Context: The Supreme Court dismissed a petition challenging the Karnataka government’s decision to invite Booker Prize winner Banu Mushtaq, a Muslim, to inaugurate the Mysuru Dasara festivities.
The Court reminded the petitioner of the Preamble, which enshrines secularism, liberty of thought and faith, equality, and fraternity as core ideals of the Indian Constitution.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Preamble, Article 25, landmark cases related to secularism. Mains: Indian model of secularism.
Supreme Court’s Ruling
The Court noted that the inauguration was a State function and not a purely religious ritual, and hence no citizen could be excluded on the basis of religion.
Denying participation on religious grounds violates the Preamble’s ideals of equality and fraternity.
The Court reaffirmed the M. Ismail Faruqui (1994) case judgment,“the State has no religion of its own and must act with neutrality”
Constitutional Position on Secularism
India follows a model of secularism that ensures respect for all religions while maintaining State neutrality.
The Preamble explicitly declares India to be a secular State (42nd Amendment, 1976).
Secularism has been upheld as part of the basic structure of the Constitution in Kesavananda Bharati (1973) and S.R. Bommai (1994).
Article 25 guarantees freedom of religion while allowing the State to regulate secular activities associated with religious practice.
In R.C. Poudyal (1993), the Court observed that secularism means equal treatment of all religions without discrimination.
In Dr. Balram Singh v. Union of India (2024), the Court held that secularism allows the State to intervene to eliminate practices that impede equality and development.
The Mysuru Dasara judgment underlines that Indian secularism is not about a rigid separation of religion from the State, but about principled equidistance and equal respect for all faiths.
Context: Recently, there have been a few instances of linguistic violence against non-Marathi speakers in Maharashtra. India’s diversity in religion and language is one of the primary factors which protects the secular character of the nation, ensuring its unity and integrity.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Features of Indian secularism; Article 29, Article 343, Eighth Schedule, Census 2011 data on languages.
Mains: Official vs National Language debate, Threats to Indian secularism and linguistic diversity.
Indian Secularism
Unlike Western secularism, which calls for a complete separation of religion and state, Indian secularism is rooted in tolerance and equality granting all citizens the Freedom of Conscience and Religion.
The state has no official religion, making India truly secular.
Indian secularism also addresses linguistic pluralism. It is neither pro-religion nor anti-religion or language, but actively seeks to prevent communalism, whether religious or linguistic, making diversity a foundation of national unity.
Constitutional Provisions to protect Linguistic Diversity:
As per the data of Census 2011, India has a total of 121 languages and 270 mother tongues. Such diversity needs to be protected; each and every language irrespective of region or State must be shown respect. This is the only way to protect India’s linguistic secularism.
In order to protect linguistic diversity, the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution includes 22 languages.
Article 29: Incorporates that any section of citizens of India including minority groups shall have the right to protect their language, script or culture, and that language cannot be the ground for discrimination. No State is permitted to go out of it in the name of a distinct language or culture.
Article 343: As India is a Union of States, Article 343 enshrines that the official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The states are free to choose their own official language.
India’s religious and linguistic diversity is a key pillar of its secular character, ensuring unity and integrity. However, these aspects can also become sources of conflict, as seen in recent communal and linguistic tensions like in Maharashtra.
Threat to India’s Linguistic Diversity: Linguistic Tensions and Identity Politics
Many Southern and North-eastern States have historically resisted the imposition of Hindi, fearing cultural and linguistic domination.
Dravidian Movement in Tamil Nadu strongly opposed Hindi imposition, instead promoting Tamil and English as symbols of cultural pride and autonomy.
Maharashtra has emerged as one of the most sensitive States on the language debate. The recent violence against non-Marathi speakers reflects identity politics, and not genuine concern for cultural protection.
India’s secular fabric is deeply woven into its religious and linguistic diversity. Protecting this diversity is not merely a cultural or political obligation, but a constitutional imperative.
In a globalising world, a conservative leaning towards religion or language will lead to a fragmentation of society and tear apart the secular fabric.
