Physical Geography

The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Bill, 2023

Context: India’s Parliament passed a law allowing the government to auction and mine its newly discovered reserves of lithium, among other minerals, increasing the mining of the critical input for EV batteries.

The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Bill, 2023 amends the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957.

The Act regulates the mining sector. For regulation, the Act classifies mining-related activities into:

reconnaissance, which involves a preliminary survey to determine mineral resources.
prospecting, which includes exploring, locating, or proving mineral deposits.
mining, the commercial activity of extraction of minerals.

Key features of the amendment bill:

Private sector involvement - It seeks grant of exploration licence to private sector players for deep-seated and critical minerals.
Reconnaissance to include sub-surface activities: The Act defines reconnaissance operations as operations undertaken for preliminary prospecting and includes: (i) aerial surveys, (ii) geophysical, and (iii) geochemical surveys. It also includes geological mapping. The Act prohibits pitting, trenching, drilling, and sub-surface excavation as part of reconnaissance. The Bill allows these prohibited activities.
Exploration licence for specified minerals: The Act provides for following types of concessions:

(i) a reconnaissance permit for reconnaissance,

(ii) a prospecting licence for prospecting,

(iii) mining lease for undertaking mining, and

(iv) a composite licence, for prospecting and mining.

The Bill introduces an exploration licence, which will be issued for 29 minerals specified in the Seventh Schedule.

These include gold, silver, copper, cobalt, nickel, lead, potash, and rock phosphate.

These also include six minerals classified as atomic minerals under the Act:

(i) beryl and beryllium, (ii) lithium, (iii) niobium, (iv) titanium, (v) tantallium, and (vi) zirconium.

The Bill declassifies them as atomic minerals. Unlike other minerals, the prospecting and mining of atomic minerals is reserved for government entities under the Act.

Exclusive auction mining lease to centre - It empowers the central government to exclusively auction mining lease and composite licence for certain critical minerals.
Time limits - Blocks explored by the exploration licence holder would be auctioned for mining lease within a prescribed timeline.

Merits:

Rationalization of minerals - Many of the minerals listed as atomic minerals have numerous non-atomic applications in space industry, electronics, technology and communications, energy sector, electric batteries etc. In most cases, the non-atomic uses of these minerals far outweigh their atomic use. Many such minerals are not fissile or radioactive in nature.
Reduced financial burden on government - Deep-seated minerals such as gold, silver, copper, zinc, lead, nickel, cobalt, platinum group of minerals, and diamonds are difficult and expensive to explore and mine hence involving them may reduce the financial burden on government.
Geopolitical advantage – It may reduce the dependence of India over the imports of such minerals thereby reducing the relative geopolitical vulnerabilities.
Increase in efficiency - Only 19 blocks of minerals have been auctioned so far by the State Government viz. graphite, nickel and phosphate out of 107 blocks handed over to the various State Governments. As these critical minerals are vital for the growth of our economy, authorizing the Central Government to auction concession for these critical minerals would increase the pace of auction and early production of the minerals.
Innovation in mining - Private participation will improve the scope of mining and innovation in this sector.
Improving revenue to states - Timebound auctioning will help state to have better revenues.
Boost to manufacturing- Reducing the government monopoly will eventually bring competition in this sector boosting the mining of such minerals which are very critical when it comes to E.V manufacturing, chip industries etc.

Issues involved :

Private participation may lead to misuse, irresponsible and excessive mining. This can have several detrimental socio-environmental implications.
Already stressed Public sector undertakings may further take the backseat.
Issue of federalism because of exclusive right to centre to auction mining lease.
The Bill also dispenses with cumbersome forest clearances for mine reconnaissance and prospecting operations. This may affect the ecology of the concerned region.

Coral bleaching

Context: Across the globe, unprecedented heatwaves have plunged both animals and humans into challenging circumstances. Among the affected creatures, corals stand out as exceptionally vulnerable.

