Security

Project-75I 

Context: As the procurement of new submarines under P-75I goes on, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has taken up a preliminary study on the design and development of an indigenous conventional submarine under Project-76.

What is Project-75I?

  • Project-75 (India), also known as P-75(I), is a military acquisition initiative by the Ministry of Defence (MoD). 
  • The initiative aims to procure diesel-electric attack submarines with fuel cells and Air-Independent Propulsion System (AIP) for the Indian Navy to build India's naval strength and develop indigenous submarine-building capabilities.

Difference between Project 75 and Project 75I?

  • Project 75I is a follow-up to Project 75 and improves upon the design and technology of its predecessor. 
  • The conventional diesel-electric submarines such as the Scorpene, under Project 75, come with improved stealth features such as advanced acoustic absorption techniques, low radiated noise levels, long-range guided torpedoes, tube-launched anti-ship missiles, sonars and sensor suites.
  • However, as electrical batteries power them, they need to surface every 48 hours to be recharged. 
  • The AIP technology will improve on this in Project 75I building six submarines that can stay submerged for up to two weeks. 
    • An AIP module acts as a force multiplier as it enables conventional submarines to remain submerged for a longer duration thereby increasing their endurance and reducing chances of detection.
  • These submarines may even be larger in size compared to the ones under Project 75.
  • Another staggering difference between the projects is the budget, while Project 75 came to just Rs 23,000 crore, Project 75I is beginning at almost double the budget at a staggering Rs 43,000 crore.

However, as the bidding on Project-75I has only just begun, the project itself may take another two years before it starts.

Will the Agnipath scheme be revamped?

Context: After the election results, NDA allies raised the issue of Agnipath and called for a discussion on it. The government is open to changes and discussions are on.

About Agnipath Yojana: 

  • Launched in: 2022
  • Nodal ministry: Ministry of Defence
  • Aim: To ensure a youthful profile for the forces.
  • Eligibility: 17.5 to 21 years.
  • Key features: Replaces the permanent recruitment process in the armed forces.
    • It is a new human resource management scheme for the Armed Forces. Candidates inducted through this scheme will be called Agniveers.
    • Agniveers are recruited for four years on completion of which, up to 25% would be selected into the regular ranks on a permanent basis.
    • The Army is inducting 40,000 Agniveers per year and the Navy and Air Force are recruiting around 3,000 Agniveers each. 
    • Agniveers during their tenure can get class 12 certificates or a Bachelor’s degree in addition to other skill certificates and when leaving after four years will get a lumpsum amount but are not eligible for pension. 
    • On completion of the engagement period of four years, Agniveers will be paid a one-time ‘SevaNidhi’ package which shall comprise their contribution including accrued interest thereon and a matching contribution from the Government equal to the accumulated amount of their contribution
About Agnipath Yojana

Benefits of Agnipath Scheme: 

  • It will inculcate values of discipline, sacrifice, teamwork, physical fitness, ingrained loyalty for the country and brotherhood. 
    • They will be provided with adequate re-employment opportunities for those returning to society and could emerge as role models for the youth. Agniveers will get preference in PSUs, and State Governments’ jobs.
  • After serving the tenure, youth will be able to contribute to other sectors more effectively. Trained personnel will be available to boost national security in times of external threats, internal threats and natural disasters.
  • Modernize the military and provide army with youthful tech savvy soldiers.
  • Across the globe, there is a trend towards reduction in the number of personnel and emphasis on increasing capital expenditure on modern weapons and equipment.

Why is the Agnipath scheme being revamped? 

  • The Army faces a personnel shortage, as 60,000 annual retirements and only 40,000 new recruits yearly, a deficiency exacerbated by the COVID-19 recruitment halt for over two and a half years.
    • The 25% conversion rate to regular soldiers may worsen the shortage.
  • The focus on recruiting a large number of individuals for a short period may compromise the quality of personnel and will dilute professionalism, military ethos & fighting spirit.
  • Takes 7-8 years to become a fully trained combat-ready soldiers. Agniveers will be risk-averse, will lead to the bulk looking for a second career. It may also hit the basic ethos of ‘Naam, Namak and Nishaan’ (reputation of battalion, fidelity & ensign/colours) for which soldiers fight
  • Lead to militarisation of society with around 35,000 combat-trained youth being rendered jobless every year.

Way forward: 

  • For enhancing intake numbers, increasing the permanent recruitment from 25% to at least 50%.
  • Increase the age limit for entry though the technical route from 21 to 23 years to attract enough technically qualified individuals.
  • The Indian Army suggested increasing the service period for Agniveers from 4 years to 7-8 years.
  • Agniveers should receive a contributory pension plan, a generous gratuity, and compensation for any disabilities incurred during training.
  • Comprehensive training and skill programs should be provided to help Agniveers smoothly transition into civilian life.

Inter-Services Organisation (Command, Control & Discipline) Act, 2023

Context: Ministry of Defence has notified the Inter-Services Organisations (Command, Control and Discipline) Act, 2023. To address the multi-faceted security threats by India there has been emphasis towards increasing jointness and integration of armed forces.

