Physical Geography

China’s Rare Earth Export Restrictions

Context: In November 2025, China imposed export controls on seven rare earth elements (REEs), citing national security, supply-chain protection, and non-proliferation concerns. This move has revived global anxieties about Beijing’s near-monopoly over the rare earth supply chain and triggered fresh debates on critical mineral security, strategic vulnerabilities, and the reshaping of global technological competition.

China’s decision comes at a time when countries worldwide are accelerating transitions to clean energy, electric mobility, and advanced defence manufacturing, all of which depend heavily on REEs. The restrictions will significantly influence geopolitics, global markets, and India’s quest for supply chain resilience.

Understanding Rare Earth Elements

Rare earth elements comprise 17 metallic elements, including neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium, terbium, and yttrium. Although not geologically rare, they are difficult to extract and refine, making supply chains complex and environmentally taxing.

Key Uses

Defence: Missile guidance systems, lasers, radar components, jet engines.
Electronics: Smartphones, fibre optics, computer chips, displays.
Clean Energy: Strong permanent magnets for wind turbines, solar inverters, EV batteries.
Healthcare: MRI equipment and diagnostic devices.

China’s Dominance

According to USGS 2024:

China accounts for 70% of global mining
85–95% of global refining and processing capacity
Controls most magnet manufacturing, the most value-added stage.

China’s control over midstream and downstream processing creates a structural dependency that few countries have been able to bypass.

India’s Position

India has the fifth-largest REE reserves, mainly in coastal monazite sands in Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh.
However, India contributes less than 2% of global rare earth output due to:

Limited processing technology
Environmental restrictions
Low value-addition capability
Monopoly of public sector mining agencies

Impacts of China’s Export Restrictions

1. Global Supply Shock

Markets reacted sharply:

Dysprosium prices projected to reach $300/kg
Neodymium magnet prices already up 12–18% in spot trading
High-tech manufacturing firms triggered emergency procurement

This resembles the 2010 episode when China cut exports to Japan, causing global prices to skyrocket.

2. Strategic Vulnerability for Defence and High-Tech Sectors

REEs are central to military capabilities. The export curbs may:

Disrupt Western missile and radar supply chains
Delay F-35 production and similar aerospace programmes
Create bottlenecks in EV and renewable energy expansion

The US and EU have labelled the situation a national security challenge.

3. Acceleration of Global Diversification Efforts

China’s move is accelerating rare earth diversification globally:

Japan reduced its dependence on China from 90% (2010) to 60% (2023) through investments in Australian projects.
United States revived domestic production under the Mineral Security Partnership (MSP).
Australia, Canada, and Vietnam are exploring joint refining and magnet-making clusters.

4. Implications for India

India has joined global efforts to diversify critical minerals supply through:

KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Ltd.), securing five lithium blocks in Argentina
New rare earth exploration in Odisha and Kerala
Potential refining tie-ups with Japan, Australia, and the US

However, India must improve both processing capacity and regulatory efficiency to avoid remaining a raw material exporter.

Way Forward for India

1. Global Collaboration

India should deepen cooperation through:

India–Australia Critical Minerals Alliance
QUAD Rare Earth Working Group
MSP-led international supply chain partnerships

This offers access to refining technology, investment, and secure long-term supplies.

2. Sustainable and Responsible Mining

India must adopt ESG-focused mining standards through the UNEP Global Mineral Governance Framework.
Key reforms include:

Transparent mining leases
Stringent waste and radiation safety norms
Rehabilitation plans for mined-out areas

This will ensure community support and global investor confidence.

3. Recycling and Substitution

Urban mining and recycling can meet a significant share of REE demand:

Recovery from e-waste
Substitution using ferrite magnets where feasible
Incentives for recycling startups

Japan recovers >50% of rare earth magnets from end-of-life electronics — a model India can replicate.

4. Strategic Stockpiling

India requires a National Critical Minerals Reserve, similar to Japan’s JOGMEC model, which:

Stockpiles critical minerals
Invests in mining abroad
Supports recycling industries

This helps protect domestic industries during global supply shocks.

