Bengal. The cyclonic activity will lead to several episodes of rain in the month.
Since the monsoon rainfall is unequally distributed, the IMD predicts that many parts of Rajasthan, Uttarakhand and Delhi are likely to see heavy rainfall.
However, IMD did not predict the overall rainfall in the month. Weather models used by IMD to forecast rainfall over next week or two have higher accuracy as compared to longer time frames like month or season. There is a need for the IMD for invest in higher order weather prediction models employing supercomputing power, global teleconnections and local systems.

About La Nina

La Niña:

La Niña basically refers to an abnormal cooling of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean waters off the coasts of Ecuador and Peru.
Such cooling (sea surface temperatures i.e. SSTs falling) is a result of strong trade winds blowing west along the equator, taking warm water from South America towards Asia.
The warming of the western equatorial Pacific, then, leads to increased evaporation and concentrated cloud-formation activity around that region, whose effects may spread to India as well.
Atmospheric changes: La Nina events lead to higher pressure in Central and Eastern Pacific (over western South America) and Lower Pressure over Western Pacific (Over Eastern Australia). This pressure gradient intensifies trade winds which pushes westward movement of warm water and strong upwelling of cold water in eastern Pacific (South America’s Pacific Coast).
Positive Feedback: There is a positive reinforcement between the atmospheric and ocean phenomena. This is evident as the stronger trade winds lead to increased upwelling and cooling of the Eastern Pacific region, which further strengthens trade winds.
Usually La Nina events last for 9-12 months. However, they can prolong as well for about two years.

Impact of La Nina in India

La Nina events usually lead to warming of the Indian Ocean, particularly the Western Indian Ocean region due to changes in wind patterns. This also leads to reduced upwelling in the region to leading to reduced fisheries catch.
Monsoon Enhancement: Usually La Niña events leads to strengthening of monsoons in India leading to more rainfalls.
Boost for Agricultural: An enhanced monsoon can benefit agriculture, especially in regions where rainfed agriculture is practiced. More rainfall can lead to higher crop yields or may be one more cycle of farming leading to higher incomes for farmers and food security.
Flood Risks: Increased rainfall can also result in flooding events in low-lying areas leading to damage to life & property.
Winter Temperatures: During La Niña years, northern India may experience colder winters. This is due to a stronger high-pressure system over Central Asia, which can bring cold winds down into the northern plains of India.
Drought Mitigation: La Niña conditions can help alleviate drought situations in regions experiencing water scarcity, as the increased rainfall can replenish reservoirs, rivers, and groundwater levels.

Impact of La Nina (Globally)

• Global Variations:

Australia: During La Niña, Australia typically experiences wetter than average conditions, leading to increased rainfall and sometimes flooding in parts of the country.
South America:
La Niña can bring variable impacts to different parts of South America. In countries like Argentina and Brazil, it can lead to wetter conditions in some regions, benefiting agriculture with increased crop yields. However, in other areas such as parts of Bolivia and Paraguay, drought conditions may prevail, negatively impacting crop production.
Upwelling along the Pacific Coast of South America during La Nina brings cold deep nutrient rich water to the surface, promoting phytoplankton growth leading to boom in fish population in eastern Pacific.
North America: La Niña often results in a more active winter storm track across the northern United States and Canada, leading to increased snowfall and colder temperatures. Conversely, southern United States tends to experience warmer and drier conditions, which can increase droughts risks in already arid regions like the southwestern states.
Southeast Asia: Countries like India, Indonesia and the Philippines may experience increased rainfall during La Niña events, affecting rice production and potentially causing flooding and landslides in vulnerable areas.

• Economic Impact:

Energy Sector: La Niña can influence energy markets globally. For instance, in regions where La Niña results in increased hurricane activity, such as the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, disruptions to oil and gas production can occur, leading to fluctuations in energy prices.
Commodities: Agricultural commodities such as grains (corn, soybeans) and soft commodities (coffee, cocoa) can see price volatility due to changes in production caused by La Niña-induced weather patterns.