Some efforts towards this include Andaman & Nicobar Command, Strategic Forces Command, Office of Chief of Defence Staff and plans to create five theatre commands. Inter-Services Organisation bill is being enacted to enable joint-services command to function with greater efficiency, expeditious disposal of cases, avoid multiple proceedings and will be a step towards greater integration & jointness among the Armed Forces personnel.

Current challenges to creation of theatre commands and jointness 

  • Currently, there was no legal framework for creation of the Inter-Services Organisation.
  • In exigencies, allows personnel from CAPFs work with Inter-Services Organisation.
  • Commander-in-Chief or Officer-in-Command of inter-service organisations cannot exercise disciplinary /administrative powers over personnel who come from Army, Navy and Airforce and are regulated by these respective acts like Army Act, Navy Act, Air Force Act.
  • Officers serving in ISOs need to be reverted to their respective parent service units for disciplinary or administrative actions leading to delays in justice and administering justice.

The Act will promote theaterisation and jointness by:

  • Pave way for much greater integration & jointness amongst the three Services, lay strong foundation for creation of Joint Structures and further improve the functioning of the Armed Forces.
  • Empowers central government to constitute an inter-services organisation by notification leading to greater integration and jointness in ISOs.
  • Applies to other personnel apart from Armed Forces like CAPFs.
  • The Act will allow tangible benefits such as maintenance of effective discipline in inter-services establishments by the Heads of Inter-Services Organisations by:
    • Empowers Commander-in-chief or Officer-in-Command of ISO with all disciplinary and administrative powers on personnel serving in ISOs.
    • Ensures effective discipline and efficiency in ISOs by heads of ISOs.
    • No requirement of reverting personnel under disciplinary proceedings to their parent service units.
    • Expeditious disposal of cases of misdemeanour or indiscipline.
  • Saving public money & time by avoiding multiple proceedings.
  • This Act further enhances India's movement towards defence theaterisation and further dialogue. and planning is required to further boost India's security.

Salient Feature of Inter-Services Organisation (Command, Control & Discipline)

  • Empowers the Central Government to constitute an Inter- Services Organisation.
  • ISO Act is an enabling act. It does not propose any change in the existing Service Act/Rules/Regulations which are time tested and withstood judicial scrutiny. Service personnel when serving in or attached to an Inter-Services Organisation will continue to be governed by their respective Service Acts. What it does is to empower Heads of Inter-Services Organisations to exercise all the disciplinary and administrative powers as per the existing Service Acts/Rules/Regulations, irrespective of the service they belong to. 
  • The ‘ISO Act - 2023’ shall be applicable to all personnel of regular Army, Navy, and Air force, and to persons of other forces as notified by the Central Government, who are serving in or attached to an Inter-Services Organisation.
  • Empowers the Commander-in-Chief, Officer-in-Command or any other officer specially empowered in this behalf by the Central Government with all the disciplinary and administrative powers in respect of personnel serving in or attached to their Inter-Services Organisations for the maintenance of discipline and proper discharge of their duties, irrespective of the service to which they belong.
  • The Commander-in-Chief or the Officer-in-Command means General Officer/Flag Officer/Air Officer who has been appointed as Commander-in-Chief of Officer-in-Command an Inter-Services Organisation.
  • To maintain Command and Control in absence of the Commander-in-Chief or the Officer-in-Command, the officiating incumbent or the officer on whom the command develops in absence of a Commander-in-Chief or Officer in Charge, will also be empowered to initiate all disciplinary or administrative actions overs the service personnel, appointed, deputed, posted or attached to an Inter-Services organisation.
  • Empowers the Commanding Officer of an Inter-Services organisation to initiate all disciplinary or administrative actions over the personnel appointed, deputed, posted, or attached to that Inter-Services Organisation. For this Act, Commanding Officer means the officer in actual command of the unit, ship or establishment.

Andaman and Nicobar, through a strategic lens

Context: The transformation of India's Look East policy into a robust Act East policy and the critical importance of ocean power, have brought a degree of seriousness to the imperative of developing Indian island territories in general, and the Andaman and Nicobar group in particular.

Strategic importance of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands: 

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  • Located: 700 nautical miles southeast of the Indian mainland.
  • The Malacca Strait, connecting the Indian Ocean to the Pacific, is situated nearby. 
  • Sabang in Indonesia is 90 nautical miles southeast of Indira Point (on Great-Nicobar Island), and Coco Island (Myanmar) is barely 18 nautical miles from the northernmost tip of the Andamans.
    • Myanmar has leased Coco Islands to China for the purpose of setting up a listening post.
  • Share four of India's international maritime zone delimitations with Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, and Bangladesh.
  • Give India substantial ocean space under the United Nations Conference on the Laws of the Sea (UNCLOS) in terms of exclusive economic zone and continental shelf.
  • These islands dominate the Bay of Bengal and the Six Degree and Ten Degree channels which more than 60,000 commercial vessels traverse each year.
  • Other countries, notably China, have expanded their presence in the region.
    • Naval vessels camouflaged as fishing boats have been sighted.
  • Serious challenge: Build-up of Chinese maritime forces at the eastern choke points of the Indo-Pacific.
    • Malacca (between Sumatra and the Malay peninsula),
    • Sunda (between Java and Sumatra),
    • Lombok (between Bali and Lombok),
    • Ombai- Wetar (off East Timor) straits.
  • Against such challenges, A&N Islands should be the first line of offence against any attempt from the East to undermine India's maritime security.