Conclusion

China’s rare earth export restrictions demonstrate how minerals have become tools of global geopolitics. For India, the episode is a wake-up call to accelerate critical mineral diversification, develop domestic processing ecosystems, and strengthen technological capabilities.

With global demand set to quadruple by 2040, India’s strategy today will determine its industrial competitiveness, defence readiness, and clean-energy leadership in the decades ahead.

Taftan Volcano Reawakens After 700,000 Years

Context: According to reports from Live Science (LS), the Taftan Volcano in southeastern Iran appears to have shown renewed activity after nearly 700,000 years of dormancy. Scientists have detected increased geothermal emissions and seismic tremors in the region, suggesting reactivation within the long-dormant volcanic system.

About Taftan Volcano:

Location: Situated in Sistan–Baluchestan Province of southeastern Iran, near the Pakistan border, Taftan is the highest volcano in Iran and one of the few active ones in the Makran volcanic arc.
Elevation: Approximately 3,940 meters (12,927 feet) above sea level.
Volcano Type: Stratovolcano (Composite Cone) — built up by successive eruptions of lava flows, ash, and pyroclastic material.
Tectonic Setting: Lies within the Alborz–Makran volcanic belt, where the Arabian Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate.
This subduction process generates magma that feeds volcanoes like Taftan.
Geological Features:
- Active hydrothermal vents and fumaroles continuously emit sulphur gases.
- Presence of sulphur deposits, hot springs, and altered rocks around the summit indicates ongoing geothermal activity.
- The last confirmed eruption occurred around 710,000 years ago, during the Pleistocene epoch.

Understanding Stratovolcanoes (Composite Cones):

Structure: Tall, steep-sided cones composed of alternating layers of lava, ash, and tephra.
Magma Composition: Typically andesitic, sometimes basaltic to rhyolitic — rich in silica, causing viscous magma and explosive eruptions.
Eruption Style: Highly explosive, often producing pyroclastic flows and ash clouds that can travel large distances.
Tectonic Environment: Common in subduction zones — regions where an oceanic plate sinks beneath a continental plate.
Famous Examples:
- Mount Fuji (Japan)
- Mount Vesuvius (Italy)
- Volcán de Fuego (Guatemala)
- Mount St. Helens (USA)

Significance of Taftan’s Reactivation:

Geological Insight: Offers rare evidence of volcanic reawakening in the Makran arc, a region otherwise known for earthquakes and subduction-related hazards.
Regional Impact: Increased geothermal activity could pose risks to local settlements and infrastructure but also offers geothermal energy potential.
Scientific Relevance: Helps in studying the Arabian–Eurasian plate interaction, crucial for understanding seismic and volcanic hazards across Iran, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.

Conclusion:

The potential reawakening of Taftan Volcano underscores the dynamic nature of the Earth’s lithosphere. While dormant for nearly a million years, its renewed activity reminds us that even ancient volcanic systems remain geologically alive — warranting close monitoring and regional preparedness.

Uranium Mining Exemption in Meghalaya

Context: The Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) recently issued an office memorandum exempting uranium mining from mandatory public consultations. This move has reignited debates around environmental risks, indigenous rights, and federalism in India.

About Uranium

Nature: Uranium is a naturally occurring radioactive metal, primarily used as nuclear fuel.
Isotopes: Exists mainly as Uranium-238 (99.3%) and Uranium-235 (0.7%), the latter being fissile.
Reserves in India: Meghalaya holds nearly 16% of India’s uranium reserves, making it the third-largest source after Andhra Pradesh and Jharkhand.

Concerns of Local Communities

Distrust in Process: Local communities view the exemption as an attempt to bypass consent after years of resistance and failed negotiations.
Health & Environmental Risks: Fear of radiation exposure and ecological damage, drawing on lessons from Jaduguda (Jharkhand), where mining has been linked to health issues.

Constitutional & Legal Dimensions

Sixth Schedule: Grants Autonomous District Councils in tribal areas control over land and resources.
Federalism Question: Exemption undermines local authority and weakens environmental justice.
Global Norms: Contradicts the principle of Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) under the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP).