Corals Reefs:

They are most biologically diverse ecosystems of the planet. They are formed when Coral Polyps, the animals primarily responsible for building reefs, develop a symbiotic relationship with photosynthetic algae called zooxanthellae, which live in its tissues.
Coral reefs are critically important ecosystems that underpin ocean sustainability and the economic, social and cultural security of hundreds of millions of people around the world. Despite their immense value, they are uniquely vulnerable to the increasing global threat of climate change, as well as other anthropogenic impacts.

Symbiotic Relationship:

It is defined as a close, prolonged association between two or more different biological species, where both parties involved benefit from the interaction.

Favourable Conditions for the formation of Corals:

Optimal Sunlight Exposure: Corals thrive in shallow water where ample sunlight penetrates to support their symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae (algae). These microscopic algae residing within the coral provide vital oxygen and other essential nutrients, relying on sunlight for their survival. Consequently, corals, too, depend on sunlight to flourish.
Translucent Water Conditions: Clear and unpolluted water is crucial for corals as it allows sunlight to permeate through the depths. The clarity of water determines the amount of sunlight that reaches the corals, thereby ensuring their sustenance and vitality.
Optimal Water Temperature: Corals exhibit a remarkable adaptability to a narrow temperature range, typically thriving in water temperatures between 20–32°C. The temperature within this specific range is essential for their growth and survival.
Salinity Requirements: Corals necessitate a specific balance in the salt-to-water ratio to thrive. As a consequence, they cannot survive in areas where freshwater from rivers flows into the ocean, as the altered salinity in these estuaries is unsuitable for coral growth. Instead, corals are restricted to habitats with the appropriate saltwater conditions.

Distribution of Corals in the world:

Ecosystem services provided by Corals:

Human health and wellbeing: 70% of the protein in the diets of Pacific Islanders comes from reef-associated fisheries (SDGs 2, 3, 6, 9 & 14; Aichi Biodiversity Targets 13, 14, 16).
Shoreline protection: A healthy coral reef can reduce coastal wave energy by up to 97%. Globally, USD6 billions of built capital is protected from flooding by coral reefs (SDGs 1, 8, 11, 13, 14).
Food security and livelihoods: Coral reef fisheries support as many as six million people and are worth USD6.8 billion per year, providing an average annual seafood yield of 1.42 million tonnes (SDGs 2, 4, 5, 8, 12, 13, 14, 16).
Tourism: Coral reef tourism contributes USD36 billion to the global tourism industry annually (SDGs 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 14).
Biodiversity: Coral reefs support approximately 4,000 species of fish and 800 species of hard corals, Globally, about 830,000 species of multicellular plants and animals are estimated to occur on coral reefs, of which an estimated 13% are unnamed and 74% are yet to be discovered. Most of these species are cryptic, small and relatively rare.
Medicines: Coral reefs are the medicine chests of the 21st century, with more than half of all new cancer drug research focusing on marine organisms.

What is Coral Bleaching?

When corals are stressed by changes in conditions such as temperature, light, or nutrients, they expel the symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them to turn completely white.

Ocean acidification which is caused by CO2 absorption in oceans, lowers pH levels of ocean water and affects calcium carbonate minerals. The combination of acidification and ocean warming poses a significant threat to coral reefs’ ability to form skeletons.

Status of Corals in the world at present:

The 2019 global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Service (IPBES), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, warn that:

Over half of the world’s coral reefs have been lost;
At warming of 1.5oC, 70-90% of the world’s coral reefs are expected to be lost. At 2oC degrees, this increases to >99% loss of coral reefs.

Global Initiatives for protection of Coral reefs:

The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) is the only international partnership, between nations and organizations, focussing solely on the protection of coral reefs and related ecosystems worldwide.

The Initiative was founded in 1994 by Australia, France, Japan, Jamaica, the Philippines, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America. It was announced at the First Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in December 1994.

India’s efforts for Coral Restoration:

The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), with help from Gujarat’s forest department, is attempting for the first time a process to restore coral reefs using biorock or mineral accretion technology. Biorock is the name given to the substance formed by electro accumulation of minerals dissolved in seawater on steel structures that are lowered onto the sea bed and are connected to a power source, in this case solar panels that float on the surface. The technology works by passing a small amount of electrical current through electrodes in the water.