• Social and Environmental Consequences:

Small island nations in the Pacific can be particularly vulnerable to the impacts of La Niña, including increased storm surges, coastal erosion, and damage to infrastructure due to intensified tropical cyclones.

• Ecological Effects:

Marine Ecosystems: La Niña alters ocean temperatures and currents, affecting marine life distribution and productivity

• Health Implications:

Vector-Borne Diseases: La Niña can influence the spread of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. Increased rainfall can create breeding grounds for mosquitoes, potentially leading to outbreaks in affected regions.

A ground plan for sustainable mass employment

Context: The Union Budget announced five major employment-related schemes to facilitate jobs and skilling and other opportunities for 4.1 crore youth. This, along with the Economic Survey and the Prime Minister’s package for employment must be seen along with other initiatives for creating mass employment in the country.

What are Major Causes Behind Unemployment in India?

Shift Away from Agriculture: Many workers are leaving farming, but there has not been a commensurate increase in non-farm employment opportunities, especially in the manufacturing sector.
Traditional Factors: Disguised unemployment in agriculture and economic slowdowns due to events like the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, regressive social norms that discourage women from joining or continuing to work.
Infrastructure and Manufacturing: Inadequate growth of infrastructure and low investments and limited focus on labour-intensive sectors like textiles and leather in the manufacturing sector.
Lack of Skills and Education: Only 16% of India’s labour force have undergone some form of skill training. Hence, insufficient vocational skills and low education levels among the workforce reduces their employability. Only 45% of graduates are considered employable according to the India Skills Report.
Women's Participation: Low participation of women in the workforce, influenced by mechanisation in agriculture and the nature of India's manufacturing sector. Additionally, as per NITI Aayog’s 2017-20 agenda, women tend to be paid less, work in less productive jobs and are overrepresented in unpaid care work and engaging in vulnerable forms of employment
Quality of Jobs: While there has been a strong job creation in some ICT- intensive services, a significant portion of them are in traditional low value-added services, where informality & vulnerable forms of employment (gig work) are dominant.
Shrinking Public Sector: A decline of 89% in direct recruitment in central government ministries and departments.

Challenges in Creating Employment in India

The latest Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), which shows that labour force participation rate since 2019-20 has increased by only 4% points.

Impact on Employment: The rise of artificial intelligence (AI) could have an impact on employment as the outsourcing industry in India could be disrupted because some back-office tasks would be taken over by AI.
Lack of Job and Income Security: Investment and regulations are required in the emerging care and digital economies, which could be an important source of productive employment. The lack of job security, irregular wages, and uncertain employment status for workers pose significant challenges for gig or platform work.
Rising Informality in Employment: Informal employment has risen as around half the jobs in the formal sector are of an informal nature. Almost 82% of the workforce is engaged in the informal sector, and nearly 90% is informally employed. Casual work is linked with relatively poor-quality jobs due to its irregular nature and lower daily earnings.
Low Female Labour Force Participation: India’s low LFPR is largely attributed to the low female LFPR, which was much lower than the world average of 47.3% in 2022, but higher than the South Asian average of 24.8%.
Unemployment Among Youth: In 2022, the share of unemployed youths in the total unemployed population was 82.9%. The share of educated youths among all unemployed people also increased to 65.7% in 2022 from 54.2% in 2000.
Inadequate Skilling Infrastructure: The absence of quality and up-to-date infrastructure in many ITIs, polytechnics, and Rural Self Employment Training Institutes (RSETIs) is a very critical gap in an age of upskilling and re-skilling.

What should the key policy initiatives in creating sustainable mass employment with dignity be?