Context: Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M.K. Stalin released the State Budget 2025-26 promotional logo, replacing the ₹ symbol with the Tamil letter ‘Roo’ (‘ரூ’) for ‘Roobai’ (Tamil word for rupee).
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Can be stated as an example in issues related to growing regionalist and linguistic identities.
Major Highlights:
Changes in the Budget Logo: The Tamil Nadu state government replaced the ₹ symbol with the Tamil letter ‘Roo’ (ரூ). The move was made to avoid using Devanagari.
Official Justification: The Tamil letter 'ரூ’ and the English word "Rupees" are used in the budget document. The state government claims this is not unconstitutional as Tamil is one of the 15 languages on Indian currency.
Criticism of the Move:
Themove has faced criticism from the state opposition, arguing that the ₹ symbol was designed by a Tamilian (D. Udaya Kumar) and is a national identity.
The Union Finance Minister stated that the move reflects a dangerous mindset, weakening Indian unity and promoting secessionist sentiments.
Linguistic Regionalism vs National Identity
The ₹ symbol is a national identity, and replacing it with a regional script may fuel regional vs. national identity debates. Similar demands may arise in other states, challenging national integration.
This controversy reflects ongoing regional vs. national identity debates in India. While promoting regional languages and culture is valid, it must be balanced with national unity and constitutional principles.
Context: The Centre government has withheld ₹2,152 crore in funds to Tamil Nadu under the Samagra Shiksha scheme due to the State’s refusal to implement the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020’sthree-language formula.
Tamil Nadu follows a two-language policy and views three-language policy as an imposition of Hindi and a threat to its linguistic identity.
Definition: The three-language policy was introduced in the National Education Policy (NEP) of 1968 to standardise language education across India.
Objective: To promote multilingualism, national unity, and administrative efficiency.
Structure:
Hindi-speaking States: Hindi, English, and a modern Indian language (preferably a south Indian language).
Non Hindi-speaking States: Regional language, Hindi, and English.
Background of Three-Language formula:
1968: Introduced in the first NEP under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
1986: Reiterated in the National Policy of Education (NPE) 1986 without major changes.
2020: Retained in NEP 2020 with greater flexibility, allowing States to choose languages.
Tamil Nadu’s Resistance
Tamil Nadu adopted a two-language policy (Tamil and English)in 1968, citing Hindi imposition.
Historical background:
In 1937, the Justice Party strongly opposed the Rajaji-led Madras government’s attempt to make Hindi compulsory in schools. Protests led to the deaths of two activists, Thalamuthu and Natarajan, and the policy was eventually withdrawn.
1968: DMK government passed a resolution rejecting the three-language formula, reinforcing Tamil Nadu’s two-language policy. Since then, successive governments have opposed any changes to this policy.
2019: Strong resistance from Tamil Nadu led to the removal of mandatory Hindi learning from the draft NEP proposed by the Kasturirangan Committee.
Three-Language Formula in NEP 2020
Flexibility: States and students can choose the three languages, with at least two being native to India.
No Imposition: No specific language is mandated for any State.
Emphasis on mother tongue: Encourages teaching in the home language/mother tongue until Grade 5, preferably till Grade 8.
Encouraging Sanskrit: Promoted as an optional language within the three-language formula.
Significance of Three-Language Formula
Promotes Multilingualism: Encourages learning multiple languages for better communication and cultural understanding.
National integration: Bridges linguistic divides and fosters unity across regions.
Global competence: Retains English as a global link language while promoting Indian languages.
Cognitive benefits: Research shows learning in the mother tongue enhances cognitive development.
Issues in Three-Language Formula
Perceived Hindi imposition: Non-Hindi-speaking States, especially Tamil Nadu, view it as an attempt to impose Hindi.
Cultural resistance: Seen as a threat to regional languages and linguistic identities.
Political tensions: Opposition from regional parties fearing erosion of linguistic autonomy.
Resource constraints: Lack of teachers and materials for additional languages.
Implementation challenges: Varied adoption across States, with some prioritising Sanskrit over modern Indian languages.
Supreme Court observations on the Three-Language Formula
Linguistic Secularism:
The Supreme Court, in the U.P. Hindi Sahittya Sammelan vs State of U.P. (2014), emphasised “linguistic secularism”— ensuring the rights and aspirations of all language speakers.