Development of strategic infrastructure in A&N has been slow: 

  • Distance from the mainland have been used as an excuse to delay and stall various projects.
  • Complex procedures for obtaining environmental clearances even for small projects have been a dampener.
  • Regulations on the conservation of forests and native tribes have complicated issues of land acquisition.
  • Coordination challenges: Development of islands and strategic infrastructure is a multi-dimensional project involving several ministries, departments, and agencies. 

Strategic infrastructures that are needed: 

  • Surveillance is required in a vast area around the islands. 
  • Strong element of deterrence must be ensured against any naval misadventure from the East.
  • Infrastructure that can bolster India's maritime economy must be built on the southern group of islands that is strategically located vis-v-vis the main shipping lane from the Indian Ocean to South East Asia.
  • Ease of travel to and between the islands, for rapid movement of people and goods, to increase the pace of development.
  • Improved transportation to create and sustain the tourism potential of the islands.
  • Islands' dependence on mainland support (foodstuffs) or dependence of local industries must be reduced to the extent possible.

The infrastructure that should be prioritised: 

  • The sea area of the islands needs to be monitored and patrolled by aircraft and surface platforms. Example: Separate airfields that can operate aircraft are essential.
  • Ports and fuel storages must be built in both the northern and southern groups of the islands for ships' operational turnaround.
  • The Army, Navy, and Air Force must not only commit more forces, but station the right mix of assets.
  • Work on the Galathea Bay (Great Nicobar Island) transhipment port must be expedited. 
  • Maritime services such as repair and logistics must be developed for international and Indian shipping.
  • Need for developed road networks, high-speed inter-island ferry services, and a seaplane terminal must be developed.
  • Forest and environmental clearances must be accorded with minimum red tape.
  • Concessions for defence infrastructure allowed along India's northern borders must be extended to the A&N Islands.
  • Planned habitation of uninhabited islands should be considered by providing incentives such as free or subsidised land, where eco-friendly entrepreneurial efforts could be encouraged.
  • Leverage international arrangements in the Indo-Pacific such as the Quad and the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) to catalyse development efforts. 

World Cybercrime Index (WCI)

Context: The first edition of World Cybercrime Index has been published by researchers from University of Oxford.

Overview of the World Cybercrime Index (WCI)

  • First-ever global ranking of countries by level of cybercrime threat published by researchers of University of Oxford and UNSW Canberra.
  • Based on research by an international team of experts
  • Ranks the most significant sources of cybercrime at the national level
  • Shows a small number of countries are key cybercrime hotspots
  • Covers five major categories of cybercrime:
    • Technical products/services (malware, botnets, hacking tools)
    • Attacks and extortion (denial-of-service, ransomware)
    • Data/identity theft (hacking, phishing, account compromises)
    • Scams (advance fee fraud, business email compromise)
    • Cashing out/money laundering (credit card fraud, money mules)

Top Cybercrime Hotspots

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Specialization of Countries in Cybercrime

  • Russia and Ukraine: highly technical cybercrime hubs
  • Nigeria: less technical forms of cybercrime, such as scams
  • Romania and US: both high-tech and low-tech crimes
  • India: mid-tech crimes, specializing in scams, considered a "balanced hub"

Challenges in Cybercrime Tracking

  • Offenders mask physical locations behind fake profiles and technical protection.
  • Cybercriminals cannot be easily accessed or surveyed directly due to the illicit, anonymous nature of their activities
  • Technical data is insufficient to map locations as attacks are routed globally

Significance of the WCI

Significance of the WCI

Cybercrime as a Global Issue & Socio-Economic Impact of Cybercrime

Cybercrime as a Global Issue & Socio-Economic Impact of Cybercrime

Relevance to India

  • Ranks 10th in the World Cybercrime Index: India's high ranking in the WCI highlights the significant level of cybercrime threat the country faces.
  • Cybercrime complaints soared by 200% in 2023, with financial losses reaching ₹168.5 crores.
  • Mumbai, Delhi, and Bangalore are among the world's top cities for ransomware detections.
  • The Indian cybersecurity market size is projected to exhibit a growth rate (CAGR) of 16.5% during 2024-2032. It is estimated at USD 4.70 billion in 2024, and is expected to reach USD 10.90 billion by 2029, growing at a CAGR of 18.33% during the forecast period (2024-2029).
  • The Indian government's launch of the National Cyber Security Policy and the establishment of the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) demonstrate its recognition of the cybercrime threat and its commitment to strengthening the country's cybersecurity posture. 
  • The Bureau of Police Research & Development (BPR&D) has developed a Training of Trainers module and several training programmes for various levels of police personnel on the new criminal laws.

