Rajaji National Park is spread over three districts in the state of Uttarakhand, India. These districts are:
Dehradun
Haridwar
Pauri Garhwal
It was created after merging the three wildlife sanctuaries of Uttarakhand – Rajaji, Motichur and Chilla. It was named after the famous freedom fighter C.Rajgopalachari popularly known as "Rajaji".
Rajaji National Park is spread over an area of 820.42 sq km. Subsequently in 2015, 255.63 sq km area of adjacent reserve forest was added to the area of Rajaji National Park as buffer zone and the whole area of 1075 sq km was declared as Rajaji Tiger Reserve under the provision of Wild Life Protection Act 1972.
Song River is another important river flowing through the reserve. It is a tributary of the Ganga and supports a variety of wildlife and vegetation within the reserve.
Context: India’s second nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine, INS Arighaat, was commissioned into service at Visakhapatnam. It joins the first such submarine, INS Arihant, which was commissioned in 2016.
About INS Arighaat
INS Arighaat is an advanced nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) of the Indian Navy.
Class: INS Arighaat is part of the Arihant-class submarines, which are indigenously designed and developed under the Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project.
Displacement: It measures 111.6 metres in length and has a submerged displacement of approximately 6,000 tons.
Propulsion: The submarine is powered by a 83-MW pressurised light-water reactor with enriched uranium. This enables it to operate quietly and remain submerged for extended periods, unlike conventional diesel-electric submarines that need to surface regularly.
Armament: INS Arighaat is equipped with ballistic missiles capable of carrying nuclear warheads. It is armed with a 750-km-range K-15 Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM), while a 3,500-km-range SLBM K-4 is under development, having been tested for the first time in 2020.
Stealth Features: The submarine has advanced stealth features like noise-reducing coatings and advanced propulsion system, making it harder to detect by enemy submarines and ships.
INS Arihant:
INS Arihant was commissioned into service in August 2016. It has a displacement of 6,000 tonnes and is powered by an 83-MW pressurised light-water reactor with enriched uranium.
INS Arihant is armed with a 750-km-range K-15 Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM), while a 3,500-km-range SLBM K-4 is under development, having been tested for the first time in 2020.
The K4 will become the mainstay of India’s undersea nuclear deterrence, as it gives the stand-off capability to launch nuclear weapons while submerged in Indian waters.
Significance:
INS Arighaat enhances India's nuclear triad, which includes the ability to launch nuclear weapons from land, air, and sea.
The submarine's ability to launch ballistic missiles from underwater provides India with a secure second-strike capability, a crucial component of its nuclear deterrence strategy.
With India’s no-first use nuclear policy, SSBNs (Submarine-Launched Ballistic Nuclear Submarines) play a key role in deterrence due to their difficulty in detection and their ability to survive a surprise attack and execute retaliatory strikes.
The presence of both INS Arihant and INS Arighaat will strengthen India’s nuclear triad,enhance nuclear deterrence, strengthen maritime defence and establish strategic balance.
Main classes of submarines in service with the Indian Navy:
Sindhughosh-class: Variant of the Russian Kilo-class submarines. E.g., INS Sindhurakshak, INS Sindhuvir, INS Sindhuratna.
Shishumar-class: Based on the German Type 209 design, these are diesel-electric submarines equipped with advanced systems. E.g., INS Shishumar, INS Shankush, INS Shalki, and INS Shankul.
Kalvari-class (Scorpène-class): Based on the Scorpène design developed by Naval Group (France). E.g., INS Kalvari, INS Khanderi, INS Karanj, INS Vela, INS Vagir, and INS Vagsheer (yet to be commissioned).
Arihant-class: India's indigenous nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs). These submarines are equipped with nuclear propulsion and are capable of carrying ballistic missiles. Currently, INS Arihant is the operational submarine of this class. The second submarine INS Arighaat has been recently commissioned in August 2024. A third submarine is at an advanced stage of construction, which is set to be larger and more capable than the current two.
Chakra-class: Nuclear-powered attack submarines leased from Russia. Currently, INS Chakra-II, the submarine of this class, is in service with the Indian Navy. Chakra-III is expected to be delivered to the Indian Navy by 2025.