Strategic Dimensions

Energy Security: Uranium is vital for India’s nuclear power generation and strategic deterrence.
Self-Reliance: Reducing imports strengthens India’s nuclear independence.
Centre–State Tensions: The policy highlights conflict between national energy priorities and regional autonomy.

Significance

This exemption raises critical debates for UPSC aspirants:

Balancing energy security with environmental justice.
Navigating centre–state relations in resource governance.
Addressing tribal rights within India’s development model.

The controversy underscores the challenge of pursuing strategic minerals without compromising constitutional safeguards and ecological sustainability.

Why are India, Afghanistan and Pakistan vulnerable to deadly Earthquakes?

Context: A 6.0-magnitude earthquake struck northeast Afghanistan. A 6.0-magnitude earthquake struck northeast Afghanistan. The quake originated at a shallow depth of 8 km, making the surface shaking extremely intense and destructive.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Why are India, Afghanistan and Pakistan vulnerable to deadly Earthquakes?

Why are India, Afghanistan and Pakistan vulnerable to deadly Earthquakes?

The region has experienced devastating earthquakes in the past :

2001 Bhuj Earthquake (India)
2005 Earthquake (Pakistan-administered Kashmir)
2015 Hindu Kush Earthquake (Afghanistan)
2023 Herat Earthquake (Afghanistan)
2025 Afghanistan

Reasons for frequent Earthquakes in the Region:

Tectonic Stress: The region lies on the collision boundary of Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate. The Indian Plate is moving northward at about 5 cm per year, colliding with the Eurasian Plate. This tectonic stress causes frequent earthquakes along active fault lines, especially in the Himalaya and Hindu Kush mountains.
Delamination of Indian Plate: Recent studies reveal that the Indian Plate is splitting into two, with the lower part detaching and sinking into the Earth’s mantle (a process called delamination). In the Himalayan collision zone, delamination results in fractures that increase stress in the Earth’s crust, raising the likelihood of seismic events.

Active Fault Lines: Presence of major faults like the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), Chaman Fault (Pakistan-Afghanistan border), and Karakoram Fault. Sudden slip along these faults releases massive seismic energy.
Geological and Topographical Factors: Young fold mountains (Himalayas & Hindu Kush) are geologically unstable and continue to deform under tectonic pressure. The presence of steep slopes, deep valleys, and thick sedimentary deposits amplifies seismic waves. Plains such as the Indo-Gangetic basin are prone to soil liquefaction during major tremors.
Role of Climate Change: Rising global temperatures are causing accelerated glacier melt in the Himalayas, with up to 80% of glaciers projected to disappear by 2100. The loss of glacial weight leads to isostatic rebound, which shifts the earth’s crust and triggers quakes. Meltwater seeps into the ground, reducing friction along fault lines, thereby making slippage more likely.

Thus, while tectonics remain the primary driver, climate change acts as a risk multiplier.

Flash Flood in Subarnarekha River

Context: The Subarnarekha River has flooded large parts of Balasore district in Odisha, affecting over 50,000 people and inundating dozens of villages.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Subarnarekha River; Flash Flood.

Subarnarekha River

Subarnarekha (literally means Streak of Gold) is a rain-fed river that originates near Ranchi, the capital of Jharkhand on the Chhotanagpur plateau.
The river flows through Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha and drains into the Bay of Bengal. The total length of the river is 395 kilometres.
Kanchi and Karkari rivers are its chief tributaries.
Subarnarekha passes through areas with extensive mining of copper and uranium ores. As a result of unplanned mining activities, the river is polluted. It has been the lifeline of tribal communities inhabiting the Chhotanagpur region, and water pollution affects their livelihood.

Flood and Flash Flood:

Flood: An overflow of water onto normally dry land. The inundation of a normally dry area caused by rising water in an existing waterway, such as a river, stream, or drainage ditch. Ponding of water at or near the point where the rain fell. Flooding is a longer term event, it may last days or weeks.
Flash flood: A flood caused by heavy or excessive rainfall in a short period of time, generally less than 6 hours. It can also occur even if no rain has fallen, for instance after a levee or dam has failed, or after a sudden release of water by a debris or ice jam. The intensity of the rainfall, the location and distribution of the rainfall, the land use and topography, vegetation types and growth/density, soil type, and soil water-content all determine the intensity and impact caused by flash flood.