It observed that India’s linguistic policies should be “accommodative” rather than rigid.
Medium of Instruction and Parental Choice: In State of Karnataka vs Associated Management of Primary & Secondary Schools (2014), the Supreme Court ruled that:
Parents and students have the right to choose the medium of instruction.
The state cannot impose a particular language in primary education.
Freedom of Speech and Expression (Article 19) extends to the right of a child to choose a language.
The judgment referred to Pierce v. Society of Sisters of Holy Names (1924, U.S.), which held that “a child is not a mere creature of the state” and parents play a crucial role in deciding their child's education.
Hindi as an Official Language, not National Language: The Supreme Court has clarified that Hindi is not India's national language.
The Munshi-Ayyangar Formula in the Constituent Assembly led to Article 343, making Hindi the official language, but not the national language.
Furthermore, Article 29(1) guarantees all linguistic communities the fundamental right to conserve their language, script, and culture—for both majority and minority groups.
Law Commission Report (216th Report, 2008): It has observed that language imposition could be counterproductive and harm national unity.
Allahabad High Court: In Sunil K.R. Sahastrabudhey vs IIT Kanpur, it was observed that although Article 351 places a “duty” on the government to promote Hindi, there is no right to compel an institution to provide education in Hindi.
Way Forward
Constructive dialogue: Centre and States must engage in discussions to address concerns and find common ground.
Flexible implementation: Allow States to choose languages based on local preferences and needs.
Resource allocation: Provide adequate funding and infrastructure for language teachers and materials.
Focus on multilingualism: Promote learning of Indian languages without undermining regional identities.
Decentralised approach: Respect State autonomy in education while aligning with national goals.
Context: Bihar leader Rabri Devi has come forward with demand for creation of a separate Mithilanchal state to be carved out of existing Bihar.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Key provisions of Article 2, Article 3, Location of Mithilanchal, Process to create a new state in India
Mains: Benefits and challenges of State Reorganisation in India.
Provisions of Indian Constitution:
Article 2: Admission or Establishment of New States
Scope: Article 2 of the Indian constitution has conferred the power on the parliament of India for admitting and establishing a new state not originally part of India.
It deals with external states (E.g., integration of princely states post-independence).
It does not cover the reorganisation within existing Indian states or admission of a Union Territory.
Article 3: Formation and Alteration of States
Parliament may create new States by-
separating territory from any State
uniting two or more States
uniting parts of States
uniting any territory to a part of any State.
Parliament’s can also increase or diminish the area of any State and altering the boundaries or name of any State.(State here also includes a Union territory).
Note: Laws Made under Articles 2 and 3 are not considered as amendments to the Constitution under Article 368.
Procedure for Formation of New States:
A bill calling for formation of new States may be introduced in either House of Parliament only on the recommendation of the President.
Such a bill must be referred by the President to the concerned State Legislature for expressing its views to Parliament, if it contains provisions which affect the areas, boundaries or name of that State.
Parliament is not bound by these views of the concerned State Legislature in the process of enacting legislation for the formation of new States.
State Reorganisation in India:
Important Commissions and Committees on State Reorganisation:
1. S.K. Dhar Commission (1948)
Objective: To study the possibility of state reorganisation after independence.
Recommendation: Administrative convenience should be the primary justification for reorganisation rather than the linguistic or cultural factor.
2. JVP Committee (1948)
Members: Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, and Pattabhi Sitaramayya
Recommendations: Disapproved reorganisation on linguistic basis as it would potentially threaten national integration due to linguistic divisions.
3. Fazl Ali Commission (1953)
Objective: To establish a framework for reorganisation with a proper consideration for the diversities of India.
Recommendations: Identified four factors for state reorganisation;
Preservation and strengthening of unity and security of the country
Linguistic and cultural homogeneity
Financial, economic and administrative considerations
Planning and promotion of welfare of people and nation as a whole.
It proposed the formation of 14 States and 6 Union Territories. Parliament implemented its recommendations through the 7th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1956.