Identifying Skilling Needs through decentralised community action. This can help enumerate all those wanting employment in a community register and making it the basis of finding skill providers and employers.
Converging initiatives for education, health, skills, nutrition, livelihoods, and employment (at the local government level) with women’s collectives to ensure community accountability. Employment does not improve in isolation. All human development indicators achieve better when they devolve and converge.
Introducing need-based vocational courses/certificate programmes alongside undergraduate programmes in every college. This will greatly improve employability on scale by making graduation programmes employable.
Standardising nursing and allied health-care professional courses in all States according to international benchmarks. Nurses, geriatric care-givers, and health paramedics are required on scale in and outside India. We need to standardise these skill sets to international standards.
Creating community cadres of care-givers, to run crèches universally so that women can work without fear. These crèche care-givers can be paid by the local governments/women’s collective after intensive training.
Investing in Industrial Training Institutes (ITI), polytechnics as these technical institutions can also work as a hub for feeder schools. Schools must develop an equivalence framework for academic and vocational inputs in terms of credits and hours. The focus should be on States/districts with the least institutional structure for vocational education.
Introducing enterprise and start-up skills through professionals in high schools: Schools need to introduce technology and enterprise as a subject at the upper primary/high school-level onwards. It is important that experimentation and innovation with an understanding of business processes are a part of the regular school curriculum. Visits by professionals to schools can impart finishing skills to students.
Having a co-sharing model of apprenticeships with industry is critical as far as manufacturing sector opportunities or even the services sector is concerned. Skilling costs must be shared with potential employers as standalone government-funded skilling is not always the best way forward.
Streamlining working capital loans for women-led enterprises/first-generation enterprises to enable them to go to scale. While efforts to create comprehensive credit histories of every woman borrower are underway (Reserve Bank Innovation Hub), technology can be a great enabler in going to scale.
Starting a universal skill accreditation programme for skill providing institutions, and let the state and industry jointly sponsor candidates for courses. Skill providers can be accredited after a rigorous assessment process. Candidates can be co-sponsored by the state and employers.

Apprenticeships on scale can facilitate the absorption of youth in a workplace. The scale must go up. The focus must be on skill acquisition and the government’s condition for employer subsidies in any form must always be for wages of dignity on successful completion of apprenticeship.

Education Ministry defines ‘literacy,’ ‘full literacy’

Context: The Ministry of Education (MoE) has defined ‘literacy,’ and what it means to achieve ‘full literacy,’ in the light of the renewed push for adult literacy under the New India Literacy Programme (NILP).

Definition of literacy and full literacy

Literacy: May be understood as the ability to read, write, and compute with comprehension, i.e. to identify, understand, interpret and create along with critical life skills such as digital literacy, financial literacy etc.
Full literacy: To be considered equivalent to 100% literacy, will be achieving 95% literacy in a State/UT that may be considered as equivalent to fully literate.

Criteria for literacy certification:

Non-literate person may be considered as literate under the NILP, when she/he has been declared literate after taking the Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test (FLNAT).

Significant challenge associated with literacy in India:

According to the Census 2011, with 25.76 crore non-literate individuals in the 15 years and above age group, comprising 9.08 crore males and 16.68 crore females.
Despite the progress made under the Saakshar Bharat programme, which certified 7.64 crore individuals as literate between 2009-10 and 2017-18, an estimated 18.12 crore adults in India remain non-literate.

Non-literate individuals face disadvantages in various aspects of life such as financial transactions, job applications, comprehension of media and technology, understanding of rights and participation in higher productivity sectors.

About New India Literacy Programme (NILP):

Type of scheme: Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
Aim: The goal is to impart foundational literacy and numeracy to one crore learners aged 15 years and above across all states and union territories each year from FY 2022-27.

Key features:

Also known as ULLAS (Understanding of Lifelong Learning for All in Society).
Also to cover all the aspects of Adult Education to align with National Education Policy 2020 has been approved.
Implemented through volunteer teachers, students of schools and Higher Education Institutions and Teacher Education Institution.
Critical life skills (including financial literacy, digital literacy, commercial skills, health care and awareness, child care and education, and family welfare),
Vocational skills development (with a view towards obtaining local employment),
Basic education (including preparatory, middle, and secondary stage equivalency); and

Continuing education (including engaging holistic adult education courses in arts, sciences, technology, culture, sports, and recreation, as well as other topics of interest or use to local learners, such as more advanced material on critical life skills).