Key Facts:
Countries like the US, Russia, and China have larger SSBNs with longer-range missiles. For example, China has six Jin-class SSBNs with JL-3 missiles capable of 10,000 kilometres, and the US operates 14 Ohio-class SSBNs.
A project costing around Rs 40,000 crore is under consideration by the PM-led Cabinet Committee on Security for the construction of two 6000-tonne ‘hunter-killer’ SSNs (nuclear-powered attack submarines), armed with torpedoes, anti-ship, and land-attack missiles. The construction is expected to take at least a decade.
On conventional submarine development, the Indian Navy has acquired six new Kalvari-class submarines and plans to add 15 more through Project 75 India, Project-76, and Project-75 AS.
Context: Thirty-nine people were killed in a series of coordinated attacks by Baloch Liberation Army (BLA) terrorists in Balochistan province. The separatist assaults took place in Musakhel and Qalat/Kalat districts. Beyond these attacks, insurgents also targeted regional infrastructure and security, striking in Bolan, Mastung, and Gwadar. Balochistan has been the epicentre of a prolonged insurgency in Pakistan, where various separatist groups have launched frequent attacks, mainly against security forces, in their pursuit of independence from the central government in Islamabad.
(Map-Balochistan)
About Balochistan
Balochistan is Pakistan's largest province by land area, located in the southwestern part of the country.
It borders Iran to the west, Afghanistan to the north, and the Arabian Sea to the south.
It is home to the world's largest deep-sea port, the Port of Gwadar, located on the Arabian Sea.
Although Balochistan accounts for approximately 44% of Pakistan's land area, only 5% of its land is arable, and the region is known for its extremely dry desert climate.
One of the earliest pre-Indus Valley Civilisation settlements, Mehrgarh, dating back to around 7000 BCE is located in Balochistan.
Microplastics have been detected in the human brain, blood, lungs, colon, placenta, testicles, and stool.
Recommendations
Advocacy for better policies to control microplastic pollution in India.
Suggested alternatives to microbeads: coffee, apricots, walnut, kiwi seeds, and soluble cellulose beads.
Microplastics, tiny plastic particles less than 5 mm in size, pose significant ecological concerns due to their widespread presence and persistence in the environment.
Ecological concern related to microplastics
Marine Ecosystems: Microplastics are prevalent in marine environments, where they can be ingested by a wide range of marine life, including fish, birds, and mammals. This ingestion can lead to physical harm, such as reduced food intake and suffocation, as well as toxic effects from the chemicals associated with the plastics.
Terrestrial Ecosystems: Microplastics also contaminate soil and freshwater systems. They can enter these environments through runoff, atmospheric deposition, and the breakdown of larger plastic items. In soil, microplastics can affect soil structure and health, impacting plant growth and soil organisms.
Food Chain Contamination: Microplastics can move through the food web, starting from small organisms like zooplankton to larger predators, including humans. This bioaccumulation can lead to higher concentrations of microplastics and associated toxins in top predators.
Human Health: Humans can be exposed to microplastics through the consumption of contaminated food and water, inhalation, and skin contact. Microplastics have been found in human organs and even in the placenta, raising concerns about potential health impacts.
Chemical Pollution: Microplastics can adsorb and transport harmful chemicals, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals, which can further exacerbate their toxic effects on both wildlife and humans.
Addressing the issue of microplastics requires global cooperation and comprehensive strategies to reduce plastic production, improve waste management, and develop alternatives to plastic products.
Context: Union Cabinet has approved the progressive expansion of scope of the 'Agriculture Infrastructure Fund' to make it more attractive, impactful and inclusive.
New Categories under Agriculture Infrastructure Fund
Viable Farming Assets: All eligible beneficiaries of the Agriculture Infrastructure Fund for creation of infrastructure under 'viable projects for building community farming assets'.
Integrated Processing Projects: Inclusion of integrated primary secondary processing projects in the list of eligible projects under Agriculture Infrastructure Fund. However, standalone secondary projects would not be eligible and would be covered under schemes of Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI).
PM Kusum Component-A: Allow convergence of Component A of PM-KUSUM with AIF for farmer/group of farmers/Cooperatives/Panchayats. The alignment of these initiatives aims to promote sustainable clean energy solutions alongside the development of agriculture infrastructure.