Also Read: Small peninsular rivers flowing towards East

Shipki La reopened for Tourism

Context: For the first time, Shipki La, a high-altitude 3,930 metres motorable mountain pass bordering India and China in Himachal’s tribal district of Kinnaur, has been opened for tourists who can now visit simply by carrying an Aadhar card and token.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Shipki La pass.

Shipki La reopened for Tourism:

The border tourism initiative, launched in coordination with the Union government, will enable regulated tourist access to strategically important yet culturally vibrant locations such as Lepcha-La, Shipki-La, Gue Monastery, Khana, Dumti, the Rani area of Sangla, and Chitkul in Kinnaur district, along with selected areas in Lahaul-Spiti.
The move is aimed to boost the local economy and promote tourism in border areas in the hill state.

Historical Importance of Shipki La:

Shipki La was a vital trade corridor between India and Tibet, especially between the Bushahr State (Rampur) in India and Guge Kingdom in Tibet.
Imports from Tibet included- wool (the most profitable item), pack and saddle horses, goats, sheep, mutton, yak and goatskins, yak hair (used for ropes and saddlebags), devotional items such as prayer wheels, thangkas, rosaries, and bowls, as well as borax, turquoise, and gold.
Exports to Tibet from India included- grains such as barley, wheat, rice, millet, lentils, chickpeas, and oil, dried fruits, vegetables, spices, tobacco, timber, copper and brass utensils, and iron tools.

Why was the Trade Route closed?

Shipki La's trade route was disrupted after the 1962 Sino-India War. Border tensions made cross-border movement highly restricted. Further strains, like the Doklam standoff in 2017, and the COVID-19 pandemic, shut down even the limited traditional exchanges.
The centuries-old Trade route between India and Tibet, Shipki-La, was closed for trade in the year 2020.

Significance of Reopening Shipki La Pass

Cultural Revival: The people of Kinnaur and western Tibet share Buddhist traditions, similar customs, and even common surnames like Namgyal. Opening the pass reconnects a shared civilization.
Religious Tourism Boost: Shipki La can cut down the Delhi to Mansarovar pilgrimage by 14 days, offering an alternative route for the sacred journey to Mount Kailash and Lake Mansarovar.
Livelihood & Local Economy: Reopening Shipki La offers livelihood opportunities to Kinnaur's tribal communities through tourism-related jobs like homestays, guiding, handicrafts, and potential revival of traditional trade and artisan markets.
Strategic & Soft Diplomacy: Reopening Shipki La, even for tourism, can act as a community-led model of trust-building with China.

Hydrology of Brahmaputra

Context: The Chief Minister of Assam addressed concerns surrounding the Brahmaputra River, emphasising that 65-70% of the Brahmaputra’s flow is generated within India, reassuring the public about India’s water sovereignty.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Brahmaputra River System; Key Hydropower Projects.

Hydrology of Brahmaputra River

Brahmaputra originates as Yarlung Tsangpo in Kailash range near Mansarovar lake in Tibet. It traverses more than 1,000 km eastward, before forming a horseshoe bend around the Namcha Barwa peak, and enters near Gelling in Arunachal Pradesh as the Siang (or Dihang).
Brahmaputra is primarily a rain-fed river system, with only approximately 30-35% of its flow coming from China, mostly through glacial melt and scanty rainfall that happens in the Tibetan region.
The majority of the river’s water (about 65-70%) arises within India itself due to the monsoon rains that pour over the Northeast’s hilly terrains and the numerous tributaries feeding the river.
The river is called Siang in Arunachal, is joined by many tributaries in Assam as it flows down the plains before entering Bangladesh, where it is called Jamuna.