Navy chief inaugurates new facilities at Karwar naval base

Context: Chief Admiral inaugurated a 350-m-long major pier for Offshore Patrol Vessels (OPVs) at Naval Base at Karwar in Karnataka as part of Project Seabird. 

More information from the news: 

image 20
  • The naval base at Karwar can accommodate 32 ships and submarines, 23-yard craft, a dual-use naval air station, a full-fledged naval dockyard, four covered dry berths and logistics for ships and aircraft. 
  • The pier would also provide strategic depths and operational flexibility on the western seaboard, especially against Pakistan. 
  • The naval base is being expanded with the aim to make it the largest facility in Asia.
image 21

(Naval Bases in India)

INS Kadamba or Naval Base Karwar or Project Seabird: 

  • It is an Indian Navy base located near Karwar in Karnataka. 
  • The first phase of construction of the base, code-named Project Seabird, was commissioned in 2005. 
  • Kadamba has become India’s third largest operational naval base, after Mumbai and Visakhapatnam. 
  • The Navy's aircraft carrier INS Vikramaditya is based at Karwar.
  • The base also has the country's first sealift facility, a unique shiplift and transfer system for docking and undocking ships and submarines.
  • Significance: 
    • During the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971, the Indian Navy faced security challenges for its Western Fleet in Mumbai Harbour due to congestion in the shipping lanes from commercial shipping traffic, fishing boats and tourists.
    • At the end of the war, various options were considered to address these concerns.
    • Karwar base is a dedicated naval base, between the hills of the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. 
    • The location had significant advantages as being very close to the world's busiest shipping route between the Persian Gulf and east Asia and out of range of most strike aircraft from neighbouring countries.
    • It also offered a natural deep-water harbour and significant land area for expansion, allowing larger aircraft carriers to berth.

Project Seabird: 

  • In 1999, following Pokhran-II, Project Seabird was approved, to pursue the construction of the new naval base at Karwar.
  • The Binaga Bay was dredged and its rock outcrops blasted to allow even large aircraft carriers to turn inside the bay.
  • Anjadip Island is one of the two islands to which the breakwaters are linked for reinforcement. 
    • Located in the Arabian Sea, near the coast of Canacona, Goa.
    • It is politically part of Goa state but geographically the nearest mainland is the coastal Kanara subregion of Karnataka.  
    • It was part of the Portuguese Indian settlements until 1961. 
  • Phase I: 
    • Phase I of INS Kadamba was commissioned in May 2005.
    • Key facilities: ship lift, a ship transfer system for dry docking at the Naval Ship Repair Yard.
  • Phase-II:
    • The Phase-IIA expansion approval was obtained from the Cabinet Committee on Security in 2012, after getting approval from then Defence Minister.
    • New facilities and infrastructure were inaugurated including, two major piers and residential towers.
    • Phase II-B: INS Kadamba will be able to base 50 front-line warships and will be the biggest naval base east of the Suez-canal. 

Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road in Ladakh

Context: The Border Roads Organisation (BRO) has achieved a major milestone by establishing connectivity on the 298-km Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road in Ladakh.

About Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road

image 12
  • It connected the strategically important all-weather 298-km long road from Manali to Leh through Darcha and Nimmu on the Kargil–Leh Highway.
  • It connects Nimmu in the Indus Valley to Padum, the capital of Zanskar, to Darcha village in Lahul and Spiti.
  • This road will become the third axis to the strategically important region, complementing the existing Manali-Leh and Srinagar-Leh routes.
  • It has strategic importance due to its shorter distance and the crossing of only one pass, Shinkun La. 
  • Once the tunnel is operational, this axis will have all-weather connectivity, significantly boosting defence preparedness along the northern borders with China.
  • It will not only strengthen defence preparedness but also provide a significant boost to economic development in the Zanskar valley.

Shinkun La

image 13
  • It is a mountain pass in India, on the state boundary between Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh. It connects the Lahaul region of Himachal Pradesh with the Zanskar region of Ladakh.

Important passes of India

image 100

Maritime Anti-Piracy Act, 2022

Context: The Indian Ocean region spanning across from the eastern coast of Africa to Indian coasts has been a hotbed for piracy activities. Although in the past, Indian Navy and Coast Guard have taken robust anti-piracy steps but due to the absence of any dedicated anti-piracy law, there were several hurdles in efficient handling of such operations.

In this regard, to boost the anti-piracy ecosystem in India and to give effect to United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) relating to repression of piracy on the high seas and for matters connected therewith” (India ratified UNCLOS in 1995), India enacted Maritme Anti-Piracy Act, 2022. Indian Navy Chief Admiral has hailed this act as a "great enabler" such as success of recently conducted operation Sankalp in the Gulf of Aden.