NABSanrakshan: Extension of AIF credit guarantee coverage of FPOs through NABSanrakshan Trustee Company. This expansion of credit guarantee options is intended to enhance financial security and creditworthiness of FPOs, thereby encouraging more investments in agricultural infrastructure projects.
About Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF)
AIF is a Central Sector Scheme of Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare.
AIF aims to mobilise a medium-long term debt financing facility for investment in viable projects relating to post-harvest management infrastructure and community farming assets through incentives and financial support.
Funds: AIF aims to provide Rs 1,00,000 crore will be provided for funding agriculture infrastructure projects at farm-gate & aggregation points PACS, FPOs, SHGs and their federations, JLGs, Cooperatives and their federations, Agriculture entrepreneurs, start-ups etc.
Impetus for development of farm gate & aggregation point, affordable and financially viable post-harvest management infrastructure.
Components of Agriculture Infrastructure Fund scheme
Community farming assets like organic inputs production, compressed biogas, bio-stimulant production units, infrastructure for smart & precision agriculture, purchase of drones, sensors, blockchain & AI in agriculture, remote sensing & IOT, nursery, tissue culture, seed processing, custom hiring centre, farm/harvest automation, solar pumping system (PM-KUSUM- A, B & C), spirulina production, sericulture processing units, honey processing, supply chain infrastructure for clusters of crops etc.
Context: The groundbreaking efforts of a conservation and research group based in Austria have led to a remarkable resurgence of the Northern Bald Ibis in Central Europe. Since initiating their project in 2002, the team has successfully reintroduced this continentally extinct migratory bird species, increasing their numbers from zero to nearly 300.
Major Highlights:
A key challenge in reintroducing the Northern Bald Ibis was their innate migration instinct. Without the guidance of experienced wild-born elders, the birds were unable to instinctively determine the correct migratory route.
To address this, the team of scientists and conservationists took on the role of foster parents and flight instructors. By sitting on the back of a microlight aircraft, waving, and shouting encouragement through a bullhorn, they successfully led the birds on their migratory journey, teaching them the essential flight path.
About Northern Bald Ibis
The Northern Bald Ibis is a rare and endangered species of bird belonging to the ibis family.
Appearance: Distinctive black-and-iridescent green plumage, bald red head and long curved red beak.
Size: Approximately 70–80 cm in length with a wingspan of 120–135 cm.
Habitat: Historically, the bird was found across a broad range in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Currently, it is primarily found in a few locations in Morocco, with reintroduction efforts in Turkey and Europe.
Behaviour:
Diet: It is primarily a ground feeder, consuming insects, small reptiles, and other invertebrates.
Social Structure: The birds are social and live in colonies.
IUCN Status: Endangered (earlier listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, due to habitat loss and being hunted virtually to extinction by the 17th century
Context: Study conducted by researchers at the University of Chile, the study analyzed satellite data from 2020 to 2023 to track deformations in the Earth’s crust.
What are its findings
Study Findings: A new study published in IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing reveals that Chile’s Atacama salt flat is sinking at a rate of 1 to 2 centimeters per year due to lithium brine extraction.
Affected Area: The most severe subsidence is occurring in the southwest part of the salt flat, where lithium mining operations are concentrated. The impacted area is approximately 8 km north to south and 5 km east to west.
Cause of Subsidence: The subsidence is attributed to the faster rate of brine pumping compared to the recharge rate of the aquifers, leading to downward movement of the Earth's surface.
Key Facts related to Lithium
Lithium, known as “white gold,” is highly sought after for use in rechargeable batteries, including those in laptops, mobile phones, and electric vehicles, which are essential for climate change mitigation.
Environmental Impact of Lithium Mining:
Water Usage: Producing lithium through brine evaporation requires large quantities of fresh water. In the Atacama Desert, it takes 2,000 tons of water to produce one ton of lithium, causing water scarcity issues for indigenous communities and wildlife.
Chemical Pollution: Chemicals used in lithium extraction, such as sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide, contaminate soil and water, harming ecosystems and endangering species.
Physical and Chemical properties of Lithium (atomic number 3)
It belongs to an alkali metal group, lightest of the solid elements (can float on water). It is soft, white and lustrous.
It has the lowest density of any metal.
It has high specific heat which is the calorific capacity. Other properties are its enormous temperature interval in the liquid state, high thermal conductivity.