T. V. Somanathan appointed Cabinet Secretary

Context: T.V. Somanathan has been appointed Cabinet Secretary of India following the superannuation of Rajiv Gauba.

About The Office of Cabinet Secretariat

The Cabinet Secretariat was created in 1947.
It is headed politically by the Prime Minister and administratively by the Cabinet Secretary
The Cabinet Secretariat has three wings – Civil Wing, Military Wing and Intelligence Wing.
It enjoys the status of a department of the Government of India under the Allocation of Business Rules, 1961
The Cabinet Secretariat has subject related advisors to the Prime Minister

Function of Cabinet Secretariat:

To provide secretarial assistance to the cabinet
To prepare for the meetings of the cabinet
Providing information and material for its deliberations
It keeps a record of the discussions and decision of the cabinet, circulation of memorandum on issues awaiting cabinet approval and circulation of the cabinet decisions to all the ministries.
Preparation and submission of monthly summaries on many specified subjects to the cabinet.
It oversees the implementation of the cabinet decisions by the concerned ministries and other executive agencies.
It functions as the prime coordinating agency in the government of India.

Cabinet Secretary:

The office of Cabinet Secretary was created in 1950.
He is appointed by the Appointment Committee of the Cabinet on the basis of Seniority-cum-merit.
The Cabinet Secretary functions under the leadership of the Prime Minister.
The chief function of the Cabinet Secretary is to aid the council of ministers, ensure inter-ministerial coordination, he deals primarily with cabinet affairs.
Responsible for administration of Government of India (Allocation of Business) Rules, 1961 and Government of India (Transaction of Business) Rules, 1961.
He is the head of the civil service and ensures that the moral of the civil servants remain high.
He also acts as a buffer between the politicians and the civil servants and protect the interest of the latter in situations of conflict between the two.
He is also the ex-officio Chairman of Civil Services Board (CSB).

Shivaji statue in Maharashtra

Context: On Navy Day (December 4), last year, Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated a 35-foot statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji at Rajkot Fort in Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra. However, the statue collapsed recently on August 26, causing embarrassment for the state government. The statue's collapse has sparked a war of words between the ruling and opposition parties in Maharashtra, which is headed for elections.

Introduction

The Marathas played a pivotal role in the decline of Mughal power in India.
Under the dynamic leadership of Shivaji, they posed a formidable challenge to the Mughal Empire in the 1670s.
By the mid-18th century, they had successfully displaced Mughal authority in central India.
In 1674, the Maratha General Venkoji, Shivaji's half-brother, led an invasion of Thanjavur, ending Nayak rule and establishing Maratha dominance in the Tamil region.
This Maratha rule in Thanjavur continued until the death of Serfoji II in 1832.

Early life of Shivaji

Shivaji (1627–1680) was born in Shivner near Junnar to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai.
Shahji was a descendant of the Yadava rulers of Devagiri on his mother’s side and the Sisodias of Mewar on his father’s side.
Shahji served under Malik Ambar, a prominent Abyssinian minister of Ahmed Shah of Ahmednagar.
Following Malik Ambar's death, Shahji played a crucial role in Ahmednagar's politics before entering the service of the Sultan of Bijapur after Ahmednagar's annexation by the Mughals.
Shivaji and his mother were placed under the care of Dadaji Kondadev, who managed Shahji's jagirs at Poona.
Shivaji earned the trust of the Mavali peasants and chiefs, familiarizing himself with the hilly terrain around Poona.
He was also influenced by religious leaders Ramdas and Tukaram, with Ramdas being regarded as his spiritual guru.

Military conquests:

In 1646, he captured the fortress of Torna from the Sultan of Bijapur, followed by the fort of Raigad, which he rebuilt.
After the death of Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji took control of his father’s jagirs and several forts, including Baramati, Indapura, Purandhar, and Kondana.
Despite a temporary lull in military activities due to his father’s imprisonment by the Sultan of Bijapur, Shivaji resumed his campaigns in 1656, capturing Javli and constructing the fort of Pratapgarh.