Factors driving Statehood Demands:
Linguistic Diversity has been central to identity politics. E.g., Formation of Maharashtra and Gujarat in 1960, as a result of the Mahagujarat and Samyukta Maharashtra movements.
Regional Inequities: Economic neglect and underdevelopment in hope for better governance through smaller states. E.g.,
Formation of Jharkhand (2000) addressed tribal marginalisation in the mineral-rich Chotanagpur Plateau.
Demand for Vidarbha in Maharashtra, Bundelkhand spanning Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Cultural and Ethnic Identity: Groups with unique traditions, languages, and customs often seek statehood to preserve their distinctiveness. E.g., Gorkhaland in West Bengal, Bodoland in Assam.
Administrative Efficiency: Proponents argue smaller states are easier to administer and more responsive to local needs. E.g., Demand for Purvanchal (eastern Uttar Pradesh) seeks to address governance issues in overpopulated, underdeveloped regions.
Arguments against Formation of New States:
Economic Burden: Establishing new capitals and administrative structures involves significant costs. E.g., Andhra Pradesh’s plan for Amaravati capital infrastructure is estimated to exceed ₹40,000 crore.
Inter-State Disputes: Resource sharing often becomes contentious. E.g., The Cauvery water dispute escalated after the reorganisation of states in southern India.
Boundary Conflicts: The boundary-drawing process for new states may take a long time to resolve. E.g., The Belagavi dispute between Karnataka and Maharashtra is still pending.
Political Fragmentation: Fragmentation along narrow identity or parochial lines may weaken the Indian federal structure. E.g., The creation of new states may encourage further demands, such as Vidarbha, Gorkhaland, and Rayalaseema.
Way Forward:
Address Root Causes: Focus on equitable development of underdeveloped regions within existing states to reduce grievances.
Comprehensive Framework for Statehood: Outline explicit parameters for state formation that clearly take into account the state's economic viability, administrative effectiveness, and national interest. E.g., All proposed states should be capable of generating more than 50% of their required funds at the initial level to minimise reliance on Centre’s aid.
Stakeholder Involvement: Set up specialised committees comprising members from relevant districts to assess the new state's implications.
Improved Local Government: Devolution of power is effectively done through Panchayati Raj Institutions and Municipal Reforms to cater to local needs without dividing the states
Mithilanchal region:
Geographical and historical details:
Mithila (also known as Tirhut or Mithilanchal) is a historical and cultural region located in the eastern part of India and the southern plains of Nepal.
Mithila spans across the northern parts of Bihar in India and extends into the Terai region of Nepal.
The region is primarily characterised by its fertile plains formed by the rivers Gandak, Bagmati, Kamala etc.
According to Hindu mythology, it is believed to be the birthplace of Goddess Sita (the consort of Lord Rama). Ancient texts like the Vedas and epics like the Ramayana mention Mithila as a prominent kingdom.
Cultural Significance:
Art and Crafts: Mithila is renowned for its distinctive art form called Madhubani painting, which originated here.
Literature: The Maithili language (a regional Indo-Aryan language) is spoken and has a significant body of literature. Vidyapati Thakur, a medieval poet, is highly revered for his contributions to Maithili literature.
Traditions and Festivals: Various festivals like Chhath Puja (a sun-worshipping festival) hold immense significance.
Social and Economic Aspects:
Agriculture: Agriculture forms the backbone of the economy in Mithila. The fertile plains support the cultivation of rice, maize, pulses, and other crops.
Social Structure: The society primarily follows a patriarchal system, and traditional norms and values play a significant role in shaping social interactions and hierarchies.
Context: Recently, the French government announced that the practice of wearing abaya would be banned in state-run schools as it violated the principle of Laïcité, which is the French idea of secularism.
Secularism
In simple terms, Secularism is the concept which advocates that government, and its entities should exist separately from religion.
It can be defined as a normative doctrine which seeks to realise a secular society, i.e., one devoid of inter-religious domination or intra-religious domination. it promotes freedom within religions, and equality between, as well as within, religions.
In keeping with this idea of religious freedom for all, India also adopted a strategy of separating the power of religion and the power of the State.