Need for a dedicated Maritime Anti-Piracy Legislation:

  • Giving effect to the International Convention: India is a party to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) adopted by the United Nations on 10 December 1982, and ratified the convention in 1995. But there was absence of any dedicated domestic law on maritime piracy.
  • Addressing inadequacy of Legal mechanism: Up until now, it did not have any domestic law on maritime piracy. Therefore, Indian Penal Code provisions relating to armed robbery are usually used to prosecute pirates apprehended by the Indian Navy and the Coast Guard. However, this has proven to be inadequate in the past. For ex: hijacking of Japanese ship MV Alondra Rainbow in 1999–  first sea piracy case tried by an Indian court–is often cited as an example of such inadequacy. A group of armed Indonesian pirates were captured by the Indian Coast Guard in the Arabian Sea, and they were tried in India. While a sessions court in Bombay tried and convicted the pirates under various sections of the Indian Penal Code, the Bombay high court overruled the lower court’s decision and acquitted all the accused in April 2005. 
  • Rising cases: Gulf of Aden– which separates Somalia and Yemen and connects the Arabian Sea to the Red Sea and through the Suez Canal to the Mediterranean Sea– has seen a rise in attacks by pirates operating from Somalia since 2008. This route is used by 2,000 ships each month for trade between Asia and Europe and the East coast of Africa. Now, with enhanced naval presence in the Gulf of Aden, pirates shifted their area of operations, leading to several such piracy incidents towards the western coast of India as well.

Important Features of the Anti-Piracy Act, 2022:

Applicable to high seas, which includes the Exclusive Economic Zone and all waters beyond the jurisdiction of any other State.

Definition of Piracy

  • Any illegal act of violence or detention or damage or destruction committed by any person, or by the crew or any passenger of a private ship. Such illegal acts come under the definition of piracy if they are committed against another ship or any person or property on board a ship, on the high seas.  
  • If anybody voluntarily participated in operating a ship knowing that it is a pirate ship, they can also be held guilty of piracy. 
  • Any act of inciting or of intentionally facilitating an act is also punishable as piracy.
  • Any act which is deemed piratical under the international law including customary international law.

Definition of Pirate Ship: 

A pirate ship has been defined as a ship which is intended to be used by anybody who controls it for piracy activities. The law applies to ships, seaplanes, and other aircraft capable of being used as a means of transportation on water or being engaged in any operations at sea. 

Punishment:

Whoever commits any act of piracy, shall be punished—

  • with imprisonment which may extend to imprisonment for life or with fine or with both; or
  • with death or with imprisonment for life, if such person in committing the act of piracy causes death or an attempt thereof,
  • In addition, shall also be subject to restitution or forfeiture of property involved in the commission of such offence.
  • An attempt to commit piracy or helping someone to commit piracy is punishable with a jail term of up to ten years or with fine or with both.
  • Participating or organizing or directing others to participate in an act of piracy will be punishable with up to 14 years of imprisonment, or a fine or both.

Implementing Authority:

  • Central government can confer powers of arrest, investigation, and prosecution– as are available to a police officer under the Code of Criminal Procedure– to any of its officers or any state government officer.
  • Authorised personnel may, either generally or on suspicion that a ship is engaged in piracy on the high seas, board such a ship and arrest the persons or seize the pirate ship and property on board.
  • The ship or property seized shall be disposed of only by the order of the court.

Adjudicating Authority:

Central Government shall, after consulting Chief Justice of the concerned High Court, by notification, specify—

  • one or more Courts of Sessions in a State, to be Designated Court for the purposes of this Act;
  • territorial jurisdiction of each such court:
    • Court would have the jurisdiction to handle cases against any person apprehended by or in the custody of the authorised personnel or police– irrespective of their nationality or citizenship of the person along with Indian citizens, or resident foreign nationals in India or stateless people. 
    • Note: However, warships and government-owned ships employed for non-commercial purposes will not be under the jurisdiction of the court.

Bail Conditions:

  • Designated Court shall presume, unless the contrary is proved, that the accused person had committed such offence. (Presumption of Guilt).
  • A person conducting a prosecution before a Designated Court shall be deemed to be a Public Prosecutor appointed under the said Code (Code on Criminal Procedure).

Extradition Provisions:

  • The offences under this Act shall be deemed to have been included as extraditable offences and provided for in all extradition treaties made by India with any other State and which extend to and are binding on India on the date of commencement of this Act.
  • In the absence of a bilateral extradition treaty, the offences under this Act shall be extraditable offences between India and other State on the basis of reciprocity.
  • For the purposes of application of the provisions of the Extradition Act, 1962 (34 of 1962) to the offences under this Act, any ship registered in other State shall, at any time while that ship is operating, be deemed to be within the jurisdiction of that other State whether or not it is for the time being also within the jurisdiction of any other State.

NOTE: No suit, prosecution or other legal proceedings shall lie against authorised personnel for anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done in pursuance of the provisions of this Act.

No suit or other legal proceeding shall lie against the Central Government or any State Government for any damage caused or likely to be caused for anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done in pursuance of the provisions of this Act

To read more about Maritime Piracy: https://compass.rauias.com/current-affairs/maritime-piracy-security-challenge-21st-century/

Trends in International Arms Transfers, 2023 Report by SIPRI

Context: During 2019-23, India emerged as the world's foremost purchaser of arms, according to the most recent findings from SIPRI (Swedish think tank Stockholm International Peace Research Institute).