When a positively charged anode and negatively charged cathode are placed on the sea floor, with an electric current flowing between them, calcium ions combine with carbonate ions and adhere to the structure (cathode). This results in calcium carbonate formation. Coral larvae adhere to the CaCO3 and grow quickly.

Steps need to be taken for protection of corals:

Safeguarding Coral Reefs: Government should regulate nearshore fishing to ensure sustainable practices that do not harm the reef. This involves managing fishing activities around coral reefs and prohibiting harmful practices such as dynamite and cyanide fishing, as well as the harvesting of live coral.
Marine Protected Areas(MPAs): MPAs define specific rules and guidelines to protect reef life while also allowing sustainable human use. By designating specific zones for protection and regulated use, MPAs offer a practical approach to safeguarding coral reefs and their invaluable ecosystems.
Combating Land-based pollution: To protect coral reefs from land-based pollution and runoff, it is imperative to implement measures that reduce pollution sources and preserve critical coastal ecosystems. This includes sustainable land-use practices, responsible waste management, and protecting and restoring vital coastal habitats.
Effective Monitoring and Enforcement: Engaging stakeholders in monitoring and enforcing regulations empowers communities to take ownership of their coral reef resources, fostering a sense of responsibility and stewardship. However, in areas with limited resources, community-based management efforts can play a crucial role.
Education and Outreach: It should target stakeholders, community members, and even school children, enlightening them about the importance of coral reefs and their interconnectedness with human well-being. By empowering people with knowledge, communities can foster a deeper sense of appreciation and encourage positive actions to safeguard coral reefs. Education can also prompt individuals to adopt sustainable practices in their daily lives, further contributing to the conservation efforts for these invaluable ecosystems.

What is summer solstice and what causes it?

Context: The longest day of the year, for anyone living north of the Equator, is June 21. The day is referred to as the summer solstice, and it occurs when the sun is directly over the Tropic of Cancer, or more specifically right over 23.5 degrees north latitude.

Understanding solstice, equinoxes and seasons?

Earth’s axis is tilted at 23.5 degrees.
Earth makes a complete revolution around the sun once every 365 days, following an orbit that is elliptical in shape. This means that the distance between the Earth and Sun varies throughout the year.
During the first week in January, the Earth is about 1.6 million miles closer to the sun. This is referred to as the perihelion. The aphelion, or the point at which the Earth is about 1.6 million miles farther away from the sun, occurs during the first week in July.
Since Earth rotates on its axis, the Northern Hemisphere gets more direct sunlight between March and September over the course of a day, which also means people living in the Northern Hemisphere experience summer during this time. The rest of the year, the Southern Hemisphere gets more sunlight.
During the solstice, the Earth’s axis — around which the planet spins, completing one turn each day — is tilted in a way that the North Pole is tipped towards the Sun and the South Pole is away from it.
It should be noted that summer solstice for northern and southern hemisphere will be on different dates different.

Seasons are not caused due to this variation in distance rather they are caused due to tilted axis of Earth.

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There are two times of the year when the Earth's axis is tilted neither toward nor away from the sun, resulting in an equal amount of daylight and darkness at all latitudes. These events are referred to as equinoxes and occur near March 21st (Vernal Equinox) and near September 22nd (Autumnal Equinox). At the equator, the sun is directly overhead at noon on the two equinoxes.

June 20^th – 22^nd – summer solstice in northern hemisphere and winter solstice in southern hemisphere.

December 21^st - 22^nd – Winter solstice for Northern hemisphere and Summer solstice for Southern hemisphere.

March 20^th – 21^st – Vernal equinox

September 22^nd – 23^rd – Autumnal equinox

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The amount of light received by a specific area in the Northern Hemisphere during the summer solstice depends on the latitudinal location of the place. The further north one moves from the equator, the more light one receives during the summer solstice. At the Arctic Circle, the sun does not set during the solstice.
Summer solstice, however, does not necessarily mean the earliest sunrise or latest sunset. That depends on the latitudinal location of the country.