Laïcité: The French Secularism
In today’s context Laïcité is a complicated and politically charged term. It originated in France and involved complete removal of religious values from the public sphere and their replacement with secular values such as liberty, equality, and fraternity.
Origin of Laïcité
Laïcité, a product of the struggle of anti-clerical Republicans against the power of the Catholic Church, was an abstract idea following the French Revolution in 1789.
It took concrete shape and legal backing after the Law of 1905.
The Law of 1905 guarantees freedom of conscience and freedom of worship except when it clashes with public order.
It states that the Republic would neither pay for nor subsidise any form of worship.
Overview
It is understood as a formal separation of the State and Church.
Its goal is to implant tolerance and assimilate people.
Its objective is that religion remain confined to private spheres.
The state plays an important role in ensuring that affairs are run according to the principle of Laïcité.
Development happened in Laïcité
In 1989, the Supreme Court of France ruled that the headscarf was not incompatible with the principle of Laïcité.
France passed a law in 2004 prohibiting the wearing of ostentatious symbols that have a clear religious meaning, such as a Catholic dress, a Jewish kippah, or a Muslim headscarf, in public spaces. In 2011, France banned the wearing of face-covering veils in public places.
In a survey in 2022, 36% of French people said that they believe that secularism was “rather not sufficiently” being defended in France, while 21% said it was “not at all” being defended.
Indian Secularism: The Positive form of Secularism
The Forty-Second Constitution Amendment Act of 1976 incorporated the term ‘Secular’ in the Preamble of the Constitution which declares India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic, republic.
The introduction of the word “secular” by the 42nd amendment simply made the secular nation of the Indian Constitution more apparent. No religion is given special status in India as a state. There is no such thing as an Indian state religion. This distinguishes it from theocratic regimes such as the Islamic Republic of Iran and other Islamic countries.
Overview of Indian Secularism
There is no strict separation between state and religion in India.
Secularism is a fundamental principle of the Indian Constitution’s basic structure.
As a secular state India is committed to principles and goals which are at least partly derived from non-religious sources including peace, religious freedom, freedom from religiously grounded oppression, discrimination and exclusion, as also inter-religious and intra-religious equality.
its objectives to ensure the following:
That one religious community does not dominate another.
That some members do not dominate other members of the same religious community.
That the State does not enforce any particular religion nor take away the religious freedom of individuals.
Difference Between Indian and Western idea of Secularism
Western
Indian
Separation of religion and state is understood as mutual exclusion: The state will not intervene in the affairs of religion, and, in the same manner, religion will not interfere in the affairs of the state.
Indian secularism does not focus only on church-state separation and the idea of inter-religious equality is crucial to the Indian conception.
Under this concept no policy of the state can have an exclusively religious rationale and no religious classification can be the basis of any public policy.
Indian secularism allows for principled state intervention in all religions.
State cannot aid any religious institution. It cannot give financial support to educational institutions run by religious communities.
The Indian Constitution grants the right to religious communities to set up their own schools and colleges, state can also give them financial aid on a non- preferential basis.
State cannot hinder the activities of religious communities, if they are within the broad limits set by the law of the land.
Indian secularism is compatible with the idea of state-supported religious reform.
This conception interprets freedom and equality in an individualist manner, there is little scope for community-based rights or minority rights.
Indian secularism deals not only with religious freedom of individuals but also with religious freedom of minority communities.
Constitutional Provisions related to Secularism
Article 14: It ensures equality before the law and equal legal protection for all individuals.
Article 15: It prohibits discrimination on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth, ensuring access to public facilities and services.
Article 16: It guarantees equality of opportunities in employment, preventing discrimination in employment based on religious grounds.
Article 19: It grants fundamental rights such as freedom of speech and expression, peaceful assembly, and the right to choose one's profession, subject to reasonable restrictions.
Article 25: This article guarantees freedom of conscience and the right to practice, profess, and propagate any religion. It emphasizes that religious conversion cannot be forced.
Article 26: It protects the rights of religious denominations to manage their religious affairs, provided they meet certain criteria like common faith, distinctive name etc.