Key findings of SIPRI’s report:

  • India’s arms imports have increased by 4.7% as compared to 2014-18.
  • Arms imports by European countries increased by 94% between 2014-18 and 2019-23 (in the backdrop of the Russia Ukraine war).
  • Russia remained India’s largest arms supplier (36% of the total).
  • Top three importers: India, Saudi Arabia and Qatar.
  • Ukraine became the fourth largest arms importer.
  • Pakistan, the fifth largest arms importer, received 82% of its arms from China.
  • France emerged as the world's second largest arms supplier after the United States.
  • The largest single recipient of French arms exports was India.

About Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI):

  • It is an international institute based in Stockholm, Sweden. 
  • It was founded in 1966 and provides data, analysis and recommendations for armed conflict, military expenditure and arms trade as well as disarmament and arms control. 
  • The research is based on open sources.

Maritime Piracy: The Great security challenge of the 21st century

Context: Recent years have witnessed pirate attacks in key waterways like the west coast of Africa, Gulf of Aden, Horn of Africa, Bangladesh, and the Strait of Malacca, highlighting persistent challenges to maritime security.

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What is Maritime Piracy?

It refers to criminal acts of robbery, violence, or other illicit activities committed at sea. These acts are typically carried out by individuals or groups known as pirates, who attack ships, seafarers, or coastal areas with the intent of stealing cargo, valuables, or demanding ransom. 

Reasons for Maritime Piracy:

  • Inadequate Maritime policing: Regions such as Gulf of Aden, Horn of Africa often suffer from poor maritime policing, where coastal countries have weak or nonexistent maritime forces. 
  • High shipping traffic and choke points: Piracy-prone areas frequently coincide with major shipping routes, particularly at choke points where geographical features force ships to converge or slow down. E.g., Strait of Malacca.
  • Economic factors and unemployment: Poor governance, political turmoil, and economic instability in coastal regions contribute to high unemployment and poverty. In turn, desperate economic conditions may drive individuals to turn to piracy as a means of financial gain, exacerbating crime rates in these areas. E.g., Somalian region.
  • Legal complexities in International waters: Many piracy-prone areas are international waters, straits, or archipelagic waters falling under the jurisdiction of multiple countries. This complexity leads to challenges in legal frameworks, jurisdictional disputes, and difficulties in coordinating international efforts to combat piracy effectively.

India’s role in Counter Piracy operations:

  • Undoubtedly, the Indian Navy has demonstrated remarkable proactive engagement in the volatile regions off the Horn of Africa and the Gulf of Aden. 
  • Since the initiation of its anti-piracy patrol in 2008, the Indian Navy has consistently intervened, thwarting multiple pirate hijacking attempts on merchant ships. 
  • The navy's unwavering commitment is evident in ongoing operations, such as the recent coordinated rescue of the Sri Lankan fishing trawler, Lorenzo Putha.
  • Notably, the Indian Navy played a pivotal role in pushing back the boundaries of the high-risk area in the Arabian Sea during the peak of Somali piracy (2009-12), showcasing its effectiveness in ensuring maritime security and combatting piracy.

International efforts to combat piracy:

  • The Contact Group on Piracy off the Coast of Somalia (CGPCS) was created in 2009 pursuant to UN Security Council Resolution 1851. This voluntary, ad hoc international forum brings together countries, organizations, and industry groups with an interest in combating piracy. 
  • Shared Awareness and De-confliction (SHADE) (#PrelimsFact) is an international operational counter piracy platform, aimed to encourage partners for sharing information, and to de-conflict operations amongst counter-piracy actors.
  • Djibouti code of conduct established under International Maritime Organisation (IMO) provides for sharing of piracy-related information, through its information sharing network against Ships in the Western Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden. (#India is observer) (#PrelimsFact)
  • United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides the framework for the repression of piracy under international law.

Ways to tackle Maritime Piracy:

Operational measures:

  • Visible presence of Maritime forces: The mere presence of naval ships and aircraft serves as a proactive measure to dissuade pirates from carrying out attacks. 
  • Warning and escort services ensures that merchant ships transiting high-risk areas can join convoys between designated points, enhancing their safety through collective security measures. 
  • Surveillance through Information fusion centers ashore play a crucial role in consolidating data and intelligence, aiding in the identification and tracking of potential threats. 

Long term measures: 

  • International collaboration and communication for sharing critical information to effectively thwart piracy attempts. E.g., US coordinated Maritime coalition.
  • Good governance: Coastal nations must work towards establishing stable political environments, implementing effective governance structures which helps in reducing poverty, and creating an environment less conducive to criminal activities.
  • Economic development: Promoting economic development in coastal regions such as investment in infrastructure, job creation, and sustainable livelihoods can diminish the incentives for individuals to engage in criminal activities at sea.
  • Community engagement: Involving local communities in coastal areas through awareness campaigns in order to integrate them into maritime security efforts. E.g., Puntland strategy (Somalian State).