It is also found in brine deposits and as salts in mineral springs.
It constitutes about 0.002 percent of Earth’s crust.
It is produced by electrolysis of a fused mixture of lithium and potassium chlorides.
Lithium Distribution:
Although lithium is widely distributed on Earth, it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity.
According to the US Geological Survey (USGS), there are around 80 million tonnes of identified reserves globally as of 2019.
Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile make up the “lithium triangle.” The three countries, along with Peru, contain about 67% of proven lithium reserves and produce about half of the global supply, according to the U.S. Geological Survey.
The Salar de Uyuni salt flat in Bolivia is the world's single-largest lithium resource, and is visible from space
Lithium reserves in India
The ancient igneous rock deposits in the Karnataka’s Mandya district holds the first traces of Lithium ever to be discovered in India. But it is merely 1,600 tonnes.
But in a big development, recently 5.9 million tonnes of lithium reserves found for the 1st time in Jammu and Kashmir.
India currently imports all of its lithium batteries.
Context: The concept of free speech is under discussion after the arrest of Telegram Founder Pavel Durov. In this context let us understand the concept of Free Speech and Article 19 of Indian Constitution.
Right to move freely throughout the territory of India.
Right to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India.
Right to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business.
Originally, Article 19 contained seven rights. But the right to acquire, hold and dispose of property was deleted by the 44th Amendment Act of 1978.
These six rights are protected against only state action and not private individuals. Moreover, these rights are available only to the citizens and to shareholders of a company but not to foreigners or legal persons like companies or corporations, etc.
The State can impose 'reasonable' restrictions on the enjoyment of these six rights only on the grounds mentioned in the Article 19 itself and not on any other grounds. The six rights contained in Article 19 and the grounds of imposing reasonable restrictions on them are mentioned below:
Sl. No.
Rights
Grounds of Restrictions
1
Right to freedom of speech and expression - Article 19(1)(a)
Under Article 19(2): (i) Sovereignty and integrity of India (added by the 16th Amendment Act, 1963)
(ii) Security of the State
(iii) Friendly relations with foreign states (added by the 1st Amendment Act, 1951) (iv) Public order (added by the 1st Amendment Act, 1951)
(v) Decency or morality
(vi) Contempt of court
(vii) Defamation
(viii) Incitement to an offence (added by the 1st Amendment Act, 1951)
2
Right to assemble peaceably and without arms - Article 19(1)(b)
Under Article 19(3): (i) Sovereignty and integrity of India (added by the 16th Amendment Act, 1963)
(ii) Public order
3
Right to form associations or unions or co-operative societies - Article 19(1)(c)
Under Article 19(4): (i) Sovereignty and integrity of India (added by the 16th Amendment Act, 1963)
(ii) Public order (iii) Morality
4
Right to move freely throughout the territory of India - Article 19(1)(d)
Under Article 19(5): (i) In the interests of the general public
(ii) Protection of the interests of any scheduled tribe
5
Right to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India - Article 19(1)(e)
Under Article 19(5): (i) In the interests of the general public
(ii) Protection of the interests of any scheduled tribe
6
Right to acquire, hold and dispose of property - Article 19(1)(f) (Omitted by the 44th Amendment Act, 1978)
No longer applicable
7
Right to practise any profession, or to carry on any occupation, trade or business - Article 19(1)(g)
Under Article 19(6): (i) In the interests of the general public
(ii) Requirement of necessary professional or technical qualification
(iii) Any trade, business, industry or service carried on by the State to the exclusion of citizens (added by the 1st Amendment Act, 1951)
Context: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Governor has informed that a nationwide launch of the Unified Lending Interface (ULI) will transform the lending landscape.
What are Issues with Credit Delivery?
For digital credit delivery, the data required for credit appraisal are available with different entities like Central and State governments, account aggregators, banks, credit information companies and digital identity authorities.
However, these data sets are in separate systems, creating hindrance in frictionless and timely delivery of rule-based lending.
Unified Lending Interface (ULI)
Seamless Flow of Information: The ULI platform will facilitate a seamless and consent-based flow of digital information, including land records of various states, from multiple data service providers to lenders. It will cut down the time taken for credit appraisal, especially for smaller and rural borrowers.