Cyclone Mocha likely to develop over Bay of Bengal today: IMD

Context: A cyclone, which is most likely to swerve away from the Indian coast, is all set to develop over the southeast Bay of Bengal by Wednesday, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) said Tuesday.

Key facts about Mocha Cyclone

Once intensified, it is to be identified as Cyclone Mocha (pronounced as Mokha), a name suggested by Yemen.
India has dual cyclone seasons – pre-monsoon (April-June) and post-monsoon (October-December). Of these, the most cyclone-prone months are May and November.
In the IMD’s possible cyclone track released Monday, the storm is expected to move north-northwestwards, that is, away from India’s east coast.

How the naming of tropical cyclones are done?

In general, tropical cyclones are named according to the rules at regional level.

Northern Indian Ocean Names - Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal

The WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones at its twenty-seventh Session held in 2000 in Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, agreed in principal to assign names to the tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. The naming of the tropical cyclones over north Indian Ocean commenced from September 2004, with names provided by eight Members. Since then, five countries have joined the Panel.

The Panel Member’s names are listed alphabetically country wise.
The names will be used sequentially column wise.
The first name will start from the first row of column one and continue sequentially to the last row in the column thirteen.
The names of tropical cyclones over the north Indian Ocean will not be repeated, once used it will cease to be used again. The name should be new. It should not be there in the already existing list of any of the RSMCs worldwide including RSMC New Delhi.
The name of a tropical cyclone from south China Sea which crosses Thailand and emerge into the Bay of Bengal as a Tropical cyclone will not be changed.

The RSMC New Delhi Tropical Cyclone Center is responsible to name the tropical cyclones that have formed over the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea when they have reached the relevant intensity.

Zero Shadow Day in Bengaluru

Context: Bengaluru witnessed a unique celestial phenomenon called ‘Zero Shadow Day’ on April 25. In this all the vertical objects in the city will not have a shadow for a short period of time.

What is Zero Shadow Day?

It is a day on which the Sun does not cast a shadow of an object at solar noon, when the sun will be exactly at the zenith position (the highest point in the sky).
The Zero Shadow Day is restricted to locations between the tropics, and so places north of Ranchi in India are out of it.
For every point on Earth between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, there are two Zero Shadow Days a year.

Why does a Zero Shadow Day happen?

Movement of the Sun from south to north from winter solstice to summer solstice (Uttarayan)and back from north to south (Dakshinayan) happen because Earth’s rotation axis is tilted at an angle of roughly 23.5° to the axis of revolution around the Sun.
The Sun’s location moves from 23.5°N to 23.5°S of Earth’s equator and back. All places whose latitude equals the angle between the Sun’s location and the equator on that day experience zero shadow day, with the shadow beneath an object at local noon.
The Earth’s rotation axis is inclined at 23.5 degrees to the plane of its revolution around the Sun, which is why we have seasons. This also means that the Sun, in its highest point of the day, will move from 23.5 degrees south of the celestial equator to 23.5 degrees north of the equator (Uttarayan), and back again (Dakshinayan), in a year. The northern most and southern most points are the two solstices, and the crossing of the Sun across the equator are the two equinoxes.

What is an equinox?

During the equinox, the sun crosses the plane of Earth’s equator, making nighttime and daytime (roughly) equal length all over the world.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the spring equinox, or vernal equinox, occurs around March 21, when the sun moves northward across the celestial equator.
The autumnal equinox occurs around September 22 or 23, when the sun crosses the celestial equator going south.
In the Southern Hemisphere, it’s the reverse.

What is a solstice?

A solstice is one of the two times of the year when the positioning and tilt of Earth relative to the sun results in the most amount of daylight time or the least amount of daylight time in a single day.
Technically, a solstice is one of the two the exact moments in the year when the sun reaches its northernmost point (around June 21, when the North Pole tilts closest to the sun) or southernmost point (around December 22, during the winter solstice) from Earth’s equator.
The solstices are traditionally considered to mark the start of summer and winter.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the summer solstice occurs in June and the winter solstice occurs in December.
In the Southern Hemisphere, it’s the opposite.