Operation Sarvashakti

Context: To counter rising terror activities in border Rajouri and Pooch districts of Jammu and Kashmir, the Army launched ‘Operation Sarvashakti’, where terrorists operating on both sides of Pir-Panjal Mountain ranges will be targeted.  

In 2023, there were three major attacks on the security forces, and in the last few years, 20 soldiers have been killed in terrorist attacks in the area. As per the reports, most of the terrorists are believed to be foreigners.

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About Operation Sarvashakti:

  • Forces will be deployed on both sides of the Pir Panjal range to target terrorists. 
  • As part of the operation, additional troops from at least three brigades are being deployed in the sector from various reserve and strike corps. This is done to increase the density of troops in the area.
  1. Troops of Srinagar-based 15, Chinar corps and Nagrota-based 16, White knight corps (a town in Jammu) will be operating simultaneously with other agencies and paramilitary forces.
  2. Jammu and Kashmir Police, CRPF, Special Operations Group, and intelligence agencies will be collaborating closely. 
  3. The operation is being closely monitored by Army Headquarters and Northern Army Command in Udhampur. 
  • Motto: To counteract the resurgence of terrorism sponsored by Pakistani proxy groups and to focus on locating the terrorists’ hideouts in the dense forests, mountains and caves in the area. 
  • Need:
    • Pakistan supports and harbours terrorist groups that operate against India. 
    • Terrorist organisations like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM), have been involved in attacks against the Indian security forces and civilians. 
    • Despite a significant decline in Terrorists activities since 2003, there is a recent resurgence, which prompts coordinated efforts to address the threat. 
    • Operation Sarvashakti is launched on the lines of ‘Operation Sarpvinash’ of 2003. 

About Operation Sarpvinash: 

  • From April 2003, the army carried out its biggest counter-insurgency operation in Jammu and Kashmir. 
  • This was launched to eliminate terrorists who had infiltrated from across the border and set up camps in the thick forests south of the Pir Panjal range. 
  • Around 10,000 troops under the 15 Corps and 16 Corps were involved in the operation.
  • Outcome: 
    • Eliminated terrorists and brought peace to the area that lasted until 2017-18. 
    • About 100 terrorists were killed in the operation.
    • Large number of weapons of various kinds, dumps of explosives, and stores including medicines, and communication equipment were recovered.
    • Some 40-50 terrorist hideouts were demolished.
  • Need of ‘Operation Sarpvinash’: 
    • In the aftermath of the December 13, 2001 terrorist attack on Parliament, the Indian armed forces launched Operation Parakram, a massive mobilisation exercise on the border with Pakistan.
    • In early 2003, sources suggested that more than 300 foreign terrorists had infiltrated across the Line of Control (LoC) and established hideout camps and a communication network. 
    • These terrorists belonging to several Pakistan-based outfits, had created a demilitarised zone in the region. 

Why is the region being constantly targeted?

  • Areas south of Mendhar, which leads to the Pir Panjal ranges through Hilkaka, are one of the shortest routes of access for infiltrators across the LoC into the Kashmir Valley. Dense forests and steep mountain slopes in the region provide adequate cover. 
  • In 2018, Jammu and Kashmir recorded 2,936 cases of ceasefire violations by Pakistan. Approximately 40 percent of the cases took place in Poonch district, particularly in Kerni and Krishna Ghati sectors and about 35 per cent took place in the Rajouri sector.
  • Pakistan targets the region because of two key reasons:
    • Two main roads of the state pass through this region, Jammu-Srinagar highway and the road from Jammu to Poonch, which connects to Mughal Road between Poonch and Shopian in the Valley via Pir Panjal Pass.
      • It’s a strategic corridor, and if hit, it can significantly impact not just the security establishment but also the local population.
    • There is also a demographic factor at play here, as the population of Hindus increases as one goes southwards.
      • These border districts do have a high Muslim population, but experts point out that there are social and cultural differences between them and the Muslims of the Kashmir Valley.
      • Muslims in this region belong to Gujjar and Bakerwal nomadic communities, and have traditionally drawn less sympathy and attention from the Pakistani establishment than the Muslims of the Valley.
  • Problems in these areas could be traced back to the 1948 war between India and Pakistan, where forces sponsored by the latter suffered losses.
  • History also points out the strategic importance of the Chamb area, which was invaded by the Pakistan Army during both the 1965 and 1971 wars. However, the troops were stopped at the Tawi river by the Indian Army. If the Pakistani troops crossed the river, they could have taken Akhnoor and would have been able to disconnect Kashmir from Jammu and the rest of India.
  • The turmoil in these areas began after 1993, when there was a consensus among the Pakistan establishment to extend terror to these lower areas.

India-Myanmar Border Issues

Context: As conflict intensifies between armed resistance groups and the Myanmar military in the Chin, Shan and Sagaing provinces, India reminded Myanmar to return to the path of federal democracy.