Quicker Delivery of Credit: The platform will reduce the complexity of multiple technical integrations, and will enable borrowers to get the benefit of seamless delivery of credit, and quicker turnaround time without requiring extensive documentation.
Standardised API: The ULI architecture has common and standardised APIs (Application Programming Interface), designed for a ‘plug and play’ approach to ensure digital access to information from diverse sources.
Enhance Financial Inclusion: By digitising access to customer’s financial and non-financial data that otherwise resided in disparate silos, ULI is expected to cater to large unmet demand for credit across various sectors, particularly for agricultural and MSME borrowers.
Further Digitalisation of Economy: With rapid progress in digitalisation, India has embraced the concept of digital public infrastructure which encourages banks, NBFCs, fintech companies and start-ups to create and provide innovative solutions in payments, credit, and other financial activities. The ‘new trinity’ of JAM-UPI-ULI will be a revolutionary step forward in India’s digital infrastructure journey.
Context: The National Seeds Corporation (NSC) has initiated the onboarding of its area and regional offices on an online marketplace to ease access to quality seeds and planting materials online.
About National Seeds Corporation
National Seeds Corporation Ltd. (NSC) was established in March-1963 to undertake production of Foundation and Certified Seeds.
NSC is a Schedule 'B'-Miniratna Category-l company wholly owned by the Government of India under the administrative control of the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare.
Headquarters: New Delhi.
It also has 48 area offices, 11 regional offices, and five farms across the country.
NSC sells seeds and planting material of 80 crops–38 field crops and 42 horticulture crops.
Apart from seeds, some of the NSC offices are also selling indoor and outdoor plants online, such as aglaonema (lipstick plant), snake plant Haiti, golden pothos (money plant), peace lily, aloevera, and ashwagandha on the platform, where anyone can order.
Implications: The move to onboard the NSC offices will enable and encourage farmers to buy certified and quality seeds. It would also help to increase the seed replacement ratio of major field crops.
Context: In a recent study, the research team has reported finding the presence of a rock type called ferroan anorthosite in the lunar soil. The findings are backed by the research from the Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) placed in the Pragyaan rover.
Key facts about the Chandrayaan-3 Mission
Chandrayaan-3 is alunar exploration mission by ISRO which successfully demonstrated ISRO’s end-to-end capability in safe landing and roving on the Moon's surface.
The follow-on mission to Chandrayaan-2 consisted of an indigenous propulsion system, lander module (Vikram) and a rover (Pragyan).
On August 23rd, 2023, Vikram Lander made its historic touchdown on Moon and subsequently Pragyan rover was deployed.
Landing spot: Vikram’s landing spot, named as Statio Shiv Shakti by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), is about 300 km from the largest impact crater (South Pole-Aitken Basin)in the solar system. It is around 8 km deep and 2,500 km wide.
Major objectives:
Demonstrate a safe and soft landing on the surface of the Moon
Conduct rover operations on the Moon
Conduct on-site experiments on the Lunar surface.
Duration: Rover operated for one lunar day (roughly equals 14 Earth days). The lander and the rover have scientific payloads to collect samples of the moon and do in-situ experiments. The Vikram lander would transmit data back to Earth for comprehensive analysis by scientists.
The Virtual Launch Control Centre at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre played a vital role in continuous real-time monitoring of the launch activities from SHAR.
With the success of the mission, India joined the countries, the United States, Russia, and China to successfully land on the Moon.
Advanced instruments in Chandrayaan-3
Propulsion module:
Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) to gather data on the polarisation of light reflected by Earth to assist with exoplanet searches.
Lander payloads:
Chandra's Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE) to measure thermal conductivity and temperature on the surface.
Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA) to detect Moonquakes.
Radio Anatomy of Moon Bound Hypersensitive ionosphere and Atmosphere (RAMBHA) to measure the density of near-surface plasma, encompassing ions, and electrons, and monitor its temporal variations.
Langmuir Probe to estimate the density and variation of plasma, or superheated gas, in the Moon's environment.
Laser Retroreflector Array (from NASA) to measure distances using laser ranging to understand the dynamics of the Moon system.
Rover payloads:
The Pragyaan Rover was equipped with two primary scientific payloads designed to study the lunar surface in detail.
Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS):
Function: To analyse the elemental composition of the lunar soil and rocks.