Left/ South bank Tributaries of Brahmaputra	Right/ North bank Tributaries of Brahmaputra
Dihang	Kameng
Dibang	Manas
Lohit	Subansari
Noa Dehing	Dhansiri (North)
Burhi Dehing	Sankosh
Kopilli	Ronganadi
Dhansiri (South)
Kolong

Hydro-statistics and Regional data

Brahmaputra’s flow at key points exemplifies India’s water independence. At the Indo-China border, near the Tuting region in Arunachal Pradesh, the flow rate is around 2,000-3,000 cubic metres per second.
During the monsoon season, as the river enters Assam’s plains, the flow swells to an impressive 15,000-20,000 cubic metres per second.
These figures underscore that the river’s strength and volume are predominantly sustained within India’s climatic and geographical domain. Thus, India does not depend on upstream water flow from China to sustain its water needs.

As the region faces severe flooding due to monsoons, India must emphasise resilience and infrastructure over fears of upstream interference.

Impact of Hypothetical reduction of water by China

Even a hypothetical reduction in Chinese water contribution would have a minimal impact on India’s water security or be potentially beneficial. Reduced flow could mitigate the devastating floods that annually ravage Assam and the northeastern region.

This point also highlights that India’s water system is resilient and primarily driven by monsoon rains and local tributaries.

China’s planned interventions on Brahmaputra

Most of the Chinese infrastructure interventions are hydropower projects with minimal storage, and are located far upstream of Arunachal Pradesh, with no significant impact in Arunachal or Assam.

Medog (or Motuo) Hydropower Project: A major concern is the planned massive dam in Medog County near the ‘Great Bend’ where the river makes a U-turn and plunges into a canyon before entering Arunachal Pradesh. The planned 60,000-MW Medog project will be the world’s largest hydropower facility, with a generation capacity three times that of the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze, currently the world’s largest hydropower station.
South-North Water Diversion (SNWD) project: Concerns have also been raised over China’s massive, multi-decade South-North Water Diversion (SNWD) project, the Western Route of which apparently involves diverting water from the Yarlung Tsangpo (and other rivers) to the country’s dry northern regions.

As a mitigation strategy, India could plan storage on rivers of the Brahmaputra system to absorb the variations in flows (periods of flooding and reduced flows). E.g., The Upper Siang Project will not only generate power, its storage can also serve as a buffer against variations in flows.

India’s interventions to utilise water potential of Brahmaputra:

Brahmaputra and its tributaries carry more than 30% of India’s total water resources potential, and 41% of the total hydropower potential, as per estimates in the CWC-ISRO Brahmaputra Basin Atlas.

The National Water Development Authorityhas proposed two links to connect the Brahmaputra and its tributaries to the Ganga basin with the aim of transferring surplus water to water-scarce regions. These are:
- Manas-Sankosh-Teesta-Ganga Link, joining the Manas, a tributary of the Brahmaputra, to the Ganga via the Sankosh and Teesta
- Jogighopa-Teesta-Farakka Link, joining the Brahmaputra at the planned Jogighopa Barrage to the Ganga at the Farakka Barrage.
However, utilisation of hydropower in Arunachal Pradesh has been slow due to difficulties of land acquisition and concern over the submergence of forest lands, etc.

Environmental Risks:

Risks of flooding may arise from intentional or unintentional operation of reservoirs in Tibet, as well as unforeseen events such as dam failure, landslides, or earthquakes.
Upstream interventions have the potential to affect the river morphology, with consequences for riverine flora and fauna.

Key Facts:

Tibetan Plateau is a region of scant rainfall of the order of 300 mm annually.
The southern part of the Brahmaputra river basin in India receives 2,371 mm of rain on average every year, and very few places receive less than 1,200 mm.

India should work to actively seek detailed hydrological and project-related data to continuously assess the downstream impact of Chinese infrastructure interventions and develop comprehensive data sharing protocols with China for advance warning and disaster preparedness.

What caused the massive eruption of Italy’s Mount Etna?

Context: Recently, Mount Etna, the largest volcano in Europe erupted.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Mount Etna and cause behind its eruption.

About Mount Etna:

Location: Mount Etna is located on the east coast of Sicily. Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, situated just off the toe of the Italian “boot” (Southern Italy).

Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe.
It is an active Stratovolcano.
Mount Etna has the highest peak in Italy south of the Alps.
Etna has been a World Heritage Site since 2013.
It is known for frequent eruptions. Since 1600, at least 60 flank eruptions and many more summit eruptions have happened.
Etna’s summit has five craters, which are responsible for most of the volcano’s eruptions.

What caused the massive eruption of Italy’s Mount Etna?

Experts suggest that the eruption began with an increase in pressure inside the volcano due to expanding gases, which led to the collapse of the southeast crater, resulting in hot lava flows.

What kind of eruption did it have?

Scientists typically classify eruptions based on how explosive they are.

According to Italy’s National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV) Etna Observatory, the volcano was witnessing a “Strombolian” eruption.

Strombolian eruption:

This type of eruption is usually characterised as discreet moderately explosive bursts which can eject chunks of rock and cinders that can travel hundreds of metres into the air. It occurs due to the presence of gas in the magma chamber within the volcano.
The Strombolian eruption is named after another Italian volcano called Stromboli, which produces minor eruptions every 10 to 20 minutes.

However, some volcanologists believe that Mount Etna did not experience a Strombolian eruption but rather a Plinian eruption, in which hot gas, ash, and rock can explode high enough to reach the stratosphere.

Atypical Summers in 2025: Role of Western Disturbances

Context: A cooler-than-usual summer over large geographical areas of the country has contributed to keeping all-India average temperatures within the normal range in May 2025. The primary reason is the frequent passage of streams of western disturbances in the lower latitudes.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Western Disturbances.

Unusual weather conditions

As per the India Meteorological Department (IMD):

All-India weekly average maximum temperature was 3-5 degrees Celsius below normal over West, Central, and North India. Normal temperatures prevailed over remaining parts of the country.
Core Heatwave Zone (CHZ)- spanning Central, North, and Peninsular India between Gujarat and West Bengal, which is prone to heatwave conditions every year from March to June, has not as yet experienced significant heatwaves.
May has been exceptionally wet over the South and Central Indian regions. Southern Peninsular India has benefited from intermittent spells of rain throughout the ongoing pre-monsoon season.

Reasons for cooler temperature in Summers:

Western Disturbances: The primary reason for a wetter- and cooler-than-usual summer is the frequent passage of streams of western disturbances in the lower latitudes. Western disturbances are eastward-bound winds that originate in the Mediterranean Sea and cause rain or snow along their way.
Continuous incursion of Moisture: There has also been a continuous incursion of moisture from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea into the Indian mainland, with the subsequent wind interactions causing rainfall and thundershowers.

What are Western Disturbances?

Western disturbances are extra-tropical cyclones that originate in the Mediterranean region and move eastwards towards the Indian subcontinent, affecting Northern India, northern Bangladesh, and south-eastern Nepal.
The sub-tropical westerly jet streams help western disturbances to enter the Indian sub-continent and affect its weather. The winds while moving take up the moisture from the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and Caspian Sea.
These moisture laden winds eventually reach the northwestern Himalayas and get blocked, as a result the moisture gets trapped, and precipitation is shared. This ultimately leads to:
- Snowfall in western Himalayas (J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand)
- Non-monsoonal rainfall over Indo-Gangetic plains (Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh). These disturbances provide moisture to Rabi season crops
On an average 4-6 disturbances (temperate cyclones) per month pass over northern India between November to April.

99.999% of Earth’s Deep Sea yet to be observed: Study

Context: According to a recent study, humans have mapped only 0.001% of the deep ocean since the 1950s. Most of the ocean floor remains unimaged.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts related to Deep Sea; Deep Sea Mission.

What is the Deep Sea?

Deep sea is broadly defined as the ocean depth where light begins to fade, at an approximate depth of 200 m or more below the sea level.
Two-thirds of the earth’s surface consists of the deep ocean. It is thus the world’s largest as well as least explored ecosystem.
The latest study shows:
- Evident geographic disparities in deep-sea exploration. Almost 65% of sightings are from waters around three countries- the U.S., Japan, and New Zealand's coastlines.
- Overrepresentation of oceanic features like canyons and escarpments in observations, whereas abyssal plains, which dominate the seafloor, are under-represented.