  • Myanmar’s military has been battling armed insurgents who have forced it out of several townships over the past few weeks.
  • The Indian side reiterated its support to Myanmar for a transition towards a federal democracy.
  • The Indian side said it continued to support people-centric socio-economic developmental projects, including connectivity projects and projects under the Rakhine State Development Programme and Border Area Development Programme for the benefit of the people of Myanmar.
  • There has been issues that India has faced after the military coup that took place in Myanmar post the elections of 2020.
  • Due to intense fighting, thousands of Myanmar’s nationals including former military personnel recently sought refuge in India creating issues related to security situation, border management and transnational crimes.

Implications of Myanmar’s Military Coup

  • Border security: Refugees fleeing military crackdown are entering Mizoram. This has led to disagreement between centre & Mizoram which supports refugees. Centre’s instruction of sealing border with Myanmar has irked ethnically and culturally connected communities on both sides. Ex – Chin community. 
  • Strategic concern: India cannot upset the Myanmar junta by providing refuge to the officials fleeing military crackdown.
  • Containing China: Myanmar being crucial in containing China, India will have to take a calculated steps to not push Myanmar closer to China. 
  • Insurgency: Several ethnic armed organisations are active within Myanmar. Being opposed to Junta, EAOs can lead to escalation in violence across the border. 
  • Indian Investments: Instability would threaten India’s investments in Myanmar. Ex. Kaladan Project, Sittwe port, IMT trilateral Highway, Special economic zone in Rakhine. 
  • Opportunity to reduce influence of China: Myanmar army has enjoyed a relatively strong relationship with India. It played a key role in handling the insurgency and Hot Pursuits of India. Su Kyi led democratic government was closer to China. China supported it on Rohingya crisis. 
  • Drug trafficking: Drug production has shot up exponentially in Shan Province of Myanmar. The region was earlier large producers of heroine. However, currently it is world’s largest producer & exporter of meth (more potent & profitable). Most key individuals controlling the drug trade are pro-junta businessman as well as ethnic militia. 

Characteristics of India – Myanmar Border 

Lack of clear demarcation boundary 

  • Formally delimited and demarcated following the boundary agreement on March 10, 1967, the boundary has not crystallised on the ground as lines separating two sovereign countries. 
  • Boundary is also superimposed on the socio-cultural landscape of the borderland, dividing several tribes, and forcing them to reside as citizens of different countries. 
  • These tribes refuse to accept the artificial line and continue to maintain strong cross-border ethnic linkages. 
  • Such linkages are often exploited by the insurgents to find shelter across the border among their own kinsmen who are sympathetic towards their cause’.

Free movement regime 

  • The FMR permits the tribes residing along the border to travel 16-km across the boundary without visa restrictions. 
  • While the FMR has helped the tribes continue maintain their age-old ties, it has also become a cause of concern for the security establishment as its provisions are exploited by the Indian insurgents to cross over to Myanmar unrestricted and establish safe havens.  
  • Another provision in the FMR, which allows tribal people to carry headload has also been misused to smuggle in drugs, weapons, and other contraband.

Terrain of the Border 

  • High mountains, deep river channels together with lush forest characterise the borderland.
  • Absence of roads, communication links and other border guarding infrastructure also adversely affect policing as they hamper the easy and rapid movement of the border guarding forces along the border

Challenges along India – Myanmar Border 

  1. Cross-border insurgency: Insurgent groups from Manipur and Nagaland have set up bases in Myanmar and operating across the border to fuel secessionist movements.  Eg: NSCN(K) has its base in Myanmar.
  2. Arms smuggling: Porous border is used to smuggle arms and ammunition sourced from Thailand to fuel its activities in India.
  3. Drug Trafficking: Proximity to ‘Golden Triangle’ - global hub of drug trafficking makes. It has resulted in drug abuse in the border states, particularly Mizoram which has also seen a rise in HIV incidence. 
  4. Gold smuggling: 25% of all the gold smuggled in India comes form here this region. 

Way forward

  • Strengthen Assam Rifles with adequate manpower and equipment. 
  • At the same time, through sustained community interaction programmes, the border community should be sensitised to participate in the nation building project. 
  • Cooperation with neighbours. 
  • For such cooperation to materialise, political and diplomatic initiatives requires to be carefully crafted. 

Rakhine State Development Programme

  • India signed a development programme for Rakhine State in Myanmar in late 2017 which was designed to assist the Myanmar government in Rakhine State to build housing infrastructure for displaced persons.
  • India launched this program as more than 700,000 minority Rohingya Muslims fled from Myanmar’s Rakhine state to neighbouring Bangladesh since August 2017, triggering a massive refugee crisis.
  • The focus of RSDP has been on sustainable solutions based on creative socio-economic development under which India has delivered more than 250 pre-fabricated houses in three villages of Rakhine villages

About Border Area Development Programme

  • It is launched to meet the needs and well-being of the people living in remote and inaccessible areas situated near the international borders plus to saturate the border areas with critical infrastructure and sustainable livelihood opportunities, by convergence scheme through a participate approach.
  • Funds under this programme are programme are provided to the states for execution of works/projects relating to infrastructure, livelihood, education, health, agriculture and allied sectors skill development