Article 27: It ensures that no one is compelled to pay taxes for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religious denomination.
Article 28: It restricts the teaching of religion in state-funded educational institutions but allows religious instruction in institutions formed under endowments or trusts.
Article 44: This article aims at a Uniform Civil Code, ensuring secular civil laws for all citizens regardless of their religion, caste, or tribe.
Article 51A: Fundamental Duties provides that it shall be the duty of all the citizens to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic, and regional or sectional diversities, to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India and to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
Court Cases Related to Secularism
Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala
In this case, the Supreme Court declared secularism as part of the Constitution's basic structure, making it immune to parliamentary amendments.
S.R Bommai v. Union of India
In this case supreme court clarified that secularism does not imply atheism but rather ensures equal status for all religions.
Ahmedabad St. Xavier’s College v. State of Gujarat
In this case, the supreme court emphasized that secularism neither promotes nor opposes religion but prevents discrimination based on religion.
Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala
In this case, the supreme court highlighted that established religious practices can be challenged based on constitutional principles of equality.
Context: Coming delimitation exercise can increase the already present North-south divide of India.
North-South Divide
Dimensions
Southern state
Northern state
Medium of Instruction (As per NSSO education survey of 2018)
English is the medium of teaching till Class 12 in a high percentage of schools in south India63% in Telangana, 60.7% in Kerala, 59% in Andhra Pradesh, 44% in Tamil Nadu, 35% in Karnataka etc.
In contrast, in Bihar it is 6% and for UP, it is 14%.
Gross Enrollment Ratio (As per the All-India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) 2020–21
Nearly 50% of the youth in the age-group 18–23 years are enrolled in a higher education institution which is higher than all-India average which is 27%.
Bihar with a GER of 16% and UP with 23% are the poorest performers in terms of GER.
Public Libraries
Three-fourths of the 27,682 public libraries in India are in the southern states.
These states have less than 1/4th of the public libraries.
Inequality of income
The per capita incomes of these states are higher e.g., Andhra Pradesh (Rs. 1,14,324), Karnataka (1,54,123), Maharashtra (1,33,356), Kerala (1,34,878) and Tamil Nadu (1,45,528)
Per capita incomes of these states are on the lower side e.g., Bihar (28,127), Chhattisgarh (72,236), Madhya Pradesh (58,334), Rajasthan (74,009) and Uttar Pradesh (39,371)
Population share
The share of the southern states in India’s population has drastically come down from 24.8% in 1971 to 19.9% in 2021
In these states, for example in UP and Bihar, the population has gone up from 23 per cent to 26 per cent.
Poverty
In 2009-10, average (weighted) poverty rate (combined for rural and urban areas) in the southern states was 19 per cent.
It was higher (38%) in the northern states.
Governance
The decreased poverty, decreasing population, increasing literacy shows the improved governance in these states
Counter to southern states their governance parameters remained on the lower side.
Implication delimitation on North-South divide:
Political Implication
Controlled population growth and emphasis on women’s education has contributed to a fall in the total fertility rates and put the south in the zone of less than replacement rate.
Less population means less seat in Parliament so, the exercise of delimitation could reduce the political clout of the southern states.
Political marginalisation of southern states: Uttar Pradesh is likely to get more seats while Kerala’s representation will remain unchanged and that of Tamil Nadu will increase only by a margin. This political marginalisation of the south for demographic reasons could create tensions.
Reducing fund availability for southern states: Use of new population data by Finance Commission will decrease the devolution of taxes from the central government to the states in south.
Issue with the migration
Differences in standard of living will lead to interstate migrations, largely from northern states to the more prosperous southern states which combined with cultural threat and xenophobia can lead to eruption of many conflicts in the region.
Way Forward
Regional balance of power in a federal structure is essential and if not maintained it may lead to conflict between the federal units which in turn threatens the sovereignty, security and integrity of India.
Indian can adopt USA model in which she has given the same number of seats to all the units in one chamber of their parliament.
A new yardstick which has multiple factors like literacy level, government efforts to control population etc. can be deliberated to such that the issue of southern states can be addressed while northern states try to improve on the same.