Working:
APXS emitted alpha particles towards the lunar surface which it produced from a radioactive mass of Curium.
When these alpha particles interacted with the surface, they caused the atoms in the lunar material to emit X-rays. The energy of these X-rays is characteristic of the elements from which they originate.
By detecting and analysing these X-rays, APXS determines the presence and abundance of various elements in the lunar soil, including light elements like magnesium and aluminium, as well as heavier elements like iron and titanium.
Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscope (LIBS):
Function: To examine the chemical and elemental composition of the lunar surface.
Working:
LIBS fires a high-energy laser pulse at the lunar surface. This laser pulse ablates (vaporises) a small amount of material from the surface, creating a plasma.
The plasma emits light as it cools, and this light is analysed by the spectroscope. The specific wavelengths of light emitted correspond to the elements present in the material.
By analysing the emitted spectra, LIBS identifies the elements present in the lunar soil, such as sulphur, aluminium, calcium, iron etc. This information is crucial for understanding the moon’s composition and geological history.
Key findings by the Pragyaan rover:
Discovery of Sulphur: Pragyaan identified the presence of sulphur on the lunar surface. This finding is crucial because sulphur was not detected in this region by previous missions.
Other Elements detected: Along with sulphur, the rover detected elements like aluminium, calcium, iron, chromium, titanium, manganese, silicon, and oxygen. These elements provide insights into the moon’s geological history.
Presence of ferroan anorthosite: It reported the presence of a rock type called ferroan anorthosite in the lunar soil. The consensus among scientists is that these anorthosite rocks could be the remains of an ancient ocean of magma that blanketed the moon’s surface around four billion years ago. It also sheds the light on the moon’s origin.
Ferroan anorthosite is a type of igneous rock that is composed primarily of plagioclase feldspar with a higher iron content.
The moon’s origins:
The moon was born from the remains of a headlong collision between the early earth and some rogue planetary body aeons ago.
The moon’s rocky surface was initially molten. The minerals in there slowly crystallised as the lava cooled to form rocks of various kinds, including ferroan anorthosite.
As the moon has a very thin atmosphere, all the meteorites raining down on the moon reach the surface and beat these rocks down to fine dust over many centuries.
Context - A new study on the high frequency of mass wasting events in the Sedongpu Gully of the Tibetan Plateau since 2017 and the rapid warming of the area, which rarely experienced temperatures beyond 0º C before 2012, could be bad signs for India, specifically the country’s Northeast.
Key facts related to Sedongpu Gulley
The Sedongpu Gully, in the catchment of the Sedongpu glacier and its valley, is 11 km long and covers 66.8 sq. km.
It drains into the Yarlung Zangbo, or the Tsangpo River, near where it takes a sharp turn — called the Great Bend — while flowing around Mt. Namcha Barwa.
This is one of the deepest gorges on the earth.
The Great Bend is close to Tibet’s border with Arunachal Pradesh, where the Tsangpo flows as the Siang River.
In Assam further downstream, the Siang meets the Dibang and Lohit to form the Brahmaputra, which flows as the Jamuna in Bangladesh.
Concept of Mass Movements
Transfer the mass of rock debris down the slopes under the direct influence of gravity.
Weathering is not a pre-requisite for mass movement though it aids mass movements. Mass movements are very active over weathered slopes rather than over unweathered materials.
Air, water or ice do not carry debris with them from place to place but on the other hand the debris may carry with it air, water or ice.
Mass movements are aided by gravity and no geomorphic agent like running water, glaciers, wind, waves and currents participate in the process of mass movements.
Heave: heaving up of soils due to frost growth and other causes, flow and slide are the three forms of movements.
Landslides are relatively rapid and perceptible movements. The materials involved are relatively dry.
Slump is slipping of one or several units of rock debris with a backward rotation with respect to the slope over which the movement takes place.
Debris slide is rapid rolling or sliding of earth debris without backward rotation of Mass.
Debris fall is nearly a free fall of earth debris from a vertical or overhanging face.
Rockslide is sliding of individual rock masses down bedding, joint or fault surfaces.
Solifluction is the flowage of water-saturated soil down a steep slope. Because permafrost is impermeable to water, soil overlying it may become oversaturated and slide downslope under the pull of gravity.