Ocean Currents and the Great Pacific Garbage Patch

Context: Plastic trash is abundant in our urban refuse, rivers, and forests, from the slopes of the highest peaks to the depths of abyssal trenches. A new study by researchers from Canada, the Netherlands, and the U.S. has reported that coastal lifeforms have also colonised plastic items in the ocean.

Debate on Anthropocene epoch

This is the name some scientists have proposed for a new period in history characterized by the influence of one species on the planet’s geology, ecosystems and even its fate- none other than Homo sapiens.
Scientists are still figuring out when this epoch really began; some include the first nuclear weapon test and rapid industrialization after the Second World War.
For some, this age began with the manufacturing of plastic rubbish, which is widespread in urban waste, rivers, and woods, from the slopes of the highest peaks to the bottoms of abyssal trenches.
This got established from a study published on April 17, by researchers from Canada, the Netherlands, and the U.S. They have reported that coastal lifeforms have colonized plastic items the in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.

What is a gyre?

A gyre is a large system of rotating ocean currents.

There are five major gyres, which are large systems of rotating ocean currents. The ocean churns up various types of currents. Together, these larger and more permanent currents make up the systems of currents known as gyres.
There are five major gyres: the North and South Pacific Subtropical Gyres, the North and South Atlantic Subtropical Gyres, and the Indian Ocean Subtropical Gyre.
In some instances, the term “gyre” is used to refer to the collections of plastic waste and other debris found in higher concentrations in certain parts of the ocean. For Example- North Pacific Subtropical Gyre (NPSG).

About North Pacific Subtropical Gyre(NPSG)

It is located just north of the equator in the Pacific Ocean.
It consists of the Kuroshio, North Pacific, California, and North Equatorial currents and moves in a clockwise direction. These currents flow adjacent to 51 Pacific Rim countries.

About Great Pacific Garbage Patch

Inside North Pacific Subtropical Gyre(NPSG), just north of Hawai’i, lies a long east west strip where some of the debris in these currents has collected over the years.
The eastern part of this is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
Great Pacific Garbage Patch as per one estimate, 1.6 million sq. km big and more than 50 years old. It contains an estimated 45,000 1,29,000 metric tonnes of plastic, predominantly in the form of microplastics.

The Findings of the study

The tsunami off the Japanese coast in 2011 contributed to the debris in this garbage patch.
Researchers had found debris washing ashore on the West coast of North America containing live lifeforms originally found in Japan.
Researchers studied plastic debris from the eastern part of the NPSG and they found that 98% of the debris items had invertebrate organisms. They also found that pelagic species (species of the open ocean) were present on 94.3% of them and coastal species on 70.5%.

The relevance of the findings

The introduction of a vast sea of relatively permanent anthropogenic rafts since the 1950s” has given rise to a new kind of “standing coastal community” in the open ocean”, called as neo pelagic community.
According to research “that while coastal species have been found on human made objects in the open ocean before, they were always considered to have been “misplaced” from their intended habitats.
The neo pelagic community, on the other hand, is not misplaced but lives on plastics items in the garbage patch, including reproducing there.
The finding recalls a study published on April 3, in which researchers reported that polyethylene films had chemically bonded with rocks in China. This, in turn, is reminiscent, of the “anthropoquinas” of Brazil (sedimentary rocks embedded with plastic earrings) and the “plastiglomerates” of Hawai’i (beach sediment + organic debris + basaltic lava + melted plastic).

About Ocean currents

They are the continuous, predictable, directional movement of seawater driven by gravity, wind (Coriolis Effect), and water density.
Ocean water moves in two directions: horizontally and vertically.
- Horizontal movements are referred to as currents, while vertical changes are called upwellings or downwellings.

Types of Currents

Based on depth

Surface currents	Sub Surface currents
Found up to 400 m of depth.	Beyond 4oo m depth.
Constitute around 10% of the total water in ocean.	90% of the total water.
Formed at lower latitudes as higher temperature reduces the density,expands the water and hence the water floats on the surface.	Mainly formed at higher latitudes as lowertemperature increases the density and cause them to sink.

Based on Temperatures

Warm Currents	Cold currents
Bring warm water into cold water areas	Bring cold Water into warm water areas.
Observed on the east coast of continents in the low and middle latitudes (both hemispheres)	Found on the west coast of the continents in the low and middle latitudes (bothhemispheres).
In the northern hemisphere they arefound on the west coasts of continents in high latitudes.	Found on the east coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.
Thermal expansion and floatation drive these currents.	Thermal contraction and sinking drive these currents.

Factors Affecting Currents

Originating factors

Earth’s rotation: the rotational force of the earth causes movement of ocean water near the equator in opposite direction to the west to east rotation of the earth and thus Equatorial currents are generated.
Oceanic factors: Temperature, salinity and density differences are responsible for expansion, floatation and sinking of water. E.g. – Labrador current moves as sub surface currents from pole towards equator.
Atmospheric factors: Winds drive ocean current in direction in which they move. Rainfall and evaporation create level differences and thus moves the water.

Modifying factors

Direction, shape and configuration of coastline: currents flow parallel to coastline. equatorial current after being obstructed by Brazilian coast gets bifurcated into two branches and then moves along the coast.
Bottom reliefs: North Atlantic drift is deflected to the right when it crosses Wyville Thompson ridge.
Coriolis effect: deflective force affects the direction. Currents flowing from north pole towards equator deflects towards right.
Seasonal changes: They alter the direction of motion. E.g. - Indian ocean currents show regional shifts under the influence of monsoonal winds.

Temperature & salinity affecting Ocean circulation:

Temperature and salinity affect the density of water, resulting in water moving up or down through the ocean layers and moving as currents around the ocean.

Salinity increases the density of ocean water. This denser water sinks and moves as subsurface current whereas less saline water moves towards greater saline water as surface current. Ex: The current flowing from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea via Gibraltar Strait is caused by salinity difference.
Due to high temperature in the equatorial region the water density decreases because of greater expansion of water particles whereas the density of sea water becomes comparatively greater in the polar areas. Consequently, water moves due to expansion of volume from equatorial region of higher temperature to polar areas of relatively very low temperature. Ex: The Gulf Stream and Kuroshio warm currents move from equator towards north due to the temperature difference.
As warm water flows northwards it cools and some evaporation occurs, which increases the amount of salt. Low temperature and a high salt content make the water denser, and this dense water sinks deep into the ocean. The cold, dense water slowly spreads southwards, several kilometers below the surface. Eventually, it gets pulled back to the surface and warms in a process called “upwelling” and the circulation is complete. Ex: Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC).

Significance of ocean currents

Geomorphic

Ocean current along with waves erode, modify and develop coastal as well as submarine landforms.
Longshore currents carry along with themselves vast quantities of material and sediments.
Currents help to move eroded debris and deposit it as silt, sand, and gravel along the coasts
Desert formation: Cold Ocean currents have a direct effect on desert formation in west coast regions of the tropical and subtropical continents.

Climatic

Manage global climate by transporting excessive heat from equator towards pole.
Modify the coastal climate. E.g.- Gulf stream brings heat to the north-western Europe and lead to moderate conditions.
Phenomenon like El-Nino and La-Nina are associated with oceanic currents.
Currents along with the wind lead to regional climatic changes. E.g.- Currents along the Indian coast impact the monsoon.
Rainfall and fogs are also associated with oceanic currents.

Ecological

Distribute oceanic heat and balances the temperature conditions.
Carry nutrients and food to organisms that live permanently attached in one place and carry reproductive cells and ocean life to new places. E.g.- Upwelling Benguela current brings the nutrients to the coast of Africa
Oceanic gyres are known to trap pollutants thus causing garbage patches. Ex. Great Pacific Garbage Patch.

Economic

Commercial fishing grounds are formed where warm and cold current mix. E.g.- Labrador current mixing with Gulf stream near newfoundland.
Aids as well as hinder navigation. Current support ships moving in the same direction, but it blocks their way when they carry large amount of ice bergs along with them, especially the colder currents.
Currents offer a vast potential to be transformed into energy sources.

Social

Play an important role in determining settlements in a coastal region.
Impact health of population by altering climatic conditions.