Hence, our perception of the deep sea is based on this limited data. This emphasises the necessity for broader global engagement in deep sea exploration and research.

Significance of expanded Deep-Sea Research:

Build evidence-based policies for ocean protection: The deep ocean stabilises our climate and ecosystems. With growing threats such as deep sea mining and warming, deep-sea research will bridge the gap in knowledge of oceanic processes associated with climate.
Mapping unexplored species: Deep sea hosts enormous marine biodiversity. It might host species in unexplored areas with medicinal potential, and also aid the conservation efforts of species.
Resource Potential: Deep sea is a storehouse of untapped natural resources including: Minerals and gas hydrates (poly-metallic nodules, gas hydrates and rare earth elements); Oil and natural gas.
Strategic importance: Deep-sea infrastructure like undersea cables facilitate over 95% of global internet traffic, and must be safeguarded from potential threats, especially as countries like China advance their deep-sea military capability. Deep-sea research and development is crucial for asserting rights within India’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), under UNCLOS.

In a bid to explore those vast regions beneath the surface of the ocean, India is preparing for a deep-sea mission- Samudrayaan, expected to be launched by the end of 2026. India will send its scientists 6000 metres beneath the ocean surface in a submersible named Matsya (a 25-tonne titanium-hulled vehicle) to collect biological and geological samples, conduct environmental observations, and explore mineral resources critical to future technologies.

Also Read: Samudrayaan: India’s ‘Deep Ocean Mission’

Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project

Context: Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project in Telangana is under scrutiny due to structural failures and design flaws, raising concerns over dam safety, governance, and financial viability.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location of Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project.

Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project

World’s largest multi-stage lift irrigation project.
Built on: Godavari River in Telangana.
Purpose: To ensure irrigation, drinking water, and industrial water supply to drought-prone and water-scarce areas of Telangana by lifting water from the Godavari River and distributing it across districts.
Lift irrigation: Unlike traditional gravity-based irrigation systems, water does not rely on gravity to flow in canals from higher ground to lower; rather pumps or surge pools are used to lift water to a higher elevation, from where it is distributed to fields via a canal system.
The project sprawls over approximately 500 km in 13 districts, with a canal network of 1800 km. The project started in 2019.
As per the project master plan, of the 240 thousand million cubic feet (TMC) of water- 169 TMC (>70%, is meant for irrigation); 30 TMC is for Hyderabad municipal area; 16 TMC for miscellaneous industrial uses, and 10 TMC to provide drinking water to nearby villages.
The vast bulk of this water (195 TMC) will come from the Medigadda Barrage. 20 TMC will from Sripada Yellampalli project, and another 25 TMC will be groundwater.

Crisis at Medigadda Barrage

In 2023, a pillar at the Medigadda Barrage sank which led to partial submergence and flooding. The National Dam Safety Authority (NDSA) visited the site for a technical assessment.
Subsequently, the state government requested a thorough inspection of all three barrages: Medigadda, Annaram, and Sundilla.

NDSA Findings

NDSA had found a lack of proper geo-technical investigations, design deficiencies, construction defects, failure of modelling studies, structural distress, absence of robust quality control, operation and maintenance failures and dam safety aspects ignored.

NDSA Recommendations

NDSA has recommended a full suite of actions from structural rehabilitation to strengthening of the barrages.

Rehabilitation of the design, and a comprehensive assessment of health and safety of the entire barrage.
Immediate stabilisation measures to arrest the ongoing distress.
Comprehensive geotechnical studies and advanced geophysical assessments to establish a reliable baseline of the ground conditions and structures for future interventions.
Hydraulic design aided by appropriate hydraulic model studies and structural design through appropriate mathematical modelling software.

Is Natural Hydrogen the fuel of the future?