Conflict with Bijapur:

Following the death of Mohammad Adil Shah of Bijapur in 1656, Shivaji and the Bijapur Sultan Adil Shah II made peace with Aurangzeb, who was engaged in a war of succession in Delhi.
Taking advantage of Aurangzeb's absence, Shivaji invaded north Konkan and captured key cities and forts.
In 1659, Bijapur's Sultan sent Afzal Khan with a large army to subdue Shivaji.
However, Shivaji out maneuvered Afzal Khan and his forces, capturing the fort of Panhala and securing his recognition as the ruler of his territories.

Conflict with the Mughals:

Aurangzeb, who became Emperor in 1658, appointed Shaista Khan as Governor of the Deccan to crush Shivaji.
Shivaji responded by launching a daring attack on Shaista Khan's residence in Poona in 1663, forcing Aurangzeb to recall him.
In 1664, Shivaji attacked and plundered Surat, a major Mughal port.
In response, Aurangzeb dispatched Raja Jai Singh to defeat Shivaji, leading to the Treaty of Purandar in 1665, where Shivaji ceded his forts and agreed to serve as a Mansabdar.
Shivaji's visit to Agra and renewed hostilities:
- Persuaded by Jai Singh, Shivaji visited the Mughal court in Agra in 1666 but was humiliated and briefly imprisoned.
- Upon his escape, Shivaji resumed his military campaigns, reclaiming lost forts and sacking Surat again in 1670.
- He also imposed a chauth, or tribute, on Surat.

Coronation:

In 1674, Shivaji was crowned at Raigad.
He assumed the title of ‘Chhatrapati’ (supreme king).

Deccan campaigns:

In 1676, Shivaji began his career of conquests in the south.
A secret treaty was signed with the Sultan of Golkonda.
Shivaji promised him some territories in return for his support.
He captured Senji and Vellore and annexed the adjoining territories which belonged to his father, Shahji.
He allowed Venkoji or Ekoji to carry on administering Thanjavur.
The Nayaks of Madurai promised a huge amount as tribute.
The Carnatic campaigns added glory and prestige to Shivaji.
Senji, the newly conquered place, acted as the second line of defence for his successors.

Administration:

Central administration

Shivaji established a robust system of administration that was deeply influenced by the Deccan style, particularly drawing inspiration from Malik Amber's reforms in Ahmednagar.
As the supreme head of the state, Shivaji held ultimate authority, but he was supported by a council of eight ministers known as the ‘Ashtapradhan’.
Among these ministers, the Peshwa (also referred to as the Mukhya Pradhan) was initially the head of the advisory council, playing a crucial role in assisting Raja Shivaji in governance.

Revenue administration

Shivaji made significant reforms in revenue administration by abolishing the Jagirdari System and introducing the Ryotwari System, which emphasized direct relationships between the state and the cultivators.
He also redefined the roles of hereditary revenue officials, such as Deshmukhs, Deshpandes, Patils, and Kulkarnis, ensuring stricter supervision over the Mirasdars, who held hereditary rights in land.
The revenue system was modeled after Malik Amber's Kathi system, where each piece of land was measured using a Rod or Kathi.
- In addition to land revenue, Shivaji introduced two significant levies: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
Chauth, accounting for one-fourth of the revenue, was essentially protection money paid to the Marathas to avoid raids by Shivaji's forces in non-Maratha territories.
Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% imposed on areas outside the Maratha kingdom.

Military administration

Shivaji organized a well-disciplined and efficient military force that became a cornerstone of his administration.
The ordinary soldiers in his army were paid in cash, while the chiefs and military commanders were compensated through Jagir grants (known as Saranjam or Mokasa).
His army was composed of three main divisions:
- Infantry (Mavali foot soldiers)
- Cavalry (horse riders and equipment holders)
- Navy

Shivaji’s last years were troubled by his eldest son Sambhaji’s rebellion. He died in 1680, leaving behind a kingdom that spanned the Western Ghats, Konkan, and parts of Karnataka, although some southern provinces were still unsettled at the time of his death.