Context: For India, an economy in growth mode with aspirations to reach net-zero emissions by 2070, the exploitation and use of Natural Hydrogen offers a potentially game-changing opportunity.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: Hydrogen as a fuel: advantages; resource distribution; technologies for extraction and harvesting Hydrogen.

Hydrogen Fuel

Hydrogen is the lightest and the most abundant element in the universe.
- On Earth, it is found in compounds like water or hydrocarbons. It must be created and stored before it tends to be utilised.
- Natural hydrogen also occurs as a free gas in geology, produced by processes such as serpentinisation (the interaction of water and iron-containing rocks), radiolysis of water by radioactive rocks, and from organic matter at depth.
Hydrogen Fuel: Presently, Hydrogen fuel is produced by splitting water (H₂O) into its components: hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂). The hydrogen gas can be used to power fuel cells, which generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, releasing only water vapour as a byproduct.
If harvested in a sustainable manner, natural Hydrogen may provide a clean and potentially low-cost fuel to satisfy the world’s increasing energy needs with a considerable reduction in carbon emissions as well.

How is Hydrogen Extracted?

Currently, the majority of hydrogen is manufactured from natural gas through an energy-intensive and polluting process.
Green hydrogen can be made using renewable electricity, however, is still prohibitively expensive and would require vast amounts of wind and solar power to work out at scale.

Hydrogen Reserves:

The presence of Hydrogen in coal mines points towards generation from underlying organic matter.
Active mountain ranges with tectonic activity, such as the Pyrenees, Alps, and Himalayas, are being considered as areas for geological hydrogen production.
The fact that Helium co-exists with Hydrogen in a few reserves points towards some geological processes, such as radiolysis, playing a role in its generation.

Hydrogen Reserves in the World:

Hundreds of hydrogen seeps have been catalogued globally in various countries, including Australia (Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo Island), the US (Kansas, Nebraska), Spain, France, Albania, Colombia, South Korea, and Canada.
An estimated tens of trillions metric tonnes of Hydrogen may be available in geologic stores. If even just 2% of these reserves are commercially exploitable, they would provide about twice as much energy as all the earth’s provable natural gas reserves —enough to meet projected hydrogen demand (500 million tonnes per year) for around two hundred years.

Hydrogen Reserves in India

India’s Hydrogen demand is projected to grow from six million tonnes per year (Mt/year) in 2020 to over 50 Mt/year by 2070 to support its net-zero target. The natural hydrogen reserves are likely present in favourable geological structures like:

Hard rock formations of diverse ultramafic/mafic and basaltic assemblages
Andaman and Himalayan ophiolite complexes
Greenstone volcanic-sedimentary sequences in cratons (Dharwar, Singhbhum)
Sedimentary basis (for example, in Vindhyan, Cuddapah, Gondwana and Chhattisgarh), basement rocks with fractures
Areas where active hydrothermal systems as represented by hot springs exist.

Challenges in Exploration and Excavation of Natural Hydrogen:

Natural Hydrogen exploitation and exploration is not easy. It has technical, logistical, economical, and safety-related challenges.

Accurately locating and quantifying underground hydrogen reserves is the primary challenge. Unlike oil and gas, for which well-established exploration techniques exist, natural hydrogen exploration is still evolving.
Development of efficient and cost-effective extraction technology for natural hydrogen. While modifying current gas industry practices associated with well drilling and extraction facilities, one must consider hydrogen’s specific properties, including its small molecular size and high diffusivity.
Hydrogen extraction also involves specific safety issues as opposed to hydrocarbons because of its high diffusivity and reactivity.

Approaches under-development for Hydrogen Excavation:

Production of hydrogen by drilling and flowing water into rock and then transporting the hydrogen to the surface for collection.
Injecting water with dissolved carbon dioxide into iron-containing rocks that could potentially lead to carbon sequestration as limestone, while simultaneously producing hydrogen.

Also Read: Hydrogen as an alternative fuel: Explained

A comprehensive geological study is essential in India, considering critical factors such as the quality, extent, thickness, accessibility, and hydrocarbon generation potential of the source rock; size and viability of hydrocarbon accumulations; potential losses during migration; and the accessibility of the area for exploration